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Koussis K, Withers-Martinez C, Baker DA, Blackman MJ. Simultaneous multiple allelic replacement in the malaria parasite enables dissection of PKG function. Life Sci Alliance 2020; 3:e201900626. [PMID: 32179592 PMCID: PMC7081069 DOI: 10.26508/lsa.201900626] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/09/2019] [Revised: 03/06/2020] [Accepted: 03/09/2020] [Indexed: 01/28/2023] Open
Abstract
Over recent years, a plethora of new genetic tools has transformed conditional engineering of the malaria parasite genome, allowing functional dissection of essential genes in the asexual and sexual blood stages that cause pathology or are required for disease transmission, respectively. Important challenges remain, including the desirability to complement conditional mutants with a correctly regulated second gene copy to confirm that observed phenotypes are due solely to loss of gene function and to analyse structure-function relationships. To meet this challenge, here we combine the dimerisable Cre (DiCre) system with the use of multiple lox sites to simultaneously generate multiple recombination events of the same gene. We focused on the Plasmodium falciparum cGMP-dependent protein kinase (PKG), creating in parallel conditional disruption of the gene plus up to two allelic replacements. We use the approach to demonstrate that PKG has no scaffolding or adaptor role in intraerythrocytic development, acting solely at merozoite egress. We also show that a phosphorylation-deficient PKG is functionally incompetent. Our method provides valuable new tools for analysis of gene function in the malaria parasite.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - David A Baker
- Faculty of Infectious and Tropical Diseases, London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine, London, UK
| | - Michael J Blackman
- Malaria Biochemistry Laboratory, Francis Crick Institute, London, UK
- Faculty of Infectious and Tropical Diseases, London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine, London, UK
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52
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Dans MG, Weiss GE, Wilson DW, Sleebs BE, Crabb BS, de Koning-Ward TF, Gilson PR. Screening the Medicines for Malaria Venture Pathogen Box for invasion and egress inhibitors of the blood stage of Plasmodium falciparum reveals several inhibitory compounds. Int J Parasitol 2020; 50:235-252. [PMID: 32135179 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijpara.2020.01.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/15/2019] [Revised: 12/30/2019] [Accepted: 01/05/2020] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
With emerging resistance to frontline treatments, it is vital that new drugs are identified to target Plasmodium falciparum. One of the most critical processes during parasites asexual lifecycle is the invasion and subsequent egress of red blood cells (RBCs). Many unique parasite ligands, receptors and enzymes are employed during egress and invasion that are essential for parasite proliferation and survival, therefore making these processes druggable targets. To identify potential inhibitors of egress and invasion, we screened the Medicines for Malaria Venture Pathogen Box, a 400 compound library against neglected tropical diseases, including 125 with antimalarial activity. For this screen, we utilised transgenic parasites expressing a bioluminescent reporter, nanoluciferase (Nluc), to measure inhibition of parasite egress and invasion in the presence of the Pathogen Box compounds. At a concentration of 2 µM, we found 15 compounds that inhibited parasite egress by >40% and 24 invasion-specific compounds that inhibited invasion by >90%. We further characterised 11 of these inhibitors through cell-based assays and live cell microscopy, and found two compounds that inhibited merozoite maturation in schizonts, one compound that inhibited merozoite egress, one compound that directly inhibited parasite invasion and one compound that slowed down invasion and arrested ring formation. The remaining compounds were general growth inhibitors that acted during the egress and invasion phase of the cell cycle. We found the sulfonylpiperazine, MMV020291, to be the most invasion-specific inhibitor, blocking successful merozoite internalisation within human RBCs and having no substantial effect on other stages of the cell cycle. This has significant implications for the possible development of an invasion-specific inhibitor as an antimalarial in a combination based therapy, in addition to being a useful tool for studying the biology of the invading parasite.
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Affiliation(s)
- Madeline G Dans
- Burnet Institute, Melbourne, Victoria 3004, Australia; School of Medicine, Deakin University, Waurn Ponds, Victoria 3216, Australia.
| | - Greta E Weiss
- Burnet Institute, Melbourne, Victoria 3004, Australia
| | - Danny W Wilson
- Research Centre for Infectious Diseases, The University of Adelaide, Adelaide, South Australia 5005, Australia; Burnet Institute, Melbourne, Victoria 3004, Australia
| | - Brad E Sleebs
- Walter and Eliza Hall Institute, Parkville, Victoria 3052, Australia; The University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria 3010, Australia
| | - Brendan S Crabb
- Burnet Institute, Melbourne, Victoria 3004, Australia; The University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria 3010, Australia
| | | | - Paul R Gilson
- Burnet Institute, Melbourne, Victoria 3004, Australia.
