51
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Kopinke D, Norris AM, Mukhopadhyay S. Developmental and regenerative paradigms of cilia regulated hedgehog signaling. Semin Cell Dev Biol 2021; 110:89-103. [PMID: 32540122 PMCID: PMC7736055 DOI: 10.1016/j.semcdb.2020.05.029] [Citation(s) in RCA: 56] [Impact Index Per Article: 18.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/01/2020] [Revised: 05/25/2020] [Accepted: 05/29/2020] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
Primary cilia are immotile appendages that have evolved to receive and interpret a variety of different extracellular cues. Cilia play crucial roles in intercellular communication during development and defects in cilia affect multiple tissues accounting for a heterogeneous group of human diseases called ciliopathies. The Hedgehog (Hh) signaling pathway is one of these cues and displays a unique and symbiotic relationship with cilia. Not only does Hh signaling require cilia for its function but the majority of the Hh signaling machinery is physically located within the cilium-centrosome complex. More specifically, cilia are required for both repressing and activating Hh signaling by modifying bifunctional Gli transcription factors into repressors or activators. Defects in balancing, interpreting or establishing these repressor/activator gradients in Hh signaling either require cilia or phenocopy disruption of cilia. Here, we will summarize the current knowledge on how spatiotemporal control of the molecular machinery of the cilium allows for a tight control of basal repression and activation states of the Hh pathway. We will then discuss several paradigms on how cilia influence Hh pathway activity in tissue morphogenesis during development. Last, we will touch on how cilia and Hh signaling are being reactivated and repurposed during adult tissue regeneration. More specifically, we will focus on mesenchymal stem cells within the connective tissue and discuss the similarities and differences of how cilia and ciliary Hh signaling control the formation of fibrotic scar and adipose tissue during fatty fibrosis of several tissues.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel Kopinke
- Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32610, USA.
| | - Alessandra M Norris
- Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32610, USA
| | - Saikat Mukhopadhyay
- Department of Cell Biology, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, TX 75390, USA.
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52
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Merk DJ, Zhou P, Cohen SM, Pazyra-Murphy MF, Hwang GH, Rehm KJ, Alfaro J, Reid CM, Zhao X, Park E, Xu PX, Chan JA, Eck MJ, Nazemi KJ, Harwell CC, Segal RA. The Eya1 Phosphatase Mediates Shh-Driven Symmetric Cell Division of Cerebellar Granule Cell Precursors. Dev Neurosci 2021; 42:170-186. [PMID: 33472197 DOI: 10.1159/000512976] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/28/2020] [Accepted: 11/10/2020] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
During neural development, stem and precursor cells can divide either symmetrically or asymmetrically. The transition between symmetric and asymmetric cell divisions is a major determinant of precursor cell expansion and neural differentiation, but the underlying mechanisms that regulate this transition are not well understood. Here, we identify the Sonic hedgehog (Shh) pathway as a critical determinant regulating the mode of division of cerebellar granule cell precursors (GCPs). Using partial gain and loss of function mutations within the Shh pathway, we show that pathway activation determines spindle orientation of GCPs, and that mitotic spindle orientation correlates with the mode of division. Mechanistically, we show that the phosphatase Eya1 is essential for implementing Shh-dependent GCP spindle orientation. We identify atypical protein kinase C (aPKC) as a direct target of Eya1 activity and show that Eya1 dephosphorylates a critical threonine (T410) in the activation loop. Thus, Eya1 inactivates aPKC, resulting in reduced phosphorylation of Numb and other components that regulate the mode of division. This Eya1-dependent cascade is critical in linking spindle orientation, cell cycle exit and terminal differentiation. Together these findings demonstrate that a Shh-Eya1 regulatory axis selectively promotes symmetric cell divisions during cerebellar development by coordinating spindle orientation and cell fate determinants.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel J Merk
- Department of Cancer Biology and Pediatric Oncology, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute, Boston, Massachusetts, USA.,Department of Neurobiology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, USA.,Department of Neurology & Interdisciplinary Neuro-Oncology, University Hospital Tübingen, Hertie Institute for Clinical Brain Research, Eberhard Karls University Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
| | - Pengcheng Zhou
- Department of Cancer Biology and Pediatric Oncology, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute, Boston, Massachusetts, USA.,Department of Neurobiology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Samuel M Cohen
- Department of Cancer Biology and Pediatric Oncology, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute, Boston, Massachusetts, USA.,Department of Neurobiology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Maria F Pazyra-Murphy
- Department of Cancer Biology and Pediatric Oncology, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute, Boston, Massachusetts, USA.,Department of Neurobiology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Grace H Hwang
- Department of Cancer Biology and Pediatric Oncology, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute, Boston, Massachusetts, USA.,Department of Neurobiology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Kristina J Rehm
- Department of Cancer Biology and Pediatric Oncology, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute, Boston, Massachusetts, USA.,Department of Neurobiology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Jose Alfaro
- Department of Cancer Biology and Pediatric Oncology, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute, Boston, Massachusetts, USA.,Department of Neurobiology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Christopher M Reid
- Department of Neurobiology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Xuesong Zhao
- Department of Cancer Biology and Pediatric Oncology, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute, Boston, Massachusetts, USA.,Department of Neurobiology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Eunyoung Park
- Department of Biological Chemistry and Molecular Pharmacology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Pin-Xian Xu
- Department of Genetics and Genomic Sciences, Mount Sinai School of Medicine, New York, New York, USA
| | - Jennifer A Chan
- Arnie Charbonneau Cancer Institute, University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta, Canada.,Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta, Canada
| | - Michael J Eck
- Department of Biological Chemistry and Molecular Pharmacology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Kellie J Nazemi
- Department of Cancer Biology and Pediatric Oncology, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute, Boston, Massachusetts, USA.,Department of Neurobiology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, USA.,Department of Pediatrics, Oregon Health & Science University, Portland, Oregon, USA
| | - Corey C Harwell
- Department of Neurobiology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, USA,
| | - Rosalind A Segal
- Department of Cancer Biology and Pediatric Oncology, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute, Boston, Massachusetts, USA.,Department of Neurobiology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
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53
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de Agustín-Durán D, Mateos-White I, Fabra-Beser J, Gil-Sanz C. Stick around: Cell-Cell Adhesion Molecules during Neocortical Development. Cells 2021; 10:118. [PMID: 33435191 PMCID: PMC7826847 DOI: 10.3390/cells10010118] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/01/2020] [Revised: 12/29/2020] [Accepted: 01/07/2021] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
The neocortex is an exquisitely organized structure achieved through complex cellular processes from the generation of neural cells to their integration into cortical circuits after complex migration processes. During this long journey, neural cells need to establish and release adhesive interactions through cell surface receptors known as cell adhesion molecules (CAMs). Several types of CAMs have been described regulating different aspects of neurodevelopment. Whereas some of them mediate interactions with the extracellular matrix, others allow contact with additional cells. In this review, we will focus on the role of two important families of cell-cell adhesion molecules (C-CAMs), classical cadherins and nectins, as well as in their effectors, in the control of fundamental processes related with corticogenesis, with special attention in the cooperative actions among the two families of C-CAMs.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - Cristina Gil-Sanz
- Neural Development Laboratory, Instituto Universitario de Biomedicina y Biotecnología (BIOTECMED) and Departamento de Biología Celular, Facultat de Biología, Universidad de Valencia, 46100 Burjassot, Spain; (D.d.A.-D.); (I.M.-W.); (J.F.-B.)
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54
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Abstract
The mammalian cerebral cortex is the pinnacle of brain evolution, reaching its maximum complexity in terms of neuron number, diversity and functional circuitry. The emergence of this outstanding complexity begins during embryonic development, when a limited number of neural stem and progenitor cells manage to generate myriads of neurons in the appropriate numbers, types and proportions, in a process called neurogenesis. Here we review the current knowledge on the regulation of cortical neurogenesis, beginning with a description of the types of progenitor cells and their lineage relationships. This is followed by a review of the determinants of neuron fate, the molecular and genetic regulatory mechanisms, and considerations on the evolution of cortical neurogenesis in vertebrates leading to humans. We finish with an overview on how dysregulation of neurogenesis is a leading cause of human brain malformations and functional disabilities.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ana Villalba
- Instituto de Neurociencias, Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas & Universidad Miguel Hernández, Sant Joan d'Alacant, Spain
| | - Magdalena Götz
- Institute for Stem Cell Research, Helmholtz Zentrum München & Biomedical Center, Ludwig-Maximilians Universitaet, Planegg-Martinsried, Germany
| | - Víctor Borrell
- Instituto de Neurociencias, Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas & Universidad Miguel Hernández, Sant Joan d'Alacant, Spain.
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55
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Lin Y, Yang J, Shen Z, Ma J, Simons BD, Shi SH. Behavior and lineage progression of neural progenitors in the mammalian cortex. Curr Opin Neurobiol 2020; 66:144-157. [PMID: 33227588 DOI: 10.1016/j.conb.2020.10.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/31/2020] [Revised: 10/19/2020] [Accepted: 10/22/2020] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
The cerebral cortex is a central structure in the mammalian brain that enables higher cognitive functions and intellectual skills. It is the hallmark of the mammalian nervous system with enormous complexity, consisting of a large number of neurons and glia that are diverse in morphology, molecular expression, biophysical properties, circuit connectivity and physiological function. Cortical neurons and glia are generated by neural progenitor cells during development. Ensuring the correct cell cycle kinetics, fate behavior and lineage progression of neural progenitor cells is essential to determine the number and types of neurons and glia in the cerebral cortex, which together constitute neural circuits for brain function. In this review, we discuss recent findings on mammalian cortical progenitor cell types and their lineage behaviors in generating neurons and glia, cortical evolution and expansion, and advances in brain organoid technology that allow the modeling of human cortical development under normal and disease conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yang Lin
- IDG/McGovern Institute for Brain Research, Tsinghua-Peking Center for Life Sciences, Beijing Frontier Research Center of Biological Structure, Beijing Advanced Innovation Center for Structural Biology, School of Life Sciences, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China
| | - Jiajun Yang
- IDG/McGovern Institute for Brain Research, Tsinghua-Peking Center for Life Sciences, Beijing Frontier Research Center of Biological Structure, Beijing Advanced Innovation Center for Structural Biology, School of Life Sciences, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China
| | - Zhongfu Shen
- IDG/McGovern Institute for Brain Research, Tsinghua-Peking Center for Life Sciences, Beijing Frontier Research Center of Biological Structure, Beijing Advanced Innovation Center for Structural Biology, School of Life Sciences, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China
| | - Jian Ma
- IDG/McGovern Institute for Brain Research, Tsinghua-Peking Center for Life Sciences, Beijing Frontier Research Center of Biological Structure, Beijing Advanced Innovation Center for Structural Biology, School of Life Sciences, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China
| | - Benjamin D Simons
- The Wellcome Trust/Cancer Research UK Gurdon Institute, University of Cambridge, Cambridge CB2 1QN, UK; Department of Applied Mathematics and Theoretical Physics, Centre for Mathematical Sciences, Wilberforce Road, Cambridge CB3 0WA, UK
| | - Song-Hai Shi
- IDG/McGovern Institute for Brain Research, Tsinghua-Peking Center for Life Sciences, Beijing Frontier Research Center of Biological Structure, Beijing Advanced Innovation Center for Structural Biology, School of Life Sciences, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China.
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56
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García-Moreno F, Molnár Z. Variations of telencephalic development that paved the way for neocortical evolution. Prog Neurobiol 2020; 194:101865. [PMID: 32526253 PMCID: PMC7656292 DOI: 10.1016/j.pneurobio.2020.101865] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/28/2020] [Revised: 05/29/2020] [Accepted: 06/05/2020] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Charles Darwin stated, "community in embryonic structure reveals community of descent". Thus, to understand how the neocortex emerged during mammalian evolution we need to understand the evolution of the development of the pallium, the source of the neocortex. In this article, we review the variations in the development of the pallium that enabled the production of the six-layered neocortex. We propose that an accumulation of subtle modifications from very early brain development accounted for the diversification of vertebrate pallia and the origin of the neocortex. Initially, faint differences of expression of secretable morphogens promote a wide variety in the proportions and organization of sectors of the early pallium in different vertebrates. It prompted different sectors to host varied progenitors and distinct germinative zones. These cells and germinative compartments generate diverse neuronal populations that migrate and mix with each other through radial and tangential migrations in a taxon-specific fashion. Together, these early variations had a profound influence on neurogenetic gradients, lamination, positioning, and connectivity. Gene expression, hodology, and physiological properties of pallial neurons are important features to suggest homologies, but the origin of cells and their developmental trajectory are fundamental to understand evolutionary changes. Our review compares the development of the homologous pallial sectors in sauropsids and mammals, with a particular focus on cell lineage, in search of the key changes that led to the appearance of the mammalian neocortex.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fernando García-Moreno
- Achucarro Basque Center for Neuroscience, Scientific Park of the University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU), 48940, Leioa, Spain; IKERBASQUE Foundation, María Díaz de Haro 3, 6th Floor, 48013, Bilbao, Spain; Department of Neuroscience, Faculty of Medicine and Odontology, UPV/EHU, Barrio Sarriena s/n, 48940, Leioa, Bizkaia, Spain.
| | - Zoltán Molnár
- Department of Physiology, Anatomy and Genetics, Sherrington Building, University of Oxford, Oxford, OX1 3QX, UK.
