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Abstract
Engineered protein channels have many potential applications in biosensing at the single-molecule level. A future generation of biosensor could be an array of target-specific ion channels, where each protein pore acts as a sensor element. An important step toward this goal is to create a portable, durable, single-protein channel-integrated chip device. Here we report a versatile, modular chip that contains a single-ion channel for single-molecular biosensing. The core of the device is a long-lived lipid membrane that has been sandwiched between two air-insulated agarose layers which gel in situ. A single-protein pore embedded in the membrane serves as the sensor element. The modular device is highly portable, allowing a single-ion channel to continuously function following detachment of the chip from the instrument and independent transportation of the device. The chip also exhibits high durability, which is evidenced from long-duration continuous observation of single-channel dynamics. Once engineered protein pores are installed, the chip becomes a robust stochastic sensor for real-time targeting such as detection of the second messenger IP3. This pluggable biochip could be incorporated with many applicable devices, such as a microfluidic system, and be made into a microarray for both biomedical detection and membrane protein research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jiwook Shim
- Department of Biological Engineering and Dalton Cardiovascular Research Center, University of Missouri – Columbia, MO 65211
| | - Li-Qun Gu
- Department of Biological Engineering and Dalton Cardiovascular Research Center, University of Missouri – Columbia, MO 65211
- Corresponding author: Dr. Li-Qun Gu Assistant Professor Biological Engineering and Dalton Cardiovascular Research Center University of Missouri Columbia, MO 65211 Tel: 573−882−2057 Fax: 573−884−4232 E-mail:
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52
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Khademhosseini A, Bettinger C, Karp JM, Yeh J, Ling Y, Borenstein J, Fukuda J, Langer R. Interplay of biomaterials and micro-scale technologies for advancing biomedical applications. JOURNAL OF BIOMATERIALS SCIENCE-POLYMER EDITION 2007; 17:1221-40. [PMID: 17176747 DOI: 10.1163/156856206778667488] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Micro-scale technologies have already dramatically changed our society through their use in the microelectronics and telecommunications industries. Today these engineering tools are also useful for many biological applications ranging from drug delivery to DNA sequencing, since they can be used to fabricate small features at a low cost and in a reproducible manner. The discovery and development of new biomaterials aid in the advancement of these micro-scale technologies, which in turn contribute to the engineering and generation of new, custom-designed biomaterials with desired properties. This review aims to present an overview of the merger of micro-scale technologies and biomaterials in two-dimensional (2D) surface patterning, device fabrication and three-dimensional (3D) tissue-engineering applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ali Khademhosseini
- Harvard-Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Division of Health Sciences and Technology, Cambridge, MA 02139, USA.
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53
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Bishop KJM, Grzybowski BA. Localized chemical wave emission and mode switching in a patterned excitable medium. PHYSICAL REVIEW LETTERS 2006; 97:128702. [PMID: 17026007 DOI: 10.1103/physrevlett.97.128702] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/22/2005] [Indexed: 05/12/2023]
Abstract
Chemical waves are initiated from complex geometries in the excitable Belosouv-Zhabotinsky medium using a wet stamping technique. Because of the coupling between the system's chemical kinetics and geometry, waves are emitted only from selected locations. By varying the nature of the wave-triggering reagent (here formaldehyde or methanol), it is possible to switch between two spatially distinct modes of wave emission. The system's dynamics is studied numerically, and the results of modeling agree with experimental observations.