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53
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Rosenthal PJ. Falcipain cysteine proteases of malaria parasites: An update. BIOCHIMICA ET BIOPHYSICA ACTA-PROTEINS AND PROTEOMICS 2020; 1868:140362. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bbapap.2020.140362] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/27/2019] [Revised: 01/04/2020] [Accepted: 01/07/2020] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
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54
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An Endoplasmic Reticulum CREC Family Protein Regulates the Egress Proteolytic Cascade in Malaria Parasites. mBio 2020; 11:mBio.03078-19. [PMID: 32098818 PMCID: PMC7042697 DOI: 10.1128/mbio.03078-19] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is thought to play an essential role during egress of malaria parasites because the ER is assumed to be required for biogenesis and secretion of egress-related organelles. However, no proteins localized to the parasite ER have been shown to play a role in egress of malaria parasites. In this study, we generated conditional mutants of the Plasmodium falciparum endoplasmic reticulum-resident calcium-binding protein (PfERC), a member of the CREC family. Knockdown of the PfERC gene showed that this gene is essential for asexual growth of P. falciparum Analysis of the intraerythrocytic life cycle revealed that PfERC is essential for parasite egress but is not required for protein trafficking or calcium storage. We found that PfERC knockdown prevents the rupture of the parasitophorous vacuole membrane. This is because PfERC knockdown inhibited the proteolytic maturation of the subtilisin-like serine protease SUB1. Using double mutant parasites, we showed that PfERC is required for the proteolytic maturation of the essential aspartic protease plasmepsin X, which is required for SUB1 cleavage. Further, we showed that processing of substrates downstream of the proteolytic cascade is inhibited by PfERC knockdown. Thus, these data establish that the ER-resident CREC family protein PfERC is a key early regulator of the egress proteolytic cascade of malaria parasites.IMPORTANCE The divergent eukaryotic parasites that cause malaria grow and divide within a vacuole inside a host cell, which they have to break open once they finish cell division. The egress of daughter parasites requires the activation of a proteolytic cascade, and a subtilisin-like protease initiates a proteolytic cascade to break down the membranes blocking egress. It is assumed that the parasite endoplasmic reticulum plays a role in this process, but the proteins in this organelle required for egress remain unknown. We have identified an early ER-resident regulator essential for the maturation of the recently discovered aspartic protease in the egress proteolytic cascade, plasmepsin X, which is required for maturation of the subtilisin-like protease. Conditional loss of PfERC results in the formation of immature and inactive egress proteases that are unable to breakdown the vacuolar membrane barring release of daughter parasites.
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55
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Old and Recent Advances in Life Cycle, Pathogenesis, Diagnosis, Prevention, and Treatment of Malaria Including Perspectives in Ethiopia. ScientificWorldJournal 2020. [DOI: 10.1155/2020/1295381] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Malaria, caused by apicomplexan parasite, is an old disease and continues to be a major public health threat in many countries. This article aims to present different aspects of malaria including causes, pathogenesis, prevention, and treatment in an articulate and comprehensive manner. Six Plasmodium species are recognized as the etiology of human malaria, of which Plasmodium falciparum is popular in East and Southern Africa. Malaria is transmitted mainly through Anopheles gambiae and Anopheles funestus, the two most effective malaria vectors in the world. Half of the world’s population is at risk for malaria infection. Globally, the morbidity and mortality rates of malaria have become decreased even though few reports in Ethiopia showed high prevalence of malaria. The malaria parasite has a complex life cycle that takes place both inside the mosquito and human beings. Generally, diagnosis of malaria is classified into clinical and parasitological diagnoses. Lack of clear understanding on the overall biology of Plasmodium has created a challenge in an effort to develop new drugs, vaccines, and preventive methods against malaria. However, three types of vaccines and a lot of novel compounds are under perclinical and clinical studies that are triggered by the occurrence of resistance among commonly used drugs and insecticides. Antiadhesion adjunctive therapies are also under investigation in the laboratory. In addition to previously known targets for diagnostic tool, vaccine and drug discovery scientists from all corner of the world are in search of new targets and chemical entities.