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57
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Lovett ML, Nieland TJ, Dingle YTL, Kaplan DL. Innovations in 3-Dimensional Tissue Models of Human Brain Physiology and Diseases. ADVANCED FUNCTIONAL MATERIALS 2020; 30:1909146. [PMID: 34211358 PMCID: PMC8240470 DOI: 10.1002/adfm.201909146] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/03/2019] [Indexed: 05/04/2023]
Abstract
3-dimensional (3D) laboratory tissue cultures have emerged as an alternative to traditional 2-dimensional (2D) culture systems that do not recapitulate native cell behavior. The discrepancy between in vivo and in vitro tissue-cell-molecular responses impedes understanding of human physiology in general and creates roadblocks for the discovery of therapeutic solutions. Two parallel approaches have emerged for the design of 3D culture systems. The first is biomedical engineering methodology, including bioengineered materials, bioprinting, microfluidics and bioreactors, used alone or in combination, to mimic the microenvironments of native tissues. The second approach is organoid technology, in which stem cells are exposed to chemical and/or biological cues to activate differentiation programs that are reminiscent of human (prenatal) development. This review article describes recent technological advances in engineering 3D cultures that more closely resemble the human brain. The contributions of in vitro 3D tissue culture systems to new insights in neurophysiology, neurological diseases and regenerative medicine are highlighted. Perspectives on designing improved tissue models of the human brain are offered, focusing on an integrative approach merging biomedical engineering tools with organoid biology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael L. Lovett
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Tufts University, 4 Colby Street, Medford, MA 02155
| | - Thomas J.F. Nieland
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Tufts University, 4 Colby Street, Medford, MA 02155
| | - Yu-Ting L. Dingle
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Tufts University, 4 Colby Street, Medford, MA 02155
| | - David L. Kaplan
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Tufts University, 4 Colby Street, Medford, MA 02155
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58
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Ferent J, Zaidi D, Francis F. Extracellular Control of Radial Glia Proliferation and Scaffolding During Cortical Development and Pathology. Front Cell Dev Biol 2020; 8:578341. [PMID: 33178693 PMCID: PMC7596222 DOI: 10.3389/fcell.2020.578341] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/30/2020] [Accepted: 09/08/2020] [Indexed: 01/14/2023] Open
Abstract
During the development of the cortex, newly generated neurons migrate long-distances in the expanding tissue to reach their final positions. Pyramidal neurons are produced from dorsal progenitors, e.g., radial glia (RGs) in the ventricular zone, and then migrate along RG processes basally toward the cortex. These neurons are hence dependent upon RG extensions to support their migration from apical to basal regions. Several studies have investigated how intracellular determinants are required for RG polarity and subsequent formation and maintenance of their processes. Fewer studies have identified the influence of the extracellular environment on this architecture. This review will focus on extracellular factors which influence RG morphology and pyramidal neuronal migration during normal development and their perturbations in pathology. During cortical development, RGs are present in different strategic positions: apical RGs (aRGs) have their cell bodies located in the ventricular zone with an apical process contacting the ventricle, while they also have a basal process extending radially to reach the pial surface of the cortex. This particular conformation allows aRGs to be exposed to long range and short range signaling cues, whereas basal RGs (bRGs, also known as outer RGs, oRGs) have their cell bodies located throughout the cortical wall, limiting their access to ventricular factors. Long range signals impacting aRGs include secreted molecules present in the embryonic cerebrospinal fluid (e.g., Neuregulin, EGF, FGF, Wnt, BMP). Secreted molecules also contribute to the extracellular matrix (fibronectin, laminin, reelin). Classical short range factors include cell to cell signaling, adhesion molecules and mechano-transduction mechanisms (e.g., TAG1, Notch, cadherins, mechanical tension). Changes in one or several of these components influencing the RG extracellular environment can disrupt the development or maintenance of RG architecture on which neuronal migration relies, leading to a range of cortical malformations. First, we will detail the known long range signaling cues impacting RG. Then, we will review how short range cell contacts are also important to instruct the RG framework. Understanding how RG processes are structured by their environment to maintain and support radial migration is a critical part of the investigation of neurodevelopmental disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Julien Ferent
- Inserm, U 1270, Paris, France.,Sorbonne University, UMR-S 1270, IFM, Paris, France.,Institut du Fer á Moulin, Paris, France
| | - Donia Zaidi
- Inserm, U 1270, Paris, France.,Sorbonne University, UMR-S 1270, IFM, Paris, France.,Institut du Fer á Moulin, Paris, France
| | - Fiona Francis
- Inserm, U 1270, Paris, France.,Sorbonne University, UMR-S 1270, IFM, Paris, France.,Institut du Fer á Moulin, Paris, France
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59
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Uzquiano A, Cifuentes-Diaz C, Jabali A, Romero DM, Houllier A, Dingli F, Maillard C, Boland A, Deleuze JF, Loew D, Mancini GMS, Bahi-Buisson N, Ladewig J, Francis F. Mutations in the Heterotopia Gene Eml1/EML1 Severely Disrupt the Formation of Primary Cilia. Cell Rep 2020; 28:1596-1611.e10. [PMID: 31390572 DOI: 10.1016/j.celrep.2019.06.096] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/21/2019] [Revised: 05/31/2019] [Accepted: 06/27/2019] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Apical radial glia (aRGs) are predominant progenitors during corticogenesis. Perturbing their function leads to cortical malformations, including subcortical heterotopia (SH), characterized by the presence of neurons below the cortex. EML1/Eml1 mutations lead to SH in patients, as well as to heterotopic cortex (HeCo) mutant mice. In HeCo mice, some aRGs are abnormally positioned away from the ventricular zone (VZ). Thus, unraveling EML1/Eml1 function will clarify mechanisms maintaining aRGs in the VZ. We pinpoint an unknown EML1/Eml1 function in primary cilium formation. In HeCo aRGs, cilia are shorter, less numerous, and often found aberrantly oriented within vesicles. Patient fibroblasts and human cortical progenitors show similar defects. EML1 interacts with RPGRIP1L, a ciliary protein, and RPGRIP1L mutations were revealed in a heterotopia patient. We also identify Golgi apparatus abnormalities in EML1/Eml1 mutant cells, potentially upstream of the cilia phenotype. We thus reveal primary cilia mechanisms impacting aRG dynamics in physiological and pathological conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ana Uzquiano
- INSERM U 1270, Paris, France; Sorbonne University, UMR-S 1270, 75005 Paris, France; Institut du Fer à Moulin, Paris, France
| | - Carmen Cifuentes-Diaz
- INSERM U 1270, Paris, France; Sorbonne University, UMR-S 1270, 75005 Paris, France; Institut du Fer à Moulin, Paris, France
| | - Ammar Jabali
- Central Institute of Mental Health, Medical Faculty Mannheim, Heidelberg University, Mannheim, Germany; HITBR Hector Institute for Translational Brain Research gGmbH, Mannheim, Germany; German Cancer Research Center (DKFZ), Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Delfina M Romero
- INSERM U 1270, Paris, France; Sorbonne University, UMR-S 1270, 75005 Paris, France; Institut du Fer à Moulin, Paris, France
| | - Anne Houllier
- INSERM U 1270, Paris, France; Sorbonne University, UMR-S 1270, 75005 Paris, France; Institut du Fer à Moulin, Paris, France
| | - Florent Dingli
- Institut Curie, PSL Research University, Centre de Recherche, Laboratoire de Spectrométrie de Masse Protéomique, Paris, France
| | - Camille Maillard
- Laboratory of Genetics and Development of the Cerebral Cortex, INSERM UMR1163 Imagine Institute, Paris, France; Paris Descartes-Sorbonne Paris Cité University, Imagine Institute, Paris, France
| | - Anne Boland
- Centre National de Recherche en Génomique Humaine (CNRGH), Institut de Biologie François Jacob, CEA, Université Paris-Saclay, 91057 Evry, France
| | - Jean-François Deleuze
- Centre National de Recherche en Génomique Humaine (CNRGH), Institut de Biologie François Jacob, CEA, Université Paris-Saclay, 91057 Evry, France
| | - Damarys Loew
- Institut Curie, PSL Research University, Centre de Recherche, Laboratoire de Spectrométrie de Masse Protéomique, Paris, France
| | - Grazia M S Mancini
- Department of Clinical Genetics, Erasmus MC University Medical Center, 3015CN Rotterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Nadia Bahi-Buisson
- Laboratory of Genetics and Development of the Cerebral Cortex, INSERM UMR1163 Imagine Institute, Paris, France; Paris Descartes-Sorbonne Paris Cité University, Imagine Institute, Paris, France; Pediatric Neurology APHP-Necker Enfants Malades University Hospital, Paris, France; Centre de Référence, Déficiences Intellectuelles de Causes Rares, APHP-Necker Enfants Malades University Hospital, Paris, France
| | - Julia Ladewig
- Central Institute of Mental Health, Medical Faculty Mannheim, Heidelberg University, Mannheim, Germany; HITBR Hector Institute for Translational Brain Research gGmbH, Mannheim, Germany; German Cancer Research Center (DKFZ), Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Fiona Francis
- INSERM U 1270, Paris, France; Sorbonne University, UMR-S 1270, 75005 Paris, France; Institut du Fer à Moulin, Paris, France.
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60
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Jungas T, Joseph M, Fawal MA, Davy A. Population Dynamics and Neuronal Polyploidy in the Developing Neocortex. Cereb Cortex Commun 2020; 1:tgaa063. [PMID: 34296126 PMCID: PMC8152829 DOI: 10.1093/texcom/tgaa063] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/01/2020] [Revised: 09/01/2020] [Accepted: 09/01/2020] [Indexed: 11/27/2022] Open
Abstract
The mammalian neocortex is composed of different subtypes of projection neurons that are generated sequentially during embryogenesis by differentiation of neural progenitors. While molecular mechanisms that control neuronal production in the developing neocortex have been extensively studied, the dynamics and absolute numbers of the different progenitor and neuronal populations are still poorly characterized. Here, we describe a medium throughput approach based on flow cytometry and well-known identity markers of cortical subpopulations to collect quantitative data over the course of mouse neocortex development. We collected a complete dataset in a physiological developmental context on two progenitor and two neuron populations, including relative proportions and absolute numbers. Our study reveals unexpected total numbers of Tbr2+ progenitors. In addition, we show that polyploid neurons are present throughout neocortex development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thomas Jungas
- Centre de Biologie Intégrative (CBI), Centre de Biologie du Développement (CBD), Université de Toulouse, CNRS, UPS, 31062 Toulouse, France
| | - Mathieu Joseph
- Centre de Biologie Intégrative (CBI), Centre de Biologie du Développement (CBD), Université de Toulouse, CNRS, UPS, 31062 Toulouse, France
- Montreal Clinical Research Institute (IRCM), Montreal, QC H2W 1R7, Canada
- Department of Molecular Biology, University of Montreal, Montreal, QC H3T 1J4, Canada
| | - Mohamad-Ali Fawal
- Centre de Biologie Intégrative (CBI), Centre de Biologie du Développement (CBD), Université de Toulouse, CNRS, UPS, 31062 Toulouse, France
| | - Alice Davy
- Centre de Biologie Intégrative (CBI), Centre de Biologie du Développement (CBD), Université de Toulouse, CNRS, UPS, 31062 Toulouse, France
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61
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Kalebic N, Huttner WB. Basal Progenitor Morphology and Neocortex Evolution. Trends Neurosci 2020; 43:843-853. [PMID: 32828546 DOI: 10.1016/j.tins.2020.07.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/26/2020] [Revised: 07/22/2020] [Accepted: 07/29/2020] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
The evolutionary expansion of the mammalian neocortex is widely considered to be a basis of increased cognitive abilities. This expansion is a consequence of the enhanced production of neurons during the fetal/embryonic development of the neocortex, which in turn reflects an increased proliferative capacity of neural progenitor cells; in particular basal progenitors (BPs). The remarkable heterogeneity of BP subtypes across mammals, notably their various morphotypes and molecular fingerprints, which has recently been revealed, corroborates the importance of BPs for neocortical expansion. Here, we argue that the morphology of BPs is a key cell biological basis for maintaining their high proliferative capacity and therefore plays crucial roles in the evolutionary expansion of the neocortex.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nereo Kalebic
- Max Planck Institute of Molecular Cell Biology and Genetics, Dresden, Germany; Human Technopole, Milan, Italy.
| | - Wieland B Huttner
- Max Planck Institute of Molecular Cell Biology and Genetics, Dresden, Germany.
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62
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The Neocortical Progenitor Specification Program Is Established through Combined Modulation of SHH and FGF Signaling. J Neurosci 2020; 40:6872-6887. [PMID: 32737167 DOI: 10.1523/jneurosci.2888-19.2020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/03/2019] [Revised: 06/22/2020] [Accepted: 07/18/2020] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Neuronal progenitors in the developing forebrain undergo dynamic competence states to ensure timely generation of specific excitatory and inhibitory neuronal subtypes from distinct neurogenic niches of the dorsal and ventral forebrain, respectively. Here we show evidence of progenitor plasticity when Sonic hedgehog (SHH) signaling is left unmodulated in the embryonic neocortex of the mammalian dorsal forebrain. We found that, at early stages of corticogenesis, loss of Suppressor of Fused (Sufu), a potent inhibitor of SHH signaling, in neocortical progenitors, altered the transcriptomic landscape of male mouse embryos. Ectopic activation of SHH signaling occurred, via degradation of Gli3R, resulting in significant upregulation of fibroblast growth factor 15 (FGF15) gene expression in all E12.5 Sufu-cKO neocortex regardless of sex. Consequently, activation of FGF signaling, and its downstream effector the MAPK signaling, facilitated expression of genes characteristic of ventral forebrain progenitors. Our studies identify the importance of modulating extrinsic niche signals such as SHH and FGF15, to maintain the competency and specification program of neocortical progenitors throughout corticogenesis.SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT Low levels of FGF15 control progenitor proliferation and differentiation during neocortical development, but little is known on how FGF15 expression is maintained. Our studies identified SHH signaling as a critical activator of FGF15 expression during corticogenesis. We found that Sufu, via Gli3R, ensured low levels of FGF15 was expressed to prevent abnormal specification of neocortical progenitors. These studies advance our knowledge on the molecular mechanisms guiding the generation of specific neocortical neuronal lineages, their implications in neurodevelopmental diseases, and may guide future studies on how progenitor cells may be used for brain repair.