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Affiliation(s)
- K J M Bishop
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering and Northwestern Institute for Complexity, Northwestern University, 2145 Sheridan Road, Evanston, IL 60208, USA
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54
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Bishop KJM, Gray TP, Fialkowski M, Grzybowski BA. Microchameleons: nonlinear chemical microsystems for amplification and sensing. CHAOS (WOODBURY, N.Y.) 2006; 16:037102. [PMID: 17014236 DOI: 10.1063/1.2240142] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/12/2023]
Abstract
In biological systems, the coupling of nonlinear biochemical kinetics and molecular transport enables functional sensing and "signal" amplification across many length scales. Drawing on biological inspiration, we describe how artificial reaction-diffusion (RD) microsystems can provide a basis for sensing applications, capable of amplifying micro- and nanoscopic events into macroscopic visual readouts. The RD applications reviewed here are based on a novel experimental technique, WETS for Wet Stamping, which offers unprecedented control over RD processes in microscopic and complex geometries. It is discussed how RD can be used to sense subtle differences in the thickness and/or absorptivity of thin absorptive films, amplify macromolecular phase transitions, detect the presence and quality of self-assembled monolayers, and provide dynamic spatiotemporal readouts of chemical "metabolites."
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Affiliation(s)
- K J M Bishop
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois 60208, USA
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55
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Wang T, Xu AW, Cölfen H. Bildung von selbstorganisierten dynamischen Strukturmustern von Bariumcarbonatkristallen bei der polymerkontrollierten Kristallisation. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2006. [DOI: 10.1002/ange.200601038] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
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56
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Wang T, Xu AW, Cölfen H. Formation of Self-Organized Dynamic Structure Patterns of Barium Carbonate Crystals in Polymer-Controlled Crystallization. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2006; 45:4451-5. [PMID: 16789037 DOI: 10.1002/anie.200601038] [Citation(s) in RCA: 78] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Tongxin Wang
- Max Planck Institute of Colloids and Interfaces, Department of Colloid Chemistry, Research Campus Golm, 14424 Potsdam, Germany
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57
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Volford A, Izsák F, Ripszám M, Lagzi I. Systematic Front Distortion and Presence of Consecutive Fronts in a Precipitation System. J Phys Chem B 2006; 110:4535-7. [PMID: 16526680 DOI: 10.1021/jp0604286] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
A new simple reaction-diffusion system is presented focusing on pattern formation phenomena as consecutive precipitation fronts and distortion of the precipitation front. The chemical system investigated here is based on the amphoteric property of aluminum hydroxide and exhibits two unique phenomena. Both the existence of consecutive precipitation fronts and distortion are reported for the first time. The precipitation patterns could be controlled by the pH field, and the distortion of the precipitation front can be practical for microtechnological applications of reaction-diffusion systems.
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58
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Stevens MM, Mayer M, Anderson DG, Weibel DB, Whitesides GM, Langer R. Direct patterning of mammalian cells onto porous tissue engineering substrates using agarose stamps. Biomaterials 2005; 26:7636-41. [PMID: 15979701 DOI: 10.1016/j.biomaterials.2005.05.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 121] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/10/2004] [Accepted: 05/03/2005] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
This paper describes simple, inexpensive, and potentially generic methodology for generating patterns of mammalian cells on porous scaffolds for tissue engineering using replica printing. Circular patterns (diameter: 200, 700, and 1000 microm) of human osteoblasts were transferred directly from topographically patterned agarose stamps onto porous hydroxyapatite scaffolds or onto fibronectin-coated glass slides. The use of hydrogel stamps provided a "wet", biocompatible surface and maintained the viability of cells adsorbed on stamps during the patterning process. Stamps inked once with suspensions of cells allowed the repeated patterning of substrates. Direct stamping of human osteoblasts (and, potentially other mammalian cells) can be used to control the size, spacing, and geometry of patterns of cells printed on porous tissue engineering substrates. This approach may find use in controlling the spatial invasion of scaffolds, promoting the hierarchical organization of cells, and in controlling cell-cell interactions as a step in preservation of phenotypes of cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Molly M Stevens
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA 02139, USA
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59