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56
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Nessel T, Beck JM, Rayatpisheh S, Jami-Alahmadi Y, Wohlschlegel JA, Goldberg DE, Beck JR. EXP1 is required for organisation of EXP2 in the intraerythrocytic malaria parasite vacuole. Cell Microbiol 2020; 22:e13168. [PMID: 31990132 DOI: 10.1111/cmi.13168] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/30/2019] [Revised: 12/04/2019] [Accepted: 01/07/2020] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Intraerythrocytic malaria parasites reside within a parasitophorous vacuole membrane (PVM) that closely overlays the parasite plasma membrane. Although the PVM is the site of several transport activities essential to parasite survival, the basis for organisation of this membrane system is unknown. Here, we performed proximity labeling at the PVM with BioID2, which highlighted a group of single-pass integral membrane proteins that constitute a major component of the PVM proteome but whose function remains unclear. We investigated EXP1, the longest known member of this group, by adapting a CRISPR/Cpf1 genome editing system to install the TetR-DOZI-aptamers system for conditional translational control. Importantly, although EXP1 was required for intraerythrocytic development, a previously reported in vitro glutathione S-transferase activity could not account for this essential EXP1 function in vivo. EXP1 knockdown was accompanied by profound changes in vacuole ultrastructure, including apparent increased separation of the PVM from the parasite plasma membrane and formation of abnormal membrane structures. Furthermore, although activity of the Plasmodium translocon of exported proteins was not impacted by depletion of EXP1, the distribution of the translocon pore-forming protein EXP2 but not the HSP101 unfoldase was substantially altered. Collectively, our results reveal a novel PVM defect that indicates a critical role for EXP1 in maintaining proper organisation of EXP2 within the PVM.
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Affiliation(s)
- Timothy Nessel
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Iowa State University, Ames, Iowa
| | - John M Beck
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Iowa State University, Ames, Iowa
| | - Shima Rayatpisheh
- Department of Biological Chemistry, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, California
| | - Yasaman Jami-Alahmadi
- Department of Biological Chemistry, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, California
| | - James A Wohlschlegel
- Department of Biological Chemistry, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, California
| | - Daniel E Goldberg
- Departments of Medicine and Molecular Microbiology, Washington University, St. Louis, Missouri
| | - Josh R Beck
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Iowa State University, Ames, Iowa.,Departments of Medicine and Molecular Microbiology, Washington University, St. Louis, Missouri
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57
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Birrell GW, Challis MP, De Paoli A, Anderson D, Devine SM, Heffernan GD, Jacobus DP, Edstein MD, Siddiqui G, Creek DJ. Multi-omic Characterization of the Mode of Action of a Potent New Antimalarial Compound, JPC-3210, Against Plasmodium falciparum. Mol Cell Proteomics 2020; 19:308-325. [PMID: 31836637 PMCID: PMC7000111 DOI: 10.1074/mcp.ra119.001797] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/01/2019] [Revised: 11/17/2019] [Indexed: 01/22/2023] Open
Abstract
The increasing incidence of antimalarial drug resistance to the first-line artemisinin combination therapies underpins an urgent need for new antimalarial drugs, ideally with a novel mode of action. The recently developed 2-aminomethylphenol, JPC-3210, (MMV 892646) is an erythrocytic schizonticide with potent in vitro antimalarial activity against multidrug-resistant Plasmodium falciparum lines, low cytotoxicity, potent in vivo efficacy against murine malaria, and favorable preclinical pharmacokinetics including a lengthy plasma elimination half-life. To investigate the impact of JPC-3210 on biochemical pathways within P. falciparum-infected red blood cells, we have applied a "multi-omics" workflow based on high resolution orbitrap mass spectrometry combined with biochemical approaches. Metabolomics, peptidomics and hemoglobin fractionation analyses revealed a perturbation in hemoglobin metabolism following JPC-3210 exposure. The metabolomics data demonstrated a specific depletion of short hemoglobin-derived peptides, peptidomics analysis revealed a depletion of longer hemoglobin-derived peptides, and the hemoglobin fractionation assay demonstrated decreases in hemoglobin, heme and hemozoin levels. To further elucidate the mechanism responsible for inhibition of hemoglobin metabolism, we used in vitro β-hematin polymerization assays and showed JPC-3210 to be an intermediate inhibitor of β-hematin polymerization, about 10-fold less potent then the quinoline antimalarials, such as chloroquine and mefloquine. Further, quantitative proteomics analysis showed that JPC-3210 treatment results in a distinct proteomic signature compared with other known antimalarials. While JPC-3210 clustered closely with mefloquine in the metabolomics and proteomics analyses, a key differentiating signature for JPC-3210 was the significant enrichment of parasite proteins involved in regulation of translation. These studies revealed that the mode of action for JPC-3210 involves inhibition of the hemoglobin digestion pathway and elevation of regulators of protein translation. Importantly, JPC-3210 demonstrated rapid parasite killing kinetics compared with other quinolones, suggesting that JPC-3210 warrants further investigation as a potentially long acting partner drug for malaria treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Geoffrey W Birrell
- Australian Defense Force Malaria and Infectious Disease Institute, Brisbane, Australia
| | - Matthew P Challis
- Monash Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Monash University, Parkville, Australia
| | - Amanda De Paoli
- Monash Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Monash University, Parkville, Australia
| | - Dovile Anderson
- Monash Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Monash University, Parkville, Australia
| | - Shane M Devine
- Monash Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Monash University, Parkville, Australia
| | | | | | - Michael D Edstein
- Australian Defense Force Malaria and Infectious Disease Institute, Brisbane, Australia
| | - Ghizal Siddiqui
- Monash Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Monash University, Parkville, Australia.