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63
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Suciu SK, Caspary T. Cilia, neural development and disease. Semin Cell Dev Biol 2020; 110:34-42. [PMID: 32732132 DOI: 10.1016/j.semcdb.2020.07.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/17/2020] [Revised: 07/17/2020] [Accepted: 07/18/2020] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
Neural development requires a series of cellular events starting with cell specification, proliferation, and migration. Subsequently, axons and dendrites project from the cell surface to form connections to other neurons, interneurons and glia. Anomalies in any one of these steps can lead to malformation or malfunction of the nervous system. Here we review the critical role the primary cilium plays in the fundamental steps of neurodevelopment. By highlighting human diseases caused by mutations in cilia-associated proteins, it is clear that cilia are essential to multiple neural processes. Furthermore, we explore whether additional aspects of cilia regulation, most notably post-translational modification of the tubulin scaffold in cilia, play underappreciated roles in neural development. Finally, we discuss whether cilia-associated proteins function outside the cilium in some aspects of neurodevelopment. These data underscore both the importance of cilia in the nervous system and some outstanding questions in the field.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sarah K Suciu
- Genetics and Molecular Biology Graduate Program, USA; Department of Human Genetics, Emory University, Atlanta, GA 30322, Georgia
| | - Tamara Caspary
- Department of Human Genetics, Emory University, Atlanta, GA 30322, Georgia.
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64
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Yu Z, McIntosh JM, Sadeghi SG, Glowatzki E. Efferent synaptic transmission at the vestibular type II hair cell synapse. J Neurophysiol 2020; 124:360-374. [PMID: 32609559 DOI: 10.1152/jn.00143.2020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
In the vestibular peripheral organs, type I and type II hair cells (HCs) transmit incoming signals via glutamatergic quantal transmission onto afferent nerve fibers. Additionally, type I HCs transmit via "non-quantal" transmission to calyx afferent fibers, by accumulation of glutamate and potassium in the synaptic cleft. Vestibular efferent inputs originating in the brainstem contact type II HCs and vestibular afferents. Here, synaptic inputs to type II HCs were characterized by using electrical and optogenetic stimulation of efferent fibers combined with in vitro whole cell patch-clamp recording from type II HCs in the rodent vestibular crista. Properties of efferent synaptic currents in type II HCs were similar to those found in cochlear HCs and mediated by activation of α9-containing nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (nAChRs) and small-conductance calcium-activated potassium (SK) channels. While efferents showed a low probability of release at low frequencies of stimulation, repetitive stimulation resulted in facilitation and increased probability of release. Notably, the membrane potential of type II HCs during optogenetic stimulation of efferents showed a strong hyperpolarization in response to single pulses and was further enhanced by repetitive stimulation. Such efferent-mediated inhibition of type II HCs can provide a mechanism to adjust the contribution of signals from type I and type II HCs to vestibular nerve fibers, with a shift of the response to be more like that of calyx-only afferents with faster non-quantal responses.NEW & NOTEWORTHY Type II vestibular hair cells (HCs) receive inputs from efferent neurons in the brain stem. We used in vitro optogenetic and electrical stimulation of vestibular efferent fibers to study their synaptic inputs to type II HCs. Stimulation of efferents inhibited type II HCs, similar to efferent effects on cochlear HCs. We propose that efferent inputs adjust the contribution of signals from type I and II HCs to vestibular nerve fibers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhou Yu
- Department of Neuroscience, The Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland.,Department of Otolaryngology-Head and Neck Surgery, The Center for Hearing and Balance, and The Center for Sensory Biology, The Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland
| | | | - Soroush G Sadeghi
- Department of Communicative Disorders and Sciences, and Center for Hearing and Deafness, State University of New York at Buffalo, Buffalo, New York.,Neuroscience Program, State University of New York at Buffalo, Buffalo, New York
| | - Elisabeth Glowatzki
- Department of Neuroscience, The Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland.,Department of Otolaryngology-Head and Neck Surgery, The Center for Hearing and Balance, and The Center for Sensory Biology, The Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland
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65
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Le TL, Sribudiani Y, Dong X, Huber C, Kois C, Baujat G, Gordon CT, Mayne V, Galmiche L, Serre V, Goudin N, Zarhrate M, Bole-Feysot C, Masson C, Nitschké P, Verheijen FW, Pais L, Pelet A, Sadedin S, Pugh JA, Shur N, White SM, El Chehadeh S, Christodoulou J, Cormier-Daire V, Hofstra RMW, Lyonnet S, Tan TY, Attié-Bitach T, Kerstjens-Frederikse WS, Amiel J, Thomas S. Bi-allelic Variations of SMO in Humans Cause a Broad Spectrum of Developmental Anomalies Due to Abnormal Hedgehog Signaling. Am J Hum Genet 2020; 106:779-792. [PMID: 32413283 DOI: 10.1016/j.ajhg.2020.04.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/05/2020] [Accepted: 04/08/2020] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
The evolutionarily conserved hedgehog (Hh) pathway is essential for organogenesis and plays critical roles in postnatal tissue maintenance and renewal. A unique feature of the vertebrate Hh pathway is that signal transduction requires the primary cilium (PC) where major pathway components are dynamically enriched. These factors include smoothened (SMO) and patched, which constitute the core reception system for sonic hedgehog (SHH) as well as GLI transcription factors, the key mediators of the pathway. Here, we report bi-allelic loss-of-function variations in SMO in seven individuals from five independent families; these variations cause a wide phenotypic spectrum of developmental anomalies affecting the brain (hypothalamic hamartoma and microcephaly), heart (atrioventricular septal defect), skeleton (postaxial polydactyly, narrow chest, and shortening of long bones), and enteric nervous system (aganglionosis). Cells derived from affected individuals showed normal ciliogenesis but severely altered Hh-signal transduction as a result of either altered PC trafficking or abnormal activation of the pathway downstream of SMO. In addition, Hh-independent GLI2 accumulation at the PC tip in cells from the affected individuals suggests a potential function of SMO in regulating basal ciliary trafficking of GLI2 when the pathway is off. Thus, loss of SMO function results in abnormal PC dynamics of key components of the Hh signaling pathway and leads to a large continuum of malformations in humans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thuy-Linh Le
- Université de Paris, Imagine Institute, Laboratory of Embryology and Genetics of Malformations, INSERM UMR 1163, 75015 Paris, France
| | - Yunia Sribudiani
- Department of Clinical Genetics, Erasmus Medical Center, 3015 GD Rotterdam, the Netherlands; Department of Biomedical Sciences, Division of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Faculty of Medicine, Universitas Padjadjaran, Bandung 40132, Indonesia
| | - Xiaomin Dong
- Brain and Mitochondrial Research Group, Murdoch Children's Research Institute, Royal Children's Hospital, 50 Flemington Rd, Parkville VIC 3052, Australia; Department of Paediatrics, University of Melbourne, Melbourne, 3010 Victoria, Australia
| | - Céline Huber
- Université de Paris, Imagine Institute, Laboratory of Molecular and Physiopathological Bases of Osteochondrodysplasia, INSERM UMR 1163, 75015 Paris, France
| | - Chelsea Kois
- Albany Medical Center, 43 New Scotland Ave, Albany, NY 12208, USA
| | - Geneviève Baujat
- Université de Paris, Imagine Institute, Laboratory of Molecular and Physiopathological Bases of Osteochondrodysplasia, INSERM UMR 1163, 75015 Paris, France; Fédération de Génétique, Hôpital Necker-Enfants Malades, Assistance Publique Hôpitaux de Paris, 75015 Paris, France
| | - Christopher T Gordon
- Université de Paris, Imagine Institute, Laboratory of Embryology and Genetics of Malformations, INSERM UMR 1163, 75015 Paris, France
| | - Valerie Mayne
- Department of Medical Imaging, Royal Children's Hospital, Melbourne, Australia 3052
| | - Louise Galmiche
- Department of Pathology, Hôpital Necker-Enfants Malades, Assistance Publique Hôpitaux de Paris, 75015 Paris, France
| | - Valérie Serre
- Université de Paris, Institut Jacques Monod, UMR7592 CNRS, 15 Rue Hélène Brion, 75013 Paris, France
| | - Nicolas Goudin
- Université de Paris, Imagine Institute, Cell Imaging, INSERM UMR 1163, 75015 Paris, France
| | - Mohammed Zarhrate
- Université de Paris, Imagine Institute, Structure Fédérative de Recherche Necker, Genomic Platform, INSERM UMR 1163 and INSERM US24, Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique UMS3633, 75015 Paris, France
| | - Christine Bole-Feysot
- Université de Paris, Imagine Institute, Structure Fédérative de Recherche Necker, Genomic Platform, INSERM UMR 1163 and INSERM US24, Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique UMS3633, 75015 Paris, France
| | - Cécile Masson
- Université de Paris, Imagine Institute, Bioinformatics Platform, INSERM UMR 1163, 75015 Paris, France
| | - Patrick Nitschké
- Université de Paris, Imagine Institute, Bioinformatics Platform, INSERM UMR 1163, 75015 Paris, France
| | - Frans W Verheijen
- Department of Clinical Genetics, Erasmus Medical Center, 3015 GD Rotterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Lynn Pais
- Center for Mendelian Genomics, Broad Institute of MIT and Harvard, 415 Main St, Cambridge, MA 02142, USA
| | - Anna Pelet
- Université de Paris, Imagine Institute, Laboratory of Embryology and Genetics of Malformations, INSERM UMR 1163, 75015 Paris, France
| | - Simon Sadedin
- Brain and Mitochondrial Research Group, Murdoch Children's Research Institute, Royal Children's Hospital, 50 Flemington Rd, Parkville VIC 3052, Australia; Department of Paediatrics, University of Melbourne, Melbourne, 3010 Victoria, Australia
| | - John A Pugh
- Albany Medical Center, 43 New Scotland Ave, Albany, NY 12208, USA
| | - Natasha Shur
- Children's National, 111 Michigan Ave NW, Washington, D.C. 20010, USA
| | - Susan M White
- Victorian Clinical Genetics Services, Murdoch Children's Research Institute and Department of Pediatrics, University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Australia 3052
| | - Salima El Chehadeh
- Service de Génétique Médicale, Hôpital de Hautepierre, 67098 Strasbourg, France
| | - John Christodoulou
- Brain and Mitochondrial Research Group, Murdoch Children's Research Institute, Royal Children's Hospital, 50 Flemington Rd, Parkville VIC 3052, Australia; Department of Paediatrics, University of Melbourne, Melbourne, 3010 Victoria, Australia
| | - Valérie Cormier-Daire
- Université de Paris, Imagine Institute, Laboratory of Molecular and Physiopathological Bases of Osteochondrodysplasia, INSERM UMR 1163, 75015 Paris, France; Fédération de Génétique, Hôpital Necker-Enfants Malades, Assistance Publique Hôpitaux de Paris, 75015 Paris, France
| | - R M W Hofstra
- Department of Clinical Genetics, Erasmus Medical Center, 3015 GD Rotterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Stanislas Lyonnet
- Université de Paris, Imagine Institute, Laboratory of Embryology and Genetics of Malformations, INSERM UMR 1163, 75015 Paris, France; Fédération de Génétique, Hôpital Necker-Enfants Malades, Assistance Publique Hôpitaux de Paris, 75015 Paris, France
| | - Tiong Yang Tan
- Victorian Clinical Genetics Services, Murdoch Children's Research Institute and Department of Pediatrics, University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Australia 3052
| | - Tania Attié-Bitach
- Fédération de Génétique, Hôpital Necker-Enfants Malades, Assistance Publique Hôpitaux de Paris, 75015 Paris, France; Université de Paris, Imagine Institute, Laboratory of Genetics and Development of the Cerebral Cortex, INSERM UMR 1163, 75015 Paris, France
| | | | - Jeanne Amiel
- Université de Paris, Imagine Institute, Laboratory of Embryology and Genetics of Malformations, INSERM UMR 1163, 75015 Paris, France; Fédération de Génétique, Hôpital Necker-Enfants Malades, Assistance Publique Hôpitaux de Paris, 75015 Paris, France
| | - Sophie Thomas
- Université de Paris, Imagine Institute, Laboratory of Embryology and Genetics of Malformations, INSERM UMR 1163, 75015 Paris, France.