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Smoukov SK, Bitner A, Campbell CJ, Kandere-Grzybowska K, Grzybowski BA. Nano- and Microscopic Surface Wrinkles of Linearly Increasing Heights Prepared by Periodic Precipitation. J Am Chem Soc 2005; 127:17803-7. [PMID: 16351110 DOI: 10.1021/ja054882j] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Arrays of surface wrinkles of linearly increasing heights (from tens of nanometers to tens of micrometers) were prepared via a spontaneous reaction-diffusion process based on periodic precipitation. The slopes, dimensions, and positions of the precipitation bands could be controlled precisely by adjusting the concentrations of the participating chemicals as well as the material properties of patterned substrates. Additional control of periodic precipitation by localized UV irradiation allowed for the preparation of discontinuous and curvilinear structures. The nonbinary 3D surface topographies were replicated into poly(dimethylsiloxane), and the applications of replicas in microfluidics, microseparations, and cell biology have been suggested.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stoyan K Smoukov
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering and The Northwestern Institute on Complex Systems, Northwestern University, 2145 Sheridan Road, Evanston, Illinois 60208, USA
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60
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Kandere-Grzybowska K, Campbell C, Komarova Y, Grzybowski BA, Borisy GG. Molecular dynamics imaging in micropatterned living cells. Nat Methods 2005; 2:739-41. [PMID: 16179919 DOI: 10.1038/nmeth796] [Citation(s) in RCA: 67] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/07/2005] [Accepted: 08/26/2005] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
Micropatterning approaches using self-assembled monolayers of alkyl thiols on gold are not optimal for important imaging modalities in cell biology because of absorption of light and scattering of electrons by the gold layer. We report here an anisotropic solid microetching (ASOMIC) procedure that overcomes these limitations. The method allows molecular dynamics imaging by wide-field and total internal reflection fluorescence (TIRF) microscopy of living mammalian cells and correlative platinum replica electron microscopy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kristiana Kandere-Grzybowska
- Department of Cell and Molecular Biology, Northwestern University Medical School, 303 East Chicago Avenue, Chicago, Illinois 60611-3008, USA
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61
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Bishop KJM, Fiałkowski M, Grzybowski BA. Micropatterning Chemical Oscillations: Waves, Autofocusing, and Symmetry Breaking. J Am Chem Soc 2005; 127:15943-8. [PMID: 16277538 DOI: 10.1021/ja054851o] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Arrays of chemical oscillators are micropatterned by Wet Stamping. The technique is used to demonstrate that chemical waves can be initiated and controlled in oscillatory systems and that such waves can give rise to phenomena not observed in excitable media. Interoscillator coupling and synchronization, kinetic autofocusing, and twist-symmetry breaking are a consequence of the dependence of the oscillation phase on the local concentrations of reagents and on systems' geometry. Conditions under which a generic oscillatory system would exhibit such behaviors are determined.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kyle J M Bishop
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering and Northwestern Institute for Complexity, Northwestern University, 2145 Sheridan Road, Illinois 60208, USA
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62
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Kraus T, Stutz R, Balmer TE, Schmid H, Malaquin L, Spencer ND, Wolf H. Printing chemical gradients. LANGMUIR : THE ACS JOURNAL OF SURFACES AND COLLOIDS 2005; 21:7796-804. [PMID: 16089385 DOI: 10.1021/la0506527] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/03/2023]
Abstract
We describe a method to exploit the mass-transfer limitations of microcontact printing for the fabrication of surfaces with well-defined, arbitrarily shaped composition variations. An analysis of the transport processes reveals that the printing of hexadecanethiol (HDT) from poly(dimethylsiloxane) is purely diffusion-controlled. Stamps with geometries that enhance surface-normal diffusion paths therefore allow not only the contours, but also the local density of self-assembled monolayers to be controlled. We use stamps with variable thickness and uniform ink concentration to print HDT density gradients on gold, depleting the stamps during the process. In the second step, a perfluorinated thiol fills the vacancies in the partial monolayer to form a two-component gradient that we analyze by means of X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy and spectroscopic ellipsometry. Linear and radial gradients are shown here as examples for a wide range of geometries that can be fabricated with high precision using the method.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tobias Kraus
- IBM Research GmbH, Zurich Research Laboratory, Säumerstrasse 4, CH-8803 Rüschlikon, Switzerland
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63
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Smoukov SK, Bishop KJM, Klajn R, Campbell CJ, Grzybowski BA. Cutting into Solids with Micropatterned Gels. ADVANCED MATERIALS (DEERFIELD BEACH, FLA.) 2005; 17:1361-1365. [PMID: 34412440 DOI: 10.1002/adma.200402086] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/21/2004] [Accepted: 01/11/2005] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
Hydrogel stamps can microstructure solid surfaces, i.e., modify the surface topology of metals, glasses, and crystals. It is demonstrated that stamps soaked in an appropriate etchant can remove material with micrometer-scale precision. The Figure shows an array of concentric circles etched in glass using the immersion wet stamping process described (scale bar: 500 μm).