| | - Darren J Creek
- Monash Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Monash University, Parkville, Australia
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58
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Goldberg DE, Zimmerberg J. Hardly Vacuous: The Parasitophorous Vacuolar Membrane of Malaria Parasites. Trends Parasitol 2020; 36:138-146. [PMID: 31866184 PMCID: PMC6937376 DOI: 10.1016/j.pt.2019.11.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/01/2019] [Revised: 11/27/2019] [Accepted: 11/28/2019] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
When a malaria parasite invades a host erythrocyte it pushes itself in and invaginates a portion of the host membrane, thereby sealing itself inside and establishing itself in the resulting vacuole. The parasitophorous vacuolar membrane (PVM) that surrounds the parasite is modified by the parasite, using its secretory organelles. To survive within this enveloping membrane, the organism must take in nutrients, secrete wastes, export proteins into the host cell, and eventually egress. Here, we review current understanding of the unique solutions Plasmodium has evolved to these challenges and discuss the remaining questions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel E Goldberg
- Departments of Medicine and Molecular Microbiology, Washington University School of Medicine, St Louis, MO, USA.
| | - Joshua Zimmerberg
- Section on Integrative Biophysics, Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, USA.
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59
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The parasitophorous vacuole of the blood-stage malaria parasite. Nat Rev Microbiol 2020; 18:379-391. [PMID: 31980807 DOI: 10.1038/s41579-019-0321-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 12/13/2019] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
The pathology of malaria is caused by infection of red blood cells with unicellular Plasmodium parasites. During blood-stage development, the parasite replicates within a membrane-bound parasitophorous vacuole. A central nexus for host-parasite interactions, this unique parasite shelter functions in nutrient acquisition, subcompartmentalization and the export of virulence factors, making its functional molecules attractive targets for the development of novel intervention strategies to combat the devastating impact of malaria. In this Review, we explore the origin, development, molecular composition and functions of the parasitophorous vacuole of Plasmodium blood stages. We also discuss the relevance of the malaria parasite's intravacuolar lifestyle for successful erythrocyte infection and provide perspectives for future research directions in parasitophorous vacuole biology.