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Matsumoto N, Tanaka S, Horiike T, Shinmyo Y, Kawasaki H. A discrete subtype of neural progenitor crucial for cortical folding in the gyrencephalic mammalian brain. eLife 2020; 9:54873. [PMID: 32312384 PMCID: PMC7173966 DOI: 10.7554/elife.54873] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/03/2020] [Accepted: 04/01/2020] [Indexed: 12/28/2022] Open
Abstract
An increase in the diversity of neural progenitor subtypes and folding of the cerebral cortex are characteristic features which appeared during the evolution of the mammalian brain. Here, we show that the expansion of a specific subtype of neural progenitor is crucial for cortical folding. We found that outer radial glial (oRG) cells can be subdivided by HOPX expression in the gyrencephalic cerebral cortex of ferrets. Compared with HOPX-negative oRG cells, HOPX-positive oRG cells had high self-renewal activity and were accumulated in prospective gyral regions. Using our in vivo genetic manipulation technique for ferrets, we found that the number of HOPX-positive oRG cells and their self-renewal activity were regulated by sonic hedgehog (Shh) signaling. Importantly, suppressing Shh signaling reduced HOPX-positive oRG cells and cortical folding, while enhancing it had opposing effects. Our results reveal a novel subtype of neural progenitor important for cortical folding in gyrencephalic mammalian cerebral cortex.
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Affiliation(s)
- Naoyuki Matsumoto
- Department of Medical Neuroscience, Graduate School of Medical Sciences, Kanazawa University, Kanazawa, Japan
| | - Satoshi Tanaka
- Department of Medical Neuroscience, Graduate School of Medical Sciences, Kanazawa University, Kanazawa, Japan.,Medical Research Training Program, School of Medicine, Kanazawa University, Kanazawa, Japan
| | - Toshihide Horiike
- Department of Medical Neuroscience, Graduate School of Medical Sciences, Kanazawa University, Kanazawa, Japan
| | - Yohei Shinmyo
- Department of Medical Neuroscience, Graduate School of Medical Sciences, Kanazawa University, Kanazawa, Japan
| | - Hiroshi Kawasaki
- Department of Medical Neuroscience, Graduate School of Medical Sciences, Kanazawa University, Kanazawa, Japan
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67
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Moriano J, Boeckx C. Modern human changes in regulatory regions implicated in cortical development. BMC Genomics 2020; 21:304. [PMID: 32299352 PMCID: PMC7161147 DOI: 10.1186/s12864-020-6706-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/08/2019] [Accepted: 03/30/2020] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Recent paleogenomic studies have highlighted a very small set of proteins carrying modern human-specific missense changes in comparison to our closest extinct relatives. Despite being frequently alluded to as highly relevant, species-specific differences in regulatory regions remain understudied. Here, we integrate data from paleogenomics, chromatin modification and physical interaction, and single-cell gene expression of neural progenitor cells to identify derived regulatory changes in the modern human lineage in comparison to Neanderthals/Denisovans. We report a set of genes whose enhancers and/or promoters harbor modern human single nucleotide changes and are active at early stages of cortical development. RESULTS We identified 212 genes controlled by regulatory regions harboring modern human changes where Neanderthals/Denisovans carry the ancestral allele. These regulatory regions significantly overlap with putative modern human positively-selected regions and schizophrenia-related genetic loci. Among the 212 genes, we identified a substantial proportion of genes related to transcriptional regulation and, specifically, an enrichment for the SETD1A histone methyltransferase complex, known to regulate WNT signaling for the generation and proliferation of intermediate progenitor cells. CONCLUSIONS This study complements previous research focused on protein-coding changes distinguishing our species from Neanderthals/Denisovans and highlights chromatin regulation as a functional category so far overlooked in modern human evolution studies. We present a set of candidates that will help to illuminate the investigation of modern human-specific ontogenetic trajectories.
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Affiliation(s)
- Juan Moriano
- Universitat de Barcelona, Gran Via de les Corts Catalanes, Barcelona, Spain.
- Universitat de Barcelona Institute of Complex Systems, Martı́ Franquès, Barcelona, Spain.
| | - Cedric Boeckx
- Universitat de Barcelona, Gran Via de les Corts Catalanes, Barcelona, Spain.
- Universitat de Barcelona Institute of Complex Systems, Martı́ Franquès, Barcelona, Spain.
- Catalan Institution for Research and Advanced Studies, Passeig Lluı́s Companys, Barcelona, Spain.
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68
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Centrosome anchoring regulates progenitor properties and cortical formation. Nature 2020; 580:106-112. [PMID: 32238932 PMCID: PMC7138347 DOI: 10.1038/s41586-020-2139-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/29/2018] [Accepted: 01/28/2020] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
Radial glial progenitors (RGPs) represent the major neural progenitors for generating neurons and glia in the developing mammalian cerebral cortex 1-3. They position their centrosomes away from the nucleus at the ventricular zone surface 4-7. However, the molecular basis and precise function of this highly unique and characteristic subcellular organization of the centrosome remain largely unknown. Here we show that apical membrane anchoring of the centrosome controls the mechanical properties of mouse cortical RGPs and consequently their mitotic behaviour and cortical size and formation. Mother centriole in RGPs specifically develops distal appendages to anchor to the apical membrane. Selective removal of Centrosomal protein 83 (CEP83) eliminates mother centriole distal appendages and disrupts centrosome apical membrane anchorage, resulting in microtubule disorganization and apical membrane stretching and stiffening. It activates mechanically-sensitive Yes-associated protein (YAP) and promotes excessive RGP proliferation and subsequent intermediate progenitor overproduction, leading to the formation of an enlarged cortex with abnormal folding. Simultaneous elimination of YAP suppresses cortical enlargement and folding caused by CEP83 removal. Together, these results uncover a previously unknown role of the centrosome in regulating the mechanical features of neural progenitors, and the size and configuration of the mammalian cerebral cortex.
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69
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Jackson TW, Bendfeldt GA, Beam KA, Rock KD, Belcher SM. Heterozygous mutation of sonic hedgehog receptor (Ptch1) drives cerebellar overgrowth and sex-specifically alters hippocampal and cortical layer structure, activity, and social behavior in female mice. Neurotoxicol Teratol 2020; 78:106866. [PMID: 32113901 DOI: 10.1016/j.ntt.2020.106866] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/16/2019] [Revised: 02/12/2020] [Accepted: 02/21/2020] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Sonic hedgehog (SHH) signaling is essential for the differentiation and migration of early stem cell populations during cerebellar development. Dysregulation of SHH-signaling can result in cerebellar overgrowth and the formation of the brain tumor medulloblastoma. Treatment for medulloblastoma is extremely aggressive and patients suffer life-long side effects including behavioral deficits. Considering that other behavioral disorders including autism spectrum disorders, holoprosencephaly, and basal cell nevus syndrome are known to present with cerebellar abnormalities, it is proposed that some behavioral abnormalities could be inherent to the medulloblastoma sequalae rather than treatment. Using a haploinsufficient SHH receptor knockout mouse model (Ptch1+/-), a partner preference task was used to explore activity, social behavior and neuroanatomical changes resulting from dysregulated SHH signaling. Compared to wild-type, Ptch1+/- females displayed increased activity by traveling a greater distance in both open-field and partner preference tasks. Social behavior was also sex-specifically modified in Ptch1+/- females that interacted more with both novel and familiar animals in the partner preference task compared to same-sex wild-type controls. Haploinsufficiency of PTCH1 resulted in cerebellar overgrowth in lobules IV/V and IX of both sexes, and female-specific decreases in hippocampal size and isocortical layer thickness. Taken together, neuroanatomical changes related to deficient SHH signaling may alter social behavior.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thomas W Jackson
- Center for Human Health and the Environment, Department of Biological Sciences, North Carolina State University, 127 David Clark Labs, Campus Box 7617, Raleigh, NS, USA.
| | - Gabriel A Bendfeldt
- Center for Human Health and the Environment, Department of Biological Sciences, North Carolina State University, 127 David Clark Labs, Campus Box 7617, Raleigh, NS, USA.
| | - Kelby A Beam
- Center for Human Health and the Environment, Department of Biological Sciences, North Carolina State University, 127 David Clark Labs, Campus Box 7617, Raleigh, NS, USA.
| | - Kylie D Rock
- Center for Human Health and the Environment, Department of Biological Sciences, North Carolina State University, 127 David Clark Labs, Campus Box 7617, Raleigh, NS, USA.
| | - Scott M Belcher
- Center for Human Health and the Environment, Department of Biological Sciences, North Carolina State University, 127 David Clark Labs, Campus Box 7617, Raleigh, NS, USA.
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Subramanian L, Calcagnotto ME, Paredes MF. Cortical Malformations: Lessons in Human Brain Development. Front Cell Neurosci 2020; 13:576. [PMID: 32038172 PMCID: PMC6993122 DOI: 10.3389/fncel.2019.00576] [Citation(s) in RCA: 60] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/10/2019] [Accepted: 12/16/2019] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Creating a functional cerebral cortex requires a series of complex and well-coordinated developmental steps. These steps have evolved across species with the emergence of cortical gyrification and coincided with more complex behaviors. The presence of diverse progenitor cells, a protracted timeline for neuronal migration and maturation, and diverse neuronal types are developmental features that have emerged in the gyrated cortex. These factors could explain how the human brain has expanded in size and complexity. However, their complex nature also renders new avenues of vulnerability by providing additional cell types that could contribute to disease and longer time windows that could impact the composition and organization of the cortical circuit. We aim to discuss the unique developmental steps observed in human corticogenesis and propose how disruption of these species-unique processes could lead to malformations of cortical development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lakshmi Subramanian
- Eli and Edythe Broad Center of Regeneration Medicine and Stem Cell Research, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, United States
| | - Maria Elisa Calcagnotto
- Neurophysiology and Neurochemistry of Neuronal Excitability and Synaptic Plasticity Laboratory, Department of Biochemistry, ICBS, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre, Brazil.,Graduate Program in Biological Sciences: Biochemistry, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre, Brazil.,Graduate Program in Neuroscience, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre, Brazil
| | - Mercedes F Paredes
- Eli and Edythe Broad Center of Regeneration Medicine and Stem Cell Research, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, United States.,Department of Neurology, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, United States.,Neuroscience Graduate Division, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, United States
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Kullmann JA, Meyer S, Pipicelli F, Kyrousi C, Schneider F, Bartels N, Cappello S, Rust MB. Profilin1-Dependent F-Actin Assembly Controls Division of Apical Radial Glia and Neocortex Development. Cereb Cortex 2019; 30:3467-3482. [DOI: 10.1093/cercor/bhz321] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/09/2019] [Revised: 10/24/2019] [Accepted: 11/11/2019] [Indexed: 12/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Abstract
Neocortex development depends on neural stem cell proliferation, cell differentiation, neurogenesis, and neuronal migration. Cytoskeletal regulation is critical for all these processes, but the underlying mechanisms are only poorly understood. We previously implicated the cytoskeletal regulator profilin1 in cerebellar granule neuron migration. Since we found profilin1 expressed throughout mouse neocortex development, we here tested the hypothesis that profilin1 is crucial for neocortex development. We found no evidence for impaired neuron migration or layering in the neocortex of profilin1 mutant mice. However, proliferative activity at basal positions was doubled in the mutant neocortex during mid-neurogenesis, with a drastic and specific increase in basal Pax6+ cells indicative for elevated numbers of basal radial glia (bRG). This was accompanied by transiently increased neurogenesis and associated with mild invaginations resembling rudimentary neocortex folds. Our data are in line with a model in which profilin1-dependent actin assembly controls division of apical radial glia (aRG) and thereby the fate of their progenies. Via this mechanism, profilin1 restricts cell delamination from the ventricular surface and, hence, bRG production and thereby controls neocortex development in mice. Our data support the radial cone hypothesis” claiming that elevated bRG number causes neocortex folds.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jan A Kullmann
- Molecular Neurobiology Group, Institute of Physiological Chemistry, Philipps-University of Marburg, 35032 Marburg, Germany
- Center for Mind, Brain and Behavior (CMBB), University of Marburg and Justus-Liebig-University Giessen, Hans-Meerwein-Strasse 6, 35032 Marburg, Germany
| | - Sophie Meyer
- Molecular Neurobiology Group, Institute of Physiological Chemistry, Philipps-University of Marburg, 35032 Marburg, Germany
- Center for Mind, Brain and Behavior (CMBB), University of Marburg and Justus-Liebig-University Giessen, Hans-Meerwein-Strasse 6, 35032 Marburg, Germany
| | - Fabrizia Pipicelli
- Max-Planck Institute for Psychiatry, Kraepelinstrasse 2-10, 80804 Munich, Germany
- International Max Planck Research School for Translational Psychiatry (IMPRS-TP), Kraepelinstrasse 2-10, 80804 Munich, Germany
| | - Christina Kyrousi
- Max-Planck Institute for Psychiatry, Kraepelinstrasse 2-10, 80804 Munich, Germany
| | - Felix Schneider
- Molecular Neurobiology Group, Institute of Physiological Chemistry, Philipps-University of Marburg, 35032 Marburg, Germany
- Center for Mind, Brain and Behavior (CMBB), University of Marburg and Justus-Liebig-University Giessen, Hans-Meerwein-Strasse 6, 35032 Marburg, Germany
- DFG Research Training Group, Membrane Plasticity in Tissue Development and Remodeling, GRK 2213, Philipps-University of Marburg, 35032 Marburg, Germany
| | - Nora Bartels
- Molecular Neurobiology Group, Institute of Physiological Chemistry, Philipps-University of Marburg, 35032 Marburg, Germany
| | - Silvia Cappello
- Max-Planck Institute for Psychiatry, Kraepelinstrasse 2-10, 80804 Munich, Germany
| | - Marco B Rust
- Molecular Neurobiology Group, Institute of Physiological Chemistry, Philipps-University of Marburg, 35032 Marburg, Germany
- Center for Mind, Brain and Behavior (CMBB), University of Marburg and Justus-Liebig-University Giessen, Hans-Meerwein-Strasse 6, 35032 Marburg, Germany
- DFG Research Training Group, Membrane Plasticity in Tissue Development and Remodeling, GRK 2213, Philipps-University of Marburg, 35032 Marburg, Germany
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Andrews MG, Nowakowski TJ. Human brain development through the lens of cerebral organoid models. Brain Res 2019; 1725:146470. [PMID: 31542572 PMCID: PMC6887101 DOI: 10.1016/j.brainres.2019.146470] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/02/2019] [Revised: 08/21/2019] [Accepted: 09/18/2019] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
The brain is one of the most complex organs in the body, which emerges from a relatively simple set of basic 'building blocks' during early development according to complex cellular and molecular events orchestrated through a set of inherited instructions. Innovations in stem cell technologies have enabled modelling of neural cells using two- and three-dimensional cultures. In particular, cerebral ('brain') organoids have taken the center stage of brain development models that have the potential for providing meaningful insight into human neurodevelopmental and neurological disorders. We review the current understanding of cellular events during human brain organogenesis, and the events occurring during cerebral organoid differentiation. We highlight the strengths and weaknesses of this experimental model system. In particular, we explain evidence that organoids can mimic many aspects of early neural development, including neural induction, patterning, and broad neurogenesis and gliogenesis programs, offering the opportunity to study genetic regulation of these processes in a human context. Several shortcomings of the current culture methods limit the utility of cerebral organoids to spontaneously give rise to many important cell types, and to model higher order features of tissue organization. We suggest that future studies aim to improve these features in order to make them better models for the study of laminar organization, circuit formation and how disruptions of these processes relate to disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Madeline G Andrews
- Department of Neurology, University of California, San Francisco, CA, USA; The Eli and Edythe Broad Center of Regeneration Medicine and Stem Cell Research, University of California, San Francisco, CA, USA.
| | - Tomasz J Nowakowski
- Department of Anatomy, University of California, San Francisco, CA, USA; Department of Psychiatry, University of California, San Francisco, CA, USA; Chan Zuckerberg Biohub, San Francisco, CA, USA.