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Affiliation(s)
- S K Smoukov
- Department of Chemical Engineering and The Northwestern Institute on Complex Systems, Northwestern University, 2145 Sheridan Road, Evanston, IL 60208, USA
| | - K J M Bishop
- Department of Chemical Engineering and The Northwestern Institute on Complex Systems, Northwestern University, 2145 Sheridan Road, Evanston, IL 60208, USA
| | - R Klajn
- Department of Chemical Engineering and The Northwestern Institute on Complex Systems, Northwestern University, 2145 Sheridan Road, Evanston, IL 60208, USA
| | - C J Campbell
- Department of Chemical Engineering and The Northwestern Institute on Complex Systems, Northwestern University, 2145 Sheridan Road, Evanston, IL 60208, USA
| | - B A Grzybowski
- Department of Chemical Engineering and The Northwestern Institute on Complex Systems, Northwestern University, 2145 Sheridan Road, Evanston, IL 60208, USA
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64
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Bitner A, Fiałkowski M, Smoukov SK, Campbell CJ, Grzybowski BA. Amplification of Changes of a Thin Film's Macromolecular Structure into Macroscopic Reaction−Diffusion Patterns. J Am Chem Soc 2005; 127:6936-7. [PMID: 15884921 DOI: 10.1021/ja051128p] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
A reaction-diffusion process induced from a micronetwork geometry amplifies changes in the molecular structure of a thin gel film into macroscopic readout patterns. When the gel undergoes a helix-to-coil phase transition, the patterns formed by RD switch from symmetry-broken to symmetric ones. Theoretical analysis explains how the system reconfigures internally in response to mass transfer between the applied network and the probed film.
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Affiliation(s)
- Agnieszka Bitner
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering and Northwestern Institute for Complexity, Northwestern University, 2145 Sheridan Road, Evanston, IL 60208, USA
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65
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Campbell CJ, Smoukov SK, Bishop KJM, Grzybowski BA. Reactive surface micropatterning by wet stamping. LANGMUIR : THE ACS JOURNAL OF SURFACES AND COLLOIDS 2005; 21:2637-2640. [PMID: 15779924 DOI: 10.1021/la046942p] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/24/2023]
Abstract
Hydrogel stamps are used to reactively micropattern various types of substrates. The method, called reactive wet stamping (r-WETS), is general in nature and overcomes several limitations of conventional soft-lithographic techniques. Illustrative applications of r-WETS in surface wettability modification, deposition of metallic microstructures, preparation of supports for electrostatic self-assembly, and multistep reactive patterning are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christopher J Campbell
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, Northwestern University, 2145 Sheridan Road, Evanston, Illinois 60208, USA
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66
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Bitner A, Fiałkowski M, Grzybowski BA. Color Micropatterning with Reconfigurable Stamps. J Phys Chem B 2004. [DOI: 10.1021/jp045539o] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- A. Bitner
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, Northwestern University, 2145 Sheridan Rd., Illinois 60208
| | - M. Fiałkowski
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, Northwestern University, 2145 Sheridan Rd., Illinois 60208
| | - B. A. Grzybowski
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, Northwestern University, 2145 Sheridan Rd., Illinois 60208
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