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60
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Batista FA, Gyau B, Vilacha JF, Bosch SS, Lunev S, Wrenger C, Groves MR. New directions in antimalarial target validation. Expert Opin Drug Discov 2020; 15:189-202. [PMID: 31959021 DOI: 10.1080/17460441.2020.1691996] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Abstract
Introduction: Malaria is one of the most prevalent human infections worldwide with over 40% of the world's population living in malaria-endemic areas. In the absence of an effective vaccine, emergence of drug-resistant strains requires urgent drug development. Current methods applied to drug target validation, a crucial step in drug discovery, possess limitations in malaria. These constraints require the development of techniques capable of simplifying the validation of Plasmodial targets.Areas covered: The authors review the current state of the art in techniques used to validate drug targets in malaria, including our contribution - the protein interference assay (PIA) - as an additional tool in rapid in vivo target validation.Expert opinion: Each technique in this review has advantages and disadvantages, implying that future validation efforts should not focus on a single approach, but integrate multiple approaches. PIA is a significant addition to the current toolset of antimalarial validation. Validation of aspartate metabolism as a druggable pathway provided proof of concept of how oligomeric interfaces can be exploited to control specific activity in vivo. PIA has the potential to be applied not only to other enzymes/pathways of the malaria parasite but could, in principle, be extrapolated to other infectious diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fernando A Batista
- Structural Biology Unit, XB20 Drug Design, Department of Pharmacy, University of Groningen, Groningen, The Netherlands.,Unit for Drug Discovery, Department of Parasitology, Institute of Biomedical Sciences, University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Benjamin Gyau
- Structural Biology Unit, XB20 Drug Design, Department of Pharmacy, University of Groningen, Groningen, The Netherlands
| | - Juliana F Vilacha
- Structural Biology Unit, XB20 Drug Design, Department of Pharmacy, University of Groningen, Groningen, The Netherlands
| | - Soraya S Bosch
- Structural Biology Unit, XB20 Drug Design, Department of Pharmacy, University of Groningen, Groningen, The Netherlands.,Unit for Drug Discovery, Department of Parasitology, Institute of Biomedical Sciences, University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Sergey Lunev
- Structural Biology Unit, XB20 Drug Design, Department of Pharmacy, University of Groningen, Groningen, The Netherlands
| | - Carsten Wrenger
- Unit for Drug Discovery, Department of Parasitology, Institute of Biomedical Sciences, University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Matthew R Groves
- Structural Biology Unit, XB20 Drug Design, Department of Pharmacy, University of Groningen, Groningen, The Netherlands
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61
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Tan MSY, Davison D, Sanchez MI, Anderson BM, Howell S, Snijders A, Edgington-Mitchell LE, Deu E. Novel broad-spectrum activity-based probes to profile malarial cysteine proteases. PLoS One 2020; 15:e0227341. [PMID: 31923258 PMCID: PMC6953825 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0227341] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/14/2019] [Accepted: 12/17/2019] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Clan CA cysteine proteases, also known as papain-like proteases, play important roles throughout the malaria parasite life cycle and are therefore potential drug targets to treat this disease and prevent its transmission. In order to study the biological function of these proteases and to chemically validate some of them as viable drug targets, highly specific inhibitors need to be developed. This is especially challenging given the large number of clan CA proteases present in Plasmodium species (ten in Plasmodium falciparum), and the difficulty of designing selective inhibitors that do not cross-react with other members of the same family. Additionally, any efforts to develop antimalarial drugs targeting these proteases will also have to take into account potential off-target effects against the 11 human cysteine cathepsins. Activity-based protein profiling has been a very useful tool to determine the specificity of inhibitors against all members of an enzyme family. However, current clan CA proteases broad-spectrum activity-based probes either target endopeptidases or dipeptidyl aminopeptidases, but not both subfamilies efficiently. In this study, we present a new series of dipeptydic vinyl sulfone probes containing a free N-terminal tryptophan and a fluorophore at the P1 position that are able to label both subfamilies efficiently, both in Plasmodium falciparum and in mammalian cells, thus making them better broad-spectrum activity-based probes. We also show that some of these probes are cell permeable and can therefore be used to determine the specificity of inhibitors in living cells. Interestingly, we show that the choice of fluorophore greatly influences the specificity of the probes as well as their cell permeability.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Dara Davison
- The Francis Crick Institute, London, United Kingdom
| | - Mateo I. Sanchez
- Department of Genetics, Stanford School of Medicine, Stanford, California, United States of America
| | - Bethany M. Anderson
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Bio21 Molecular Science and Biotechnology Institute, The University of Melbourne, Parkville Victoria, Australia
| | | | | | - Laura E. Edgington-Mitchell
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Bio21 Molecular Science and Biotechnology Institute, The University of Melbourne, Parkville Victoria, Australia
- Drug Discovery Biology, Monash Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Monash University, Parkville, Victoria, Australia