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73
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Wullimann MF, Umeasalugo KE. Sonic hedgehog expression in zebrafish forebrain identifies the teleostean pallidal signaling center and shows preglomerular complex and posterior tubercular dopamine cells to arise from shh cells. J Comp Neurol 2019; 528:1321-1348. [PMID: 31760659 DOI: 10.1002/cne.24825] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/03/2019] [Revised: 11/15/2019] [Accepted: 11/16/2019] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
Ventralization, a major patterning process in the developing vertebrate neural tube (central nervous system, CNS), depends on Sonic hedgehog (SHH) as a main signaling morphogen. We studied the CNS of late larval and young adult zebrafish in a transgenic shh-GFP line revealing increased neuroanatomical detail due to the progressed differentiation state compared to earlier stages. Some major findings emerge from the present study. (a) shh -GFP is still expressed along the adult zebrafish CNS neuraxis in most locations seen in larvae. (b) We newly identify a ventroposterior shh pallidal domain representing the basal telencephalic signaling center important for basal ganglia development known in other vertebrates (i.e., the anterior entopeduncular area-basal medial ganglionic eminence of mammals). (c) We further show late-emerging shh-GFP positive radial glia cells in the medial zone of the dorsal telencephalon (i.e., the teleostan pallial amygdala). (d) Immunostains for tyrosine hydroxylase demonstrate that there is selective colocalization in adult dopamine cells with shh-GFP in the posterior tuberculum, including in projection cells to striatum, which represents a striking parallel to amniote mesodiencephalic dopamine cell origin from shh expressing floor plate cells. (e) There is no colocalization of shh and islet1 as shown by respective shh-GFP and islet1-GFP lines. (f) The only radially far migrated shh-GFP cells are located in the preglomerular area. (g) There are no adult cerebellar and tectal shh-GFP cells confirming their exclusive role during early development as previously reported by our laboratory.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mario F Wullimann
- Department Biology II, Division of Neurobiology, Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München (LMU Munich), Munich, Germany
| | - Kosisochukwu E Umeasalugo
- Department Biology II, Division of Neurobiology, Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München (LMU Munich), Munich, Germany
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74
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Early dorsomedial tissue interactions regulate gyrification of distal neocortex. Nat Commun 2019; 10:5192. [PMID: 31729356 PMCID: PMC6858446 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-019-12913-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/25/2019] [Accepted: 10/04/2019] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
The extent of neocortical gyrification is an important determinant of a species’ cognitive abilities, yet the mechanisms regulating cortical gyrification are poorly understood. We uncover long-range regulation of this process originating at the telencephalic dorsal midline, where levels of secreted Bmps are maintained by factors in both the neuroepithelium and the overlying mesenchyme. In the mouse, the combined loss of transcription factors Lmx1a and Lmx1b, selectively expressed in the midline neuroepithelium and the mesenchyme respectively, causes dorsal midline Bmp signaling to drop at early neural tube stages. This alters the spatial and temporal Wnt signaling profile of the dorsal midline cortical hem, which in turn causes gyrification of the distal neocortex. Our study uncovers early mesenchymal-neuroepithelial interactions that have long-range effects on neocortical gyrification and shows that lissencephaly in mice is actively maintained via redundant genetic regulation of dorsal midline development and signaling. The contribution of long-range signaling to cortical gyrification remains poorly understood. In this study, authors demonstrate that the combined genetic loss of transcription factors Lmx1a and Lmx1b, expressed in the telencephalic dorsal midline neuroepithelium and head mesenchyme, respectively, induces gyrification in the mouse neocortex
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75
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Emerging Roles of Long Non-Coding RNAs as Drivers of Brain Evolution. Cells 2019; 8:cells8111399. [PMID: 31698782 PMCID: PMC6912723 DOI: 10.3390/cells8111399] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/08/2019] [Revised: 11/01/2019] [Accepted: 11/03/2019] [Indexed: 01/09/2023] Open
Abstract
Mammalian genomes encode tens of thousands of long-noncoding RNAs (lncRNAs), which are capable of interactions with DNA, RNA and protein molecules, thereby enabling a variety of transcriptional and post-transcriptional regulatory activities. Strikingly, about 40% of lncRNAs are expressed specifically in the brain with precisely regulated temporal and spatial expression patterns. In stark contrast to the highly conserved repertoire of protein-coding genes, thousands of lncRNAs have newly appeared during primate nervous system evolution with hundreds of human-specific lncRNAs. Their evolvable nature and the myriad of potential functions make lncRNAs ideal candidates for drivers of human brain evolution. The human brain displays the largest relative volume of any animal species and the most remarkable cognitive abilities. In addition to brain size, structural reorganization and adaptive changes represent crucial hallmarks of human brain evolution. lncRNAs are increasingly reported to be involved in neurodevelopmental processes suggested to underlie human brain evolution, including proliferation, neurite outgrowth and synaptogenesis, as well as in neuroplasticity. Hence, evolutionary human brain adaptations are proposed to be essentially driven by lncRNAs, which will be discussed in this review.
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76
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The Elegance of Sonic Hedgehog: Emerging Novel Functions for a Classic Morphogen. J Neurosci 2019; 38:9338-9345. [PMID: 30381425 DOI: 10.1523/jneurosci.1662-18.2018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/02/2018] [Revised: 09/27/2018] [Accepted: 09/28/2018] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Sonic Hedgehog (SHH) signaling has been most widely known for its role in specifying region and cell-type identity during embryonic morphogenesis. This mini-review accompanies a 2018 SFN mini-symposium that addresses an emerging body of research focused on understanding the diverse roles for Shh signaling in a wide range of contexts in neurodevelopment and, more recently, in the mature CNS. Such research shows that Shh affects the function of brain circuits, including the production and maintenance of diverse cell types and the establishment of wiring specificity. Here, we review these novel and unexpected functions and the unanswered questions regarding the role of SHH and its signaling pathway members in these cases.
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77
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Cadwell CR, Bhaduri A, Mostajo-Radji MA, Keefe MG, Nowakowski TJ. Development and Arealization of the Cerebral Cortex. Neuron 2019; 103:980-1004. [PMID: 31557462 PMCID: PMC9245854 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuron.2019.07.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 145] [Impact Index Per Article: 29.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/26/2018] [Revised: 05/15/2019] [Accepted: 07/03/2019] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
Adult cortical areas consist of specialized cell types and circuits that support unique higher-order cognitive functions. How this regional diversity develops from an initially uniform neuroepithelium has been the subject of decades of seminal research, and emerging technologies, including single-cell transcriptomics, provide a new perspective on area-specific molecular diversity. Here, we review the early developmental processes that underlie cortical arealization, including both cortex intrinsic and extrinsic mechanisms as embodied by the protomap and protocortex hypotheses, respectively. We propose an integrated model of serial homology whereby intrinsic genetic programs and local factors establish early transcriptomic differences between excitatory neurons destined to give rise to broad "proto-regions," and activity-dependent mechanisms lead to progressive refinement and formation of sharp boundaries between functional areas. Finally, we explore the potential of these basic developmental processes to inform our understanding of the emergence of functional neural networks and circuit abnormalities in neurodevelopmental disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cathryn R Cadwell
- Department of Anatomic Pathology, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA 94143, USA
| | - Aparna Bhaduri
- Department of Neurology, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA 94122, USA; The Eli and Edythe Broad Center for Regeneration Medicine and Stem Cell Research at the University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA 94143, USA
| | - Mohammed A Mostajo-Radji
- Department of Neurology, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA 94122, USA; The Eli and Edythe Broad Center for Regeneration Medicine and Stem Cell Research at the University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA 94143, USA
| | - Matthew G Keefe
- Developmental and Stem Cell Biology Graduate Program, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA 94143, USA; Department of Anatomy, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA 94143, USA; Department of Psychiatry, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA 94143, USA
| | - Tomasz J Nowakowski
- The Eli and Edythe Broad Center for Regeneration Medicine and Stem Cell Research at the University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA 94143, USA; Department of Anatomy, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA 94143, USA; Department of Psychiatry, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA 94143, USA.
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78
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Bonnefont J, Tiberi L, van den Ameele J, Potier D, Gaber ZB, Lin X, Bilheu A, Herpoel A, Velez Bravo FD, Guillemot F, Aerts S, Vanderhaeghen P. Cortical Neurogenesis Requires Bcl6-Mediated Transcriptional Repression of Multiple Self-Renewal-Promoting Extrinsic Pathways. Neuron 2019; 103:1096-1108.e4. [PMID: 31353074 PMCID: PMC6859502 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuron.2019.06.027] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/17/2018] [Revised: 05/08/2019] [Accepted: 06/26/2019] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
During neurogenesis, progenitors switch from self-renewal to differentiation through the interplay of intrinsic and extrinsic cues, but how these are integrated remains poorly understood. Here, we combine whole-genome transcriptional and epigenetic analyses with in vivo functional studies to demonstrate that Bcl6, a transcriptional repressor previously reported to promote cortical neurogenesis, acts as a driver of the neurogenic transition through direct silencing of a selective repertoire of genes belonging to multiple extrinsic pathways promoting self-renewal, most strikingly the Wnt pathway. At the molecular level, Bcl6 represses its targets through Sirt1 recruitment followed by histone deacetylation. Our data identify a molecular logic by which a single cell-intrinsic factor represses multiple extrinsic pathways that favor self-renewal, thereby ensuring robustness of neuronal fate transition.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jerome Bonnefont
- Université Libre de Bruxelles (ULB), Institut de Recherches en Biologie Humaine et Moléculaire (IRIBHM), and ULB Neuroscience Institute (UNI), 1070 Brussels, Belgium; VIB-KU Leuven Center for Brain & Disease Research, 3000 Leuven, Belgium
| | - Luca Tiberi
- Université Libre de Bruxelles (ULB), Institut de Recherches en Biologie Humaine et Moléculaire (IRIBHM), and ULB Neuroscience Institute (UNI), 1070 Brussels, Belgium
| | - Jelle van den Ameele
- Université Libre de Bruxelles (ULB), Institut de Recherches en Biologie Humaine et Moléculaire (IRIBHM), and ULB Neuroscience Institute (UNI), 1070 Brussels, Belgium
| | - Delphine Potier
- VIB-KU Leuven Center for Brain & Disease Research, 3000 Leuven, Belgium
| | | | - Xionghui Lin
- Université Libre de Bruxelles (ULB), Institut de Recherches en Biologie Humaine et Moléculaire (IRIBHM), and ULB Neuroscience Institute (UNI), 1070 Brussels, Belgium
| | - Angéline Bilheu
- Université Libre de Bruxelles (ULB), Institut de Recherches en Biologie Humaine et Moléculaire (IRIBHM), and ULB Neuroscience Institute (UNI), 1070 Brussels, Belgium
| | - Adèle Herpoel
- Université Libre de Bruxelles (ULB), Institut de Recherches en Biologie Humaine et Moléculaire (IRIBHM), and ULB Neuroscience Institute (UNI), 1070 Brussels, Belgium
| | - Fausto D Velez Bravo
- Université Libre de Bruxelles (ULB), Institut de Recherches en Biologie Humaine et Moléculaire (IRIBHM), and ULB Neuroscience Institute (UNI), 1070 Brussels, Belgium; VIB-KU Leuven Center for Brain & Disease Research, 3000 Leuven, Belgium
| | | | - Stein Aerts
- VIB-KU Leuven Center for Brain & Disease Research, 3000 Leuven, Belgium
| | - Pierre Vanderhaeghen
- Université Libre de Bruxelles (ULB), Institut de Recherches en Biologie Humaine et Moléculaire (IRIBHM), and ULB Neuroscience Institute (UNI), 1070 Brussels, Belgium; VIB-KU Leuven Center for Brain & Disease Research, 3000 Leuven, Belgium; Department of Neurosciences, Leuven Brain Institute, KU Leuven, 3000 Leuven, Belgium; Welbio, Université Libre de Bruxelles (ULB), 1070 Brussels, Belgium.
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79
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Postel M, Karam A, Pézeron G, Schneider-Maunoury S, Clément F. A multiscale mathematical model of cell dynamics during neurogenesis in the mouse cerebral cortex. BMC Bioinformatics 2019; 20:470. [PMID: 31521111 PMCID: PMC6744691 DOI: 10.1186/s12859-019-3018-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/06/2019] [Accepted: 07/31/2019] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Neurogenesis in the murine cerebral cortex involves the coordinated divisions of two main types of progenitor cells, whose numbers, division modes and cell cycle durations set up the final neuronal output. To understand the respective roles of these factors in the neurogenesis process, we combine experimental in vivo studies with mathematical modeling and numerical simulations of the dynamics of neural progenitor cells. A special focus is put on the population of intermediate progenitors (IPs), a transit amplifying progenitor type critically involved in the size of the final neuron pool. Results A multiscale formalism describing IP dynamics allows one to track the progression of cells along the subsequent phases of the cell cycle, as well as the temporal evolution of the different cell numbers. Our model takes into account the dividing apical progenitors (AP) engaged into neurogenesis, both neurogenic and proliferative IPs, and the newborn neurons. The transfer rates from one population to another are subject to the mode of division (proliferative, or neurogenic) and may be time-varying. The model outputs are successfully fitted to experimental cell numbers from mouse embryos at different stages of cortical development, taking into account IPs and neurons, in order to adjust the numerical parameters. We provide additional information on cell kinetics, such as the mitotic and S phase indexes, and neurogenic fraction. Conclusions Applying the model to a mouse mutant for Ftm/Rpgrip1l, a gene involved in human ciliopathies with severe brain abnormalities, reveals a shortening of the neurogenic period associated with an increased influx of newborn IPs from apical progenitors at mid-neurogenesis. Our model can be used to study other mouse mutants with cortical neurogenesis defects and can be adapted to study the importance of progenitor dynamics in cortical evolution and human diseases. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (10.1186/s12859-019-3018-8) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marie Postel
- Sorbonne Université, Université Paris-Diderot SPC, CNRS, Laboratoire Jacques-Louis Lions, LJLL, Paris, France.
| | - Alice Karam
- Sorbonne Université, CNRS UMR7622, Inserm U1156, Institut de Biologie Paris-Seine (IBPS), Laboratoire de Biologie du développement (LBD), Paris, France
| | - Guillaume Pézeron
- Sorbonne Université, CNRS UMR7622, Inserm U1156, Institut de Biologie Paris-Seine (IBPS), Laboratoire de Biologie du développement (LBD), Paris, France.,Current address: Laboratoire Physiologie Moléculaire et Adaptation, UMR 7221 CNRS, Muséum National d'Histoire Naturelle, Paris, France
| | - Sylvie Schneider-Maunoury
- Sorbonne Université, CNRS UMR7622, Inserm U1156, Institut de Biologie Paris-Seine (IBPS), Laboratoire de Biologie du développement (LBD), Paris, France
| | - Frédérique Clément
- Inria, Université Paris-Saclay, Palaiseau, France.,LMS, Ecole Polytechnique, CNRS, Université Paris-Saclay, Palaiseau, France
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80
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Han X, Wei Y, Wu X, Gao J, Yang Z, Zhao C. PDK1 Regulates Transition Period of Apical Progenitors to Basal Progenitors by Controlling Asymmetric Cell Division. Cereb Cortex 2019; 30:406-420. [DOI: 10.1093/cercor/bhz146] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/29/2019] [Revised: 06/09/2019] [Accepted: 06/09/2019] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Abstract
The six-layered neocortex consists of diverse neuron subtypes. Deeper-layer neurons originate from apical progenitors (APs), while upper-layer neurons are mainly produced by basal progenitors (BPs), which are derivatives of APs. As development proceeds, an AP generates two daughter cells that comprise an AP and a deeper-layer neuron or a BP. How the transition of APs to BPs is spatiotemporally regulated is a fundamental question. Here, we report that conditional deletion of phoshpoinositide-dependent protein kinase 1 (PDK1) in mouse developing cortex achieved by crossing Emx1Cre line with Pdk1fl/fl leads to a delayed transition of APs to BPs and subsequently causes an increased output of deeper-layer neurons. We demonstrate that PDK1 is involved in the modulation of the aPKC-Par3 complex and further regulates the asymmetric cell division (ACD). We also find Hes1, a downstream effecter of Notch signal pathway is obviously upregulated. Knockdown of Hes1 or treatment with Notch signal inhibitor DAPT recovers the ACD defect in the Pdk1 cKO. Thus, we have identified a novel function of PDK1 in controlling the transition of APs to BPs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaoning Han
- Key Laboratory of Developmental Genes and Human Diseases, Ministry of Education, School of Medicine, Southeast University, Nanjing 210009, China
| | - Yongjie Wei
- Key Laboratory of Developmental Genes and Human Diseases, Ministry of Education, School of Medicine, Southeast University, Nanjing 210009, China
| | - Xiaojing Wu
- Key Laboratory of Developmental Genes and Human Diseases, Ministry of Education, School of Medicine, Southeast University, Nanjing 210009, China
| | - Jun Gao
- Department of Neurobiology
- Key Laboratory of Human Functional Genomics of Jiangsu, Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing 211166, China
| | - Zhongzhou Yang
- State Key Laboratory of Pharmaceutical Biotechnology
- Ministry of Education Key Laboratory of Model Animal for Disease Study, Model Animal Research Center, Nanjing Biomedical Research Institute, Nanjing University, Nanjing 210061, China
| | - Chunjie Zhao
- Key Laboratory of Developmental Genes and Human Diseases, Ministry of Education, School of Medicine, Southeast University, Nanjing 210009, China
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81
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Penisson M, Ladewig J, Belvindrah R, Francis F. Genes and Mechanisms Involved in the Generation and Amplification of Basal Radial Glial Cells. Front Cell Neurosci 2019; 13:381. [PMID: 31481878 PMCID: PMC6710321 DOI: 10.3389/fncel.2019.00381] [Citation(s) in RCA: 59] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/11/2019] [Accepted: 08/05/2019] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
The development of the cerebral cortex relies on different types of progenitor cell. Among them, the recently described basal radial glial cell (bRG) is suggested to be of critical importance for the development of the brain in gyrencephalic species. These cells are highly numerous in primate and ferret brains, compared to lissencephalic species such as the mouse in which they are few in number. Their somata are located in basal subventricular zones in gyrencephalic brains and they generally possess a basal process extending to the pial surface. They sometimes also have an apical process directed toward the ventricular surface, similar to apical radial glial cells (aRGs) from which they are derived, and whose somata are found more apically in the ventricular zone. bRGs share similarities with aRGs in terms of gene expression (SOX2, PAX6, and NESTIN), whilst also expressing a range of more specific genes (such as HOPX). In primate brains, bRGs can divide multiple times, self-renewing and/or generating intermediate progenitors and neurons. They display a highly specific cytokinesis behavior termed mitotic somal translocation. We focus here on recently identified molecular mechanisms associated with the generation and amplification of bRGs, including bRG-like cells in the rodent. These include signaling pathways such as the FGF-MAPK cascade, SHH, PTEN/AKT, PDGF pathways, and proteins such as INSM, GPSM2, ASPM, TRNP1, ARHGAP11B, PAX6, and HIF1α. A number of these proteins were identified through transcriptome comparisons in human aRGs vs. bRGs, and validated by modifying their activities or expression levels in the mouse. This latter experiment often revealed enhanced bRG-like cell production, even in some cases generating folds (gyri) on the surface of the mouse cortex. We compare the features of the identified cells and methods used to characterize them in each model. These important data converge to indicate pathways essential for the production and expansion of bRGs, which may help us understand cortical development in health and disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maxime Penisson
- Inserm, Institut du Fer à Moulin, Sorbonne Université, Paris, France.,Inserm UMR-S 1270, Paris, France.,Institut du Fer à Moulin, Paris, France
| | - Julia Ladewig
- Central Institute of Mental Health, Medical Faculty Mannheim, Heidelberg University, Mannheim, Germany.,Hector Institute for Translational Brain Research (gGmbH), Mannheim, Germany.,German Cancer Research Center, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Richard Belvindrah
- Inserm, Institut du Fer à Moulin, Sorbonne Université, Paris, France.,Inserm UMR-S 1270, Paris, France.,Institut du Fer à Moulin, Paris, France
| | - Fiona Francis
- Inserm, Institut du Fer à Moulin, Sorbonne Université, Paris, France.,Inserm UMR-S 1270, Paris, France.,Institut du Fer à Moulin, Paris, France
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82
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Sawada K. Follow-up study of subventricular zone progenitors with multiple rounds of cell division during sulcogyrogenesis in the ferret cerebral cortex. IBRO Rep 2019; 7:42-51. [PMID: 31453408 PMCID: PMC6702350 DOI: 10.1016/j.ibror.2019.07.1720] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/15/2019] [Accepted: 07/27/2019] [Indexed: 01/23/2023] Open
Abstract
The subventricular zone (SVZ) of the developing cerebral cortex appears transiently during cortical neurogenesis and is known as the second proliferative zone that contains intermediate progenitor cells and self-renewable neuronal stem cells-the so-called basal radial glia (bRG). The present study attempted to track the differentiation and migration dynamics of SVZ progenitors undergoing multiple cell divisions at the late stage of neurogenesis in a course of sulcogyrogenesis in the ferret, a gyrencephalic mammal. Ferret pups were given a 5-ethynyl-2'-deoxyuridine (EdU) injection on postnatal day (PD) 5 followed by a 5-bromo-2'-deoxyuridine (BrdU) injection on PD 7. The 48 h interval between EdU and BrdU injections covered the minimum times for the first and second S-phase of self-renewing bRG. Two h after BrdU injection, EdU/BrdU-double labeled cells were found in the inner or outer SVZ (iSVZ and oSVZ), more than 80% of which were Sox2-positive. Furthermore, 95.8% of EdU/BrdU-double labeled Sox2-positive progenitors in the iSVZ and 84.2% in the oSVZ were also Pax6-positive, defining these progenitors as bRG. On PD 20, all EdU/BrdU-double labeled cells were NeuN-immunopositive, and more than 60% of these were parvalbumin-immunopositive. EdU/BrdU-double labeled neurons were distributed densely in the superficial portion of the outer cortical stratum. Cluster analysis divided the gyral and sulcal regions into higher and lower density groups, respectively, based on the diversity of the cortical density of EdU/BrdU-double labeled neurons. The higher density group included the gyral and sulcal regions of the prefrontal, parietooccipital and/or cingulate cortex, corresponding to cortical regions associated with evolutionary expansion. Although a limited population of neurons within a narrow time window of cortical neurogenesis was tracked, the present findings suggest that neurons derived from bRG at the late stage of neurogenesis express parvalbumin during corticohistogenesis. Due to the diversity of sulcogyral distributions, neurons derived from bRG may be implicated in evolutionary cortical expansion.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kazuhiko Sawada
- Department of Nutrition, Faculty of Medical and Health Sciences, Tsukuba International University, Tsuchiura, Ibaraki 300-0051, Japan
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83
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Pinson A, Namba T, Huttner WB. Malformations of Human Neocortex in Development - Their Progenitor Cell Basis and Experimental Model Systems. Front Cell Neurosci 2019; 13:305. [PMID: 31338027 PMCID: PMC6629864 DOI: 10.3389/fncel.2019.00305] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/09/2019] [Accepted: 06/24/2019] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
Malformations of the human neocortex in development constitute a heterogeneous group of complex disorders, resulting in pathologies such as intellectual disability and abnormal neurological/psychiatric conditions such as epilepsy or autism. Advances in genomic sequencing and genetic techniques have allowed major breakthroughs in the field, revealing the molecular basis of several of these malformations. Here, we focus on those malformations of the human neocortex, notably microcephaly, and macrocephaly, where an underlying basis has been established at the level of the neural stem/progenitor cells (NPCs) from which neurons are directly or indirectly derived. Particular emphasis is placed on NPC cell biology and NPC markers. A second focus of this review is on experimental model systems used to dissect the underlying mechanisms of malformations of the human neocortex in development at the cellular and molecular level. The most commonly used model system have been genetically modified mice. However, although basic features of neocortical development are conserved across the various mammalian species, some important differences between mouse and human exist. These pertain to the abundance of specific NPC types and/or their proliferative capacity, as exemplified in the case of basal radial glia. These differences limit the ability of mouse models to fully recapitulate the phenotypes of malformations of the human neocortex. For this reason, additional experimental model systems, notably the ferret, non-human primates and cerebral organoids, have recently emerged as alternatives and shown to be of increasing relevance. It is therefore important to consider the benefits and limitations of each of these model systems for studying malformations of the human neocortex in development.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Takashi Namba
- Max Planck Institute of Molecular Cell Biology and Genetics, Dresden, Germany
| | - Wieland B. Huttner
- Max Planck Institute of Molecular Cell Biology and Genetics, Dresden, Germany
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84
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Suzuki IK. Molecular drivers of human cerebral cortical evolution. Neurosci Res 2019; 151:1-14. [PMID: 31175883 DOI: 10.1016/j.neures.2019.05.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/28/2019] [Revised: 05/30/2019] [Accepted: 05/31/2019] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
Abstract
One of the most important questions in human evolutionary biology is how our ancestor has acquired an expanded volume of the cerebral cortex, which may have significantly impacted on improving our cognitive abilities. Recent comparative approaches have identified developmental features unique to the human or hominid cerebral cortex, not shared with other animals including conventional experimental models. In addition, genomic, transcriptomic, and epigenomic signatures associated with human- or hominid-specific processes of the cortical development are becoming identified by virtue of technical progress in the deep nucleotide sequencing. This review discusses ontogenic and phylogenetic processes of the human cerebral cortex, followed by the introduction of recent comprehensive approaches identifying molecular mechanisms potentially driving the evolutionary changes in the cortical development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ikuo K Suzuki
- Department of Biological Sciences, Graduate School of Science, The University of Tokyo, 7-3-1 Hongo, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo 113-0033 Japan; VIB-KU Leuven Center for Brain & Disease Research, 3000 Leuven, Belgium; Department of Neurosciences, Leuven Brain Institute, KULeuven, 3000 Leuven, Belgium; Université Libre de Bruxelles (U.L.B.), Institut de Recherches en Biologie Humaine et Moléculaire (IRIBHM), ULB Neuroscience Institute (UNI), 1070 Brussels, Belgium.