- Department of Maxillofacial Surgery, College of Dentistry, New York University, New York, New York, United States of America
| | - Edgar Deu
- The Francis Crick Institute, London, United Kingdom
- * E-mail:
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62
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Blomqvist K, Helmel M, Wang C, Absalon S, Labunska T, Rudlaff RM, Adapa S, Jiang R, Steen H, Dvorin JD. Influence of Plasmodium falciparum Calcium-Dependent Protein Kinase 5 (PfCDPK5) on the Late Schizont Stage Phosphoproteome. mSphere 2020; 5:e00921-19. [PMID: 31915223 PMCID: PMC6952208 DOI: 10.1128/msphere.00921-19] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/07/2019] [Accepted: 12/10/2019] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
Protein kinases are important mediators of signal transduction in cellular pathways, and calcium-dependent protein kinases (CDPKs) compose a unique class of calcium-dependent kinases present in plants and apicomplexans, including Plasmodium parasites, the causative agents of malaria. During the asexual stage of infection, the human malaria parasite Plasmodium falciparum grows inside red blood cells, and P. falciparum calcium-dependent protein kinase 5 (PfCDPK5) is required for egress from the host cell. In this paper, we characterize the late-schizont-stage P. falciparum phosphoproteome by performing large-scale phosphoproteomic profiling on tightly synchronized parasites just prior to egress, identifying 2,704 phosphorylation sites on 919 proteins. Using a conditional knockdown of PfCDPK5, we identify 58 phosphorylation sites on 50 proteins with significant reduction in levels of PfCDPK5-deficient parasites. Furthermore, gene ontology analysis of the identified proteins reveals enrichment in transmembrane- and membrane-associated proteins and in proteins associated with transport activity. Among the identified proteins is PfNPT1, a member of the apicomplexan-specific novel putative transporter (NPT) family of proteins. We show that PfNPT1 is a potential substrate of PfCDPK5 and that PfNPT1 localizes to the parasite plasma membrane. Importantly, P. falciparum egress relies on many proteins unique to Apicomplexa that are therefore attractive targets for antimalarial therapeutics.IMPORTANCE The malaria parasite Plasmodium falciparum is a major cause of morbidity and mortality globally. The P. falciparum parasite proliferates inside red blood cells during the blood stage of infection, and egress from the red blood cell is critical for parasite survival. P. falciparum calcium-dependent protein kinase 5 (PfCDPK5) is essential for egress; parasites deficient in PfCDPK5 remain trapped inside their host cells. We have used a label-free quantitative mass spectrometry approach to identify the phosphoproteome of schizont-stage parasites just prior to egress and identify 50 proteins that display a significant reduction in phosphorylation in PfCDPK5-deficient parasites. We show that a member of the Apicomplexan-specific transport protein family, PfNPT1 is a potential substrate of PfCDPK5 and is localized to the parasite plasma membrane. P. falciparum egress requires several proteins not present in human cells, thus making this pathway an ideal target for new therapeutics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Karin Blomqvist
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Boston Children's Hospital, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
- Department of Pediatrics, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
- Department of Microbiology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
- Department of Microbiology, Tumor and Cell Biology, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Michaela Helmel
- Department of Pathology, Boston Children's Hospital, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
- Department of Pathology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Chengqi Wang
- Center for Global Health & Infectious Diseases Research, Department of Global Health, College of Public Health, University of South Florida, Tampa, Florida, USA
| | - Sabrina Absalon
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Boston Children's Hospital, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
- Department of Pediatrics, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
- Department of Microbiology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Tetanya Labunska
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Boston Children's Hospital, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
- Department of Pediatrics, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
- Department of Microbiology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Rachel M Rudlaff
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Boston Children's Hospital, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
- Department of Pediatrics, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
- Department of Microbiology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Swamy Adapa
- Center for Global Health & Infectious Diseases Research, Department of Global Health, College of Public Health, University of South Florida, Tampa, Florida, USA
| | - Rays Jiang
- Center for Global Health & Infectious Diseases Research, Department of Global Health, College of Public Health, University of South Florida, Tampa, Florida, USA
| | - Hanno Steen
- Department of Pathology, Boston Children's Hospital, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
- Department of Pathology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Jeffrey D Dvorin
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Boston Children's Hospital, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
- Department of Pediatrics, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
- Department of Microbiology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
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63
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Sherling ES, Perrin AJ, Knuepfer E, Russell MRG, Collinson LM, Miller LH, Blackman MJ. The Plasmodium falciparum rhoptry bulb protein RAMA plays an essential role in rhoptry neck morphogenesis and host red blood cell invasion. PLoS Pathog 2019; 15:e1008049. [PMID: 31491036 PMCID: PMC6750612 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1008049] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/27/2019] [Revised: 09/18/2019] [Accepted: 08/27/2019] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
The malaria parasite Plasmodium falciparum invades, replicates within and destroys red blood cells in an asexual blood stage life cycle that is responsible for clinical disease and crucial for parasite propagation. Invasive malaria merozoites possess a characteristic apical complex of secretory organelles that are discharged in a tightly controlled and highly regulated order during merozoite egress and host cell invasion. The most prominent of these organelles, the rhoptries, are twinned, club-shaped structures with a body or bulb region that tapers to a narrow neck as it meets the apical prominence of the merozoite. Different protein populations localise to the rhoptry bulb and neck, but the function of many of these proteins and how they are spatially segregated within the rhoptries is unknown. Using conditional disruption of the gene encoding the only known glycolipid-anchored malarial rhoptry bulb protein, rhoptry-associated membrane antigen (RAMA), we demonstrate that RAMA is indispensable for blood stage parasite survival. Contrary to previous suggestions, RAMA is not required for trafficking of all rhoptry bulb proteins. Instead, RAMA-null parasites display selective mislocalisation of a subset of rhoptry bulb and neck proteins (RONs) and produce dysmorphic rhoptries that lack a distinct neck region. The mutant parasites undergo normal intracellular development and egress but display a fatal defect in invasion and do not induce echinocytosis in target red blood cells. Our results indicate that distinct pathways regulate biogenesis of the two main rhoptry sub-compartments in the malaria parasite. Despite improved control measures over recent decades, malaria is still a considerable health burden across much of the globe. The disease is caused by a single-celled parasite that invades and replicates within host cells. During invasion, the parasite discharges a set of flask-shaped secretory organelles called rhoptries, the contents of which are crucial for invasion as well as for modifications to the host cell that are important for parasite survival. Rhoptry discharge occurs through fusion of the relatively elongated rhoptry neck to the apical surface of the parasite. Different proteins reside within the bulbous rhoptry body and the neck regions, but how these proteins are selectively sent to their correct sub-compartments within the rhoptries and how the rhoptries are formed, is poorly understood. Here we show that a malaria parasite rhoptry bulb protein called rhoptry-associated membrane antigen (RAMA) plays an essential role in rhoptry neck formation and correct trafficking of certain rhoptry neck and bulb proteins. Parasites deficient in RAMA produce malformed rhoptries and–probably as a result—cannot invade host red blood cells. Our work sheds new light on how rhoptries are formed and reveals insights into the mechanism by which the correct sorting of proteins to distinct regions of the rhoptry is regulated.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emma S. Sherling
- Malaria Biochemistry Laboratory, The Francis Crick Institute, London, United Kingdom
| | - Abigail J. Perrin
- Malaria Biochemistry Laboratory, The Francis Crick Institute, London, United Kingdom
| | - Ellen Knuepfer
- Malaria Parasitology Laboratory, The Francis Crick Institute, London, United Kingdom
| | - Matthew R. G. Russell
- Electron Microscopy Science Technology Platform, The Francis Crick Institute, London, United Kingdom
| | - Lucy M. Collinson
- Electron Microscopy Science Technology Platform, The Francis Crick Institute, London, United Kingdom
| | - Louis H. Miller
- Laboratory of Malaria and Vector Research, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Rockville, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Michael J. Blackman
- Malaria Biochemistry Laboratory, The Francis Crick Institute, London, United Kingdom
- Faculty of Infectious and Tropical Diseases, London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine, London, United Kingdom
- * E-mail:
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64
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Host Cytoskeleton Remodeling throughout the Blood Stages of Plasmodium falciparum. Microbiol Mol Biol Rev 2019; 83:83/4/e00013-19. [PMID: 31484690 DOI: 10.1128/mmbr.00013-19] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
The asexual intraerythrocytic development of Plasmodium falciparum, causing the most severe form of human malaria, is marked by extensive host cell remodeling. Throughout the processes of invasion, intracellular development, and egress, the erythrocyte membrane skeleton is remodeled by the parasite as required for each specific developmental stage. The remodeling is facilitated by a plethora of exported parasite proteins, and the erythrocyte membrane skeleton is the interface of most of the observed interactions between the parasite and host cell proteins. Host cell remodeling has been extensively described and there is a vast body of information on protein export or the description of parasite-induced structures such as Maurer's clefts or knobs on the host cell surface. Here we specifically review the molecular level of each host cell-remodeling step at each stage of the intraerythrocytic development of P. falciparum We describe key events, such as invasion, knob formation, and egress, and identify the interactions between exported parasite proteins and the host cell cytoskeleton. We discuss each remodeling step with respect to time and specific requirement of the developing parasite to explain host cell remodeling in a stage-specific manner. Thus, we highlight the interaction with the host membrane skeleton as a key event in parasite survival.
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65
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Pace T, Grasso F, Camarda G, Suarez C, Blackman MJ, Ponzi M, Olivieri A. The Plasmodium berghei serine protease PbSUB1 plays an important role in male gamete egress. Cell Microbiol 2019; 21:e13028. [PMID: 30941868 PMCID: PMC6766862 DOI: 10.1111/cmi.13028] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/26/2018] [Revised: 03/07/2019] [Accepted: 03/28/2019] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
Abstract
The Plasmodium subtilisin-like serine protease SUB1 is expressed in hepatic and both asexual and sexual blood parasite stages. SUB1 is required for egress of invasive forms of the parasite from both erythrocytes and hepatocytes, but its subcellular localisation, function, and potential substrates in the sexual stages are unknown. Here, we have characterised the expression profile and subcellular localisation of SUB1 in Plasmodium berghei sexual stages. We show that the protease is selectively expressed in mature male gametocytes and localises to secretory organelles known to be involved in gamete egress, called male osmiophilic bodies. We have investigated PbSUB1 function in the sexual stages by generating P. berghei transgenic lines deficient in PbSUB1 expression or enzyme activity in gametocytes. Our results demonstrate that PbSUB1 plays a role in male gamete egress. We also show for the first time that the PbSUB1 substrate PbSERA3 is expressed in gametocytes and processed by PbSUB1 upon gametocyte activation. Taken together, our results strongly suggest that PbSUB1 is not only a promising drug target for asexual stages but could also be an attractive malaria transmission-blocking target.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tomasino Pace
- Dipartimento di Malattie InfettiveIstituto Superiore di SanitàRomeItaly
| | - Felicia Grasso
- Dipartimento di Malattie InfettiveIstituto Superiore di SanitàRomeItaly
| | - Grazia Camarda
- Dipartimento di Malattie InfettiveIstituto Superiore di SanitàRomeItaly
| | - Catherine Suarez
- Malaria Biochemistry LaboratoryThe Francis Crick InstituteLondonUK
| | - Michael J. Blackman
- Malaria Biochemistry LaboratoryThe Francis Crick InstituteLondonUK
- Faculty of Infectious and Tropical DiseasesLondon School of Hygiene and Tropical MedicineLondonUK
| | - Marta Ponzi
- Dipartimento di Malattie InfettiveIstituto Superiore di SanitàRomeItaly
| | - Anna Olivieri
- Dipartimento di Malattie InfettiveIstituto Superiore di SanitàRomeItaly
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66
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Kudyba HM, Cobb DW, Fierro MA, Florentin A, Ljolje D, Singh B, Lucchi NW, Muralidharan V. The endoplasmic reticulum chaperone PfGRP170 is essential for asexual development and is linked to stress response in malaria parasites. Cell Microbiol 2019; 21:e13042. [PMID: 31087747 PMCID: PMC6699899 DOI: 10.1111/cmi.13042] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/20/2018] [Revised: 04/09/2019] [Accepted: 05/09/2019] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
The vast majority of malaria mortality is attributed to one parasite species: Plasmodium falciparum. Asexual replication of the parasite within the red blood cell is responsible for the pathology of the disease. In Plasmodium, the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is a central hub for protein folding and trafficking as well as stress response pathways. In this study, we tested the role of an uncharacterised ER protein, PfGRP170, in regulating these key functions by generating conditional mutants. Our data show that PfGRP170 localises to the ER and is essential for asexual growth, specifically required for proper development of schizonts. PfGRP170 is essential for surviving heat shock, suggesting a critical role in cellular stress response. The data demonstrate that PfGRP170 interacts with the Plasmodium orthologue of the ER chaperone, BiP. Finally, we found that loss of PfGRP170 function leads to the activation of the Plasmodium eIF2α kinase, PK4, suggesting a specific role for this protein in this parasite stress response pathway.
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Affiliation(s)
- Heather M Kudyba
- Center for Tropical and Emerging Global Diseases, University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia.,Department of Cellular Biology, University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia
| | - David W Cobb
- Center for Tropical and Emerging Global Diseases, University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia.,Department of Cellular Biology, University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia
| | - Manuel A Fierro
- Center for Tropical and Emerging Global Diseases, University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia.,Department of Cellular Biology, University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia
| | - Anat Florentin
- Center for Tropical and Emerging Global Diseases, University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia
| | - Dragan Ljolje
- Malaria Branch and Division of Parasitic Diseases and Malaria, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia
| | - Balwan Singh
- Malaria Branch and Division of Parasitic Diseases and