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85
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Arlotta P. Organoids required! A new path to understanding human brain development and disease. Nat Methods 2019; 15:27-29. [PMID: 29298289 DOI: 10.1038/nmeth.4557] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
Abstract
Our ability to study the developing human brain has recently been dramatically advanced by the development of human 'brain organoids', three-dimensional culture systems that recapitulate selected aspects of human brain development in reductionist, yet complex, tissues in vitro. Here I discuss the promises and challenges this new model system presents.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paola Arlotta
- Department of Stem Cell and Regenerative Biology, Harvard University
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86
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Kyrousi C, Cappello S. Using brain organoids to study human neurodevelopment, evolution and disease. WILEY INTERDISCIPLINARY REVIEWS-DEVELOPMENTAL BIOLOGY 2019; 9:e347. [PMID: 31071759 DOI: 10.1002/wdev.347] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/19/2018] [Revised: 02/18/2019] [Accepted: 04/07/2019] [Indexed: 01/12/2023]
Abstract
The brain is one of the most complex organs, responsible for the advanced intellectual and cognitive ability of humans. Although primates are to some extent capable of performing cognitive tasks, their abilities are less evolved. One of the reasons for this is the vast differences in the brain of humans compared to other mammals, in terms of shape, size and complexity. Such differences make the study of human brain development fascinating. Interestingly, the cerebral cortex is by far the most complex brain region resulting from its selective evolution within mammals over millions of years. Unraveling the molecular and cellular mechanisms regulating brain development, as well as the evolutionary differences seen across species and the need to understand human brain disorders, are some of the reasons why scientists are interested in improving their current knowledge on human corticogenesis. Toward this end, several animal models including primates have been used, however, these models are limited in their extent to recapitulate human-specific features. Recent technological achievements in the field of stem cell research, which have enabled the generation of human models of corticogenesis, called brain or cerebral organoids, are of great importance. This review focuses on the main cellular and molecular features of human corticogenesis and the use of brain organoids to study it. We will discuss the key differences between cortical development in human and nonhuman mammals, the technological applications of brain organoids and the different aspects of cortical development in normal and pathological conditions, which can be modeled using brain organoids. This article is categorized under: Comparative Development and Evolution > Regulation of Organ Diversity Nervous System Development > Vertebrates: General Principles.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christina Kyrousi
- Department of Developmental Neurobiology, Max Planck Institute of Psychiatry, Munich, Germany
| | - Silvia Cappello
- Department of Developmental Neurobiology, Max Planck Institute of Psychiatry, Munich, Germany
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87
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Derepression of sonic hedgehog signaling upon Gpr161 deletion unravels forebrain and ventricular abnormalities. Dev Biol 2019; 450:47-62. [PMID: 30914320 DOI: 10.1016/j.ydbio.2019.03.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/18/2018] [Revised: 03/12/2019] [Accepted: 03/17/2019] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
Inverse gradients of transcriptional repressors antagonize the transcriptional effector response to morphogens. However, the role of such inverse regulation might not manifest solely from lack of repressors. Sonic hedgehog (Shh) patterns the forebrain by being expressed ventrally; however, absence of antagonizing Gli3 repressor paradoxically cause insufficient pathway activation. Interestingly, lack of the primary cilia-localized G-protein-coupled receptor, Gpr161 increases Shh signaling in the mouse neural tube from coordinated lack of Gli3 repressor and Smoothened-independent activation. Here, by deleting Gpr161 in mouse neuroepithelial cells and radial glia at early mid-gestation we detected derepression of Shh signaling throughout forebrain, allowing determination of the pathophysiological consequences. Accumulation of cerebrospinal fluid (hydrocephalus) was apparent by birth, although usual causative defects in multiciliated ependymal cells or aqueduct were not seen. Rather, the ventricular surface was expanded (ventriculomegaly) during embryogenesis from radial glial overproliferation. Cortical phenotypes included polymicrogyria in the medial cingulate cortex, increased proliferation of intermediate progenitors and basal radial glia, and altered neocortical cytoarchitectonic structure with increased upper layer and decreased deep layer neurons. Finally, periventricular nodular heterotopia resulted from disrupted neuronal migration, while the radial glial scaffold was unaffected. Overall, suppression of Shh pathway during early mid-gestation prevents ventricular overgrowth, and regulates cortical gyration and neocortical/periventricular cytoarchitecture.
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88
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How Cells Fold the Cerebral Cortex. J Neurosci 2019; 38:776-783. [PMID: 29367288 DOI: 10.1523/jneurosci.1106-17.2017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 82] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/29/2017] [Revised: 09/15/2017] [Accepted: 10/24/2017] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Folding of the cerebral cortex is as highly intriguing as poorly understood. At first sight, this may appear as simple tissue crumpling inside an excessively small cranium, but the process is clearly much more complex and developmentally predetermined. Whereas theoretical modeling supports a critical role for biomechanics, experimental evidence demonstrates the fundamental role of specific progenitor cell types, cellular processes, and genetic programs on cortical folding.Dual Perspectives Companion Paper: How Forces Fold the Cerebral Cortex, by Christopher D. Kroenke and Philip V. Bayly.
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89
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A mechanical method of cerebral cortical folding development based on thermal expansion. Sci Rep 2019; 9:1914. [PMID: 30760742 PMCID: PMC6374467 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-018-37461-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/15/2018] [Accepted: 12/07/2018] [Indexed: 11/08/2022] Open
Abstract
Cortical folding malformations are associated with several severe neurological disorders, including epilepsy, schizophrenia and autism. However, the mechanism behind cerebral cortical folding development is not yet clear. In this paper, we propose a mechanical method based on thermal expansion to simulate the development of human cerebral cortical folding. The influences of stiffness ratio, growth rate ratio, and initial cortical plate thickness on cortical folding are discussed. The results of our thermal expansion model are consistent with previous studies, indicating that abnormal values of the aforementioned three factors could directly lead to cortical folding malformation in a generally fixed pattern.
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90
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Lim Y, Cho IT, Shi X, Grinspan JB, Cho G, Golden JA. Arx Expression Suppresses Ventralization of the Developing Dorsal Forebrain. Sci Rep 2019; 9:226. [PMID: 30659230 PMCID: PMC6338776 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-018-36194-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/01/2018] [Accepted: 11/11/2018] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Early brain development requires a tight orchestration between neural tube patterning and growth. How pattern formation and brain growth are coordinated is incompletely understood. Previously we showed that aristaless-related homeobox (ARX), a paired-like transcription factor, regulates cortical progenitor pool expansion by repressing an inhibitor of cell cycle progression. Here we show that ARX participates in establishing dorsoventral identity in the mouse forebrain. In Arx mutant mice, ventral genes, including Olig2, are ectopically expressed dorsally. Furthermore, Gli1 is upregulated, suggesting an ectopic activation of SHH signaling. We show that the ectopic Olig2 expression can be repressed by blocking SHH signaling, implicating a role for SHH signaling in Olig2 induction. We further demonstrate that the ectopic Olig2 accounts for the reduced Pax6 and Tbr2 expression, both dorsal specific genes essential for cortical progenitor cell proliferation. These data suggest a link between the control of dorsoventral identity of progenitor cells and the control of their proliferation. In summary, our data demonstrate that ARX functions in a gene regulatory network integrating normal forebrain patterning and growth, providing important insight into how mutations in ARX can disrupt multiple aspects of brain development and thus generate a wide spectrum of neurodevelopmental phenotypes observed in human patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Youngshin Lim
- Department of Pathology, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, 02115, USA
| | - Il-Taeg Cho
- Department of Pathology, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, 02115, USA
| | - Xiuyu Shi
- Department of Pathology, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, 02115, USA.,School of Life Sciences, Xiamen University, Xiamen, Fujian, 361005, China
| | - Judith B Grinspan
- Department of Neurology, Children's Hospital of Philadelphia, University of Pennsylvania Perelman School of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA, 19104, USA
| | - Ginam Cho
- Department of Pathology, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, 02115, USA.
| | - Jeffrey A Golden
- Department of Pathology, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, 02115, USA.
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91
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Llinares-Benadero C, Borrell V. Deconstructing cortical folding: genetic, cellular and mechanical determinants. Nat Rev Neurosci 2019; 20:161-176. [DOI: 10.1038/s41583-018-0112-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 112] [Impact Index Per Article: 22.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
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92
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Lesciotto KM, Richtsmeier JT. Craniofacial skeletal response to encephalization: How do we know what we think we know? AMERICAN JOURNAL OF PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGY 2019; 168 Suppl 67:27-46. [PMID: 30680710 PMCID: PMC6424107 DOI: 10.1002/ajpa.23766] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/30/2018] [Revised: 11/16/2018] [Accepted: 11/21/2018] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Dramatic changes in cranial capacity have characterized human evolution. Important evolutionary hypotheses, such as the spatial packing hypothesis, assert that increases in relative brain size (encephalization) have caused alterations to the modern human skull, resulting in a suite of traits unique among extant primates, including a domed cranial vault, highly flexed cranial base, and retracted facial skeleton. Most prior studies have used fossil or comparative primate data to establish correlations between brain size and cranial form, but the mechanistic basis for how changes in brain size impact the overall shape of the skull resulting in these cranial traits remains obscure and has only rarely been investigated critically. We argue that understanding how changes in human skull morphology could have resulted from increased encephalization requires the direct testing of hypotheses relating to interaction of embryonic development of the bones of the skull and the brain. Fossil and comparative primate data have thoroughly described the patterns of association between brain size and skull morphology. Here we suggest complementing such existing datasets with experiments focused on mechanisms responsible for producing the observed patterns to more thoroughly understand the role of encephalization in shaping the modern human skull.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kate M Lesciotto
- Department of Anthropology, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, Pennsylvania
| | - Joan T Richtsmeier
- Department of Anthropology, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, Pennsylvania
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93
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Namba T, Vaid S, Huttner WB. Primate neocortex development and evolution: Conserved versus evolved folding. J Comp Neurol 2018; 527:1621-1632. [PMID: 30552689 DOI: 10.1002/cne.24606] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/03/2018] [Revised: 11/26/2018] [Accepted: 12/03/2018] [Indexed: 01/12/2023]
Abstract
The neocortex, the seat of higher cognitive functions, exhibits a key feature across mammalian species-a highly variable degree of folding. Within the neocortex, two distinct subtypes of cortical areas can be distinguished, the isocortex and the proisocortex. Here, we have compared specific spatiotemporal aspects of folding between the proisocortex and the isocortex in 13 primates, including human, chimpanzee, and various Old World and New World monkeys. We find that folding at the boundaries of the dorsal isocortex and the proisocortex, which gives rise to the cingulate sulcus (CiS) and the lateral fissure (LF), is conserved across the primates studied and is therefore referred to as conserved folding. In contrast, the degree of folding within the dorsal isocortex exhibits huge variation across these primates, indicating that this folding, which gives rise to gyri and sulci, is subject to major changes during primate evolution. We therefore refer to the folding within the dorsal isocortex as evolved folding. Comparison of fetal neocortex development in long-tailed macaque and human reveals that the onset of conserved folding precedes the onset of evolved folding. Moreover, the analysis of infant human neocortex exhibiting lissencephaly, a developmental malformation thought to be mainly due to abnormal neuronal migration, shows that the evolved folding is perturbed more than the conserved folding. Taken together, our study presents a two-step model of folding that pertains to primate neocortex development and evolution. Specifically, our data imply that the conserved folding and the evolved folding constitute two distinct, sequential events.
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Affiliation(s)
- Takashi Namba
- Max Planck Institute of Molecular Cell Biology and Genetics, Dresden, Germany
| | - Samir Vaid
- Max Planck Institute of Molecular Cell Biology and Genetics, Dresden, Germany
| | - Wieland B Huttner
- Max Planck Institute of Molecular Cell Biology and Genetics, Dresden, Germany
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94
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Vaid S, Camp JG, Hersemann L, Eugster Oegema C, Heninger AK, Winkler S, Brandl H, Sarov M, Treutlein B, Huttner WB, Namba T. A novel population of Hopx-dependent basal radial glial cells in the developing mouse neocortex. Development 2018; 145:dev.169276. [PMID: 30266827 DOI: 10.1242/dev.169276] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/25/2018] [Accepted: 09/18/2018] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
Abstract
A specific subpopulation of neural progenitor cells, the basal radial glial cells (bRGCs) of the outer subventricular zone (OSVZ), are thought to have a key role in the evolutionary expansion of the mammalian neocortex. In the developing lissencephalic mouse neocortex, bRGCs exist at low abundance and show significant molecular differences from bRGCs in developing gyrencephalic species. Here, we demonstrate that the developing mouse medial neocortex (medNcx), in contrast to the canonically studied lateral neocortex (latNcx), exhibits an OSVZ and an abundance of bRGCs similar to that in developing gyrencephalic neocortex. Unlike bRGCs in developing mouse latNcx, the bRGCs in medNcx exhibit human bRGC-like gene expression, including expression of Hopx, a human bRGC marker. Disruption of Hopx expression in mouse embryonic medNcx and forced Hopx expression in mouse embryonic latNcx demonstrate that Hopx is required and sufficient, respectively, for bRGC abundance as found in the developing gyrencephalic neocortex. Taken together, our data identify a novel bRGC subpopulation in developing mouse medNcx that is highly related to bRGCs of developing gyrencephalic neocortex.
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Affiliation(s)
- Samir Vaid
- Max Planck Institute of Molecular Cell Biology and Genetics, Pfotenhauerstraße 108, D-01307 Dresden, Germany
| | - J Gray Camp
- Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology, Deutscher Platz 6, D-04103 Leipzig, Germany
| | - Lena Hersemann
- Max Planck Institute of Molecular Cell Biology and Genetics, Pfotenhauerstraße 108, D-01307 Dresden, Germany
| | - Christina Eugster Oegema
- Max Planck Institute of Molecular Cell Biology and Genetics, Pfotenhauerstraße 108, D-01307 Dresden, Germany
| | - Anne-Kristin Heninger
- Max Planck Institute of Molecular Cell Biology and Genetics, Pfotenhauerstraße 108, D-01307 Dresden, Germany
| | - Sylke Winkler
- Max Planck Institute of Molecular Cell Biology and Genetics, Pfotenhauerstraße 108, D-01307 Dresden, Germany
| | - Holger Brandl
- Max Planck Institute of Molecular Cell Biology and Genetics, Pfotenhauerstraße 108, D-01307 Dresden, Germany
| | - Mihail Sarov
- Max Planck Institute of Molecular Cell Biology and Genetics, Pfotenhauerstraße 108, D-01307 Dresden, Germany
| | - Barbara Treutlein
- Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology, Deutscher Platz 6, D-04103 Leipzig, Germany
| | - Wieland B Huttner
- Max Planck Institute of Molecular Cell Biology and Genetics, Pfotenhauerstraße 108, D-01307 Dresden, Germany
| | - Takashi Namba
- Max Planck Institute of Molecular Cell Biology and Genetics, Pfotenhauerstraße 108, D-01307 Dresden, Germany
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95
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Miterko LN, Lackey EP, Heck DH, Sillitoe RV. Shaping Diversity Into the Brain's Form and Function. Front Neural Circuits 2018; 12:83. [PMID: 30364100 PMCID: PMC6191489 DOI: 10.3389/fncir.2018.00083] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/22/2018] [Accepted: 09/18/2018] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
The brain contains a large diversity of unique cell types that use specific genetic programs to control development and instruct the intricate wiring of sensory, motor, and cognitive brain regions. In addition to their cellular diversity and specialized connectivity maps, each region's dedicated function is also expressed in their characteristic gross external morphologies. The folds on the surface of the cerebral cortex and cerebellum are classic examples. But, to what extent does structure relate to function and at what spatial scale? We discuss the mechanisms that sculpt functional brain maps and external morphologies. We also contrast the cryptic structural defects in conditions such as autism spectrum disorders to the overt microcephaly after Zika infections, taking into consideration that both diseases disrupt proper cognitive development. The data indicate that dynamic processes shape all brain areas to fit into jigsaw-like patterns. The patterns in each region reflect circuit connectivity, which ultimately supports local signal processing and accomplishes multi-areal integration of information processing to optimize brain functions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lauren N. Miterko
- Department of Pathology and Immunology, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX, United States
- Program in Developmental Biology, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX, United States
- Jan and Dan Duncan Neurological Research Institute of Texas Children’s Hospital, Houston, TX, United States
| | - Elizabeth P. Lackey
- Department of Pathology and Immunology, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX, United States
- Jan and Dan Duncan Neurological Research Institute of Texas Children’s Hospital, Houston, TX, United States
- Department of Neuroscience, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX, United States
| | - Detlef H. Heck
- Department of Anatomy and Neurobiology, University of Tennessee Health Science Center, Memphis, TN, United States
| | - Roy V. Sillitoe
- Department of Pathology and Immunology, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX, United States
- Program in Developmental Biology, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX, United States
- Jan and Dan Duncan Neurological Research Institute of Texas Children’s Hospital, Houston, TX, United States
- Department of Neuroscience, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX, United States
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96
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HOPX Defines Heterogeneity of Postnatal Subventricular Zone Neural Stem Cells. Stem Cell Reports 2018; 11:770-783. [PMID: 30174314 PMCID: PMC6135899 DOI: 10.1016/j.stemcr.2018.08.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/06/2017] [Revised: 08/03/2018] [Accepted: 08/05/2018] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
The largest diversity of neural lineages generated from the subventricular zone (SVZ) occurs early after birth and is regulated in a spatiotemporal manner depending on the expression of specific transcriptional cues. Transcriptomics and fate-mapping approaches were employed to explore the relationship between regional expression of transcription factors by neural stem cells (NSCs) and the specification of distinct neural lineages. Our results support an early priming of NSCs for the genesis of defined cell types depending on their spatial location in the SVZ and identify HOPX as a marker of a subpopulation primed toward astrocytic fates. Manipulation of HOPX expression, however, showed no effect on astrogenesis but resulted in marked changes in the number of NSCs and of their progenies. Taken together, our results highlight transcriptional and spatial heterogeneity of postnatal NSCs and reveal a key role for HOPX in controlling SVZ germinal activity.
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97
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Zhang L, Mubarak T, Chen Y, Lee T, Pollock A, Sun T. Counter-Balance Between Gli3 and miR-7 Is Required for Proper Morphogenesis and Size Control of the Mouse Brain. Front Cell Neurosci 2018; 12:259. [PMID: 30210296 PMCID: PMC6121149 DOI: 10.3389/fncel.2018.00259] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/23/2018] [Accepted: 07/30/2018] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Brain morphogenesis requires precise regulation of multiple genes to control specification of distinct neural progenitors (NPs) and neuronal production. Dysregulation of these genes results in severe brain malformation such as macrocephaly and microcephaly. Despite studies of the effect of individual pathogenic genes, the counter-balance between multiple factors in controlling brain size remains unclear. Here we show that cortical deletion of Gli3 results in enlarged brain and folding structures in the cortical midline at the postnatal stage, which is mainly caused by the increased percentage of intermediate progenitors (IPs) and newborn neurons. In addition, dysregulation of neuronal migration also contributes to the folding defects in the cortical midline region. Knockdown of microRNA (miRNA) miR-7 can rescue abnormal brain morphology in Gli3 knockout mice by recovering progenitor specification, neuronal production and migration through a counter-balance of the Gli3 activity. Moreover, miR-7 likely exerts its function through silencing target gene Pax6. Our results indicate that proper brain morphogenesis is an outcome of interactive regulations of multiple molecules such as Gli3 and miR-7. Because miRNAs are easy to synthesize and deliver, miR-7 could be a potential therapeutic means to macrocephaly caused by Gli3-deficiency.
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Affiliation(s)
- Longbin Zhang
- Center for Precision Medicine, School of Medicine and School of Biomedical Sciences, Huaqiao University, Xiamen, China
| | - Taufif Mubarak
- Department of Cell and Developmental Biology, Weill Cornell Medicine, Cornell University, New York, NY, United States
| | - Yase Chen
- Department of Neurology, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, China
| | - Trevor Lee
- Department of Cell and Developmental Biology, Weill Cornell Medicine, Cornell University, New York, NY, United States
| | - Andrew Pollock
- Department of Cell and Developmental Biology, Weill Cornell Medicine, Cornell University, New York, NY, United States
| | - Tao Sun
- Center for Precision Medicine, School of Medicine and School of Biomedical Sciences, Huaqiao University, Xiamen, China
- Department of Cell and Developmental Biology, Weill Cornell Medicine, Cornell University, New York, NY, United States
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98
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Yabut OR, Pleasure SJ. Sonic Hedgehog Signaling Rises to the Surface: Emerging Roles in Neocortical Development. Brain Plast 2018; 3:119-128. [PMID: 30151337 PMCID: PMC6091060 DOI: 10.3233/bpl-180064] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
The mammalian neocortex is composed of a diverse population of neuronal and glial cells that are crucial for cognition and consciousness. Orchestration of molecular events that lead to the production of distinct cell lineages is now a major research focus. Recent studies in mammalian animal models reveal that Sonic Hedgehog (Shh) signaling plays crucial roles in this process. In this review, we will evaluate these studies and provide insights on how Shh signaling specifically influence cortical development, beyond its established roles in telencephalic patterning, by specifically focusing on its impact on cells derived from the cortical radial glial (RG) cells. We will also assess how these findings further advance our knowledge of neurological diseases and discuss potential roles of targeting Shh signaling in therapies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Odessa R Yabut
- Department of Neurology, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA.,Weill Institute for Neurosciences, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA
| | - Samuel J Pleasure
- Department of Neurology, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA.,Weill Institute for Neurosciences, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA.,Programs in Neuroscience and Developmental Biology, Eli and Edythe Broad Center of Regeneration Medicine and Stem Cell Research, Kavli Institute for Fundamental Neuroscience, University of California San Francisco, CA, USA
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99
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Brain organoids as models to study human neocortex development and evolution. Curr Opin Cell Biol 2018; 55:8-16. [PMID: 30006054 DOI: 10.1016/j.ceb.2018.06.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/28/2018] [Revised: 06/11/2018] [Accepted: 06/14/2018] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Since their recent development, organoids that emulate human brain tissue have allowed in vitro neural development studies to go beyond the limits of monolayer culture systems, such as neural rosettes. We present here a review of organoid studies that focuses on cortical wall development, starting with a technical comparison between pre-patterning and self-patterning brain organoid protocols. We then follow neocortex development in space and time and list those aspects where organoids have succeeded in emulating in vivo development, as well as those aspects that continue to be pending tasks. Finally, we present a summary of medical and evolutionary insight made possible by organoid technology.
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100
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Uzquiano A, Gladwyn-Ng I, Nguyen L, Reiner O, Götz M, Matsuzaki F, Francis F. Cortical progenitor biology: key features mediating proliferation versus differentiation. J Neurochem 2018; 146:500-525. [PMID: 29570795 DOI: 10.1111/jnc.14338] [Citation(s) in RCA: 61] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/28/2017] [Revised: 02/26/2018] [Accepted: 03/08/2018] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
The cerebral cortex is a highly organized structure whose development depends on diverse progenitor cell types, namely apical radial glia, intermediate progenitors, and basal radial glia cells, which are responsible for the production of the correct neuronal output. In recent years, these progenitor cell types have been deeply studied, particularly basal radial glia and their role in cortical expansion and gyrification. We review here a broad series of factors that regulate progenitor behavior and daughter cell fate. We first describe the different neuronal progenitor types, emphasizing the differences between lissencephalic and gyrencephalic species. We then review key factors shown to influence progenitor proliferation versus differentiation, discussing their roles in progenitor dynamics, neuronal production, and potentially brain size and complexity. Although spindle orientation has been considered a critical factor for mode of division and daughter cell output, we discuss other features that are emerging as crucial for these processes such as organelle and cell cycle dynamics. Additionally, we highlight the importance of adhesion molecules and the polarity complex for correct cortical development. Finally, we briefly discuss studies assessing progenitor multipotency and its possible contribution to the production of specific neuronal populations. This review hence summarizes recent aspects of cortical progenitor cell biology, and pinpoints emerging features critical for their behavior.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ana Uzquiano
- INSERM, UMR-S 839, Paris, France.,Sorbonne Université, Université Pierre et Marie Curie, Paris, France.,Institut du Fer à Moulin, Paris, France
| | - Ivan Gladwyn-Ng
- GIGA-Neurosciences, Interdisciplinary Cluster for Applied Genoproteomics (GIGA-R), University of Liège, C.H.U. Sart Tilman, Liège, Belgium
| | - Laurent Nguyen
- GIGA-Neurosciences, Interdisciplinary Cluster for Applied Genoproteomics (GIGA-R), University of Liège, C.H.U. Sart Tilman, Liège, Belgium
| | - Orly Reiner
- Department of Molecular Genetics, Weizmann Institute of Science, Rehovot, Israel
| | - Magdalena Götz
- Physiological Genomics, Biomedical Center, Ludwig Maximilians University Munich, Planegg/Munich, Germany.,Institute for Stem Cell Research, Helmholtz Center Munich, German Research Center for Environmental Health, Neuherberg, Germany.,SYNERGY, Excellence Cluster of Systems Neurology, Biomedical Center, Ludwig-Maximilian University Munich, Planegg/Munich, Germany
| | - Fumio Matsuzaki
- Laboratory for Cell Asymmetry, Center for Developmental Biology, RIKEN Kobe Institute, Kobe, Hyogo, Japan
| | - Fiona Francis
- INSERM, UMR-S 839, Paris, France.,Sorbonne Université, Université Pierre et Marie Curie, Paris, France.,Institut du Fer à Moulin, Paris, France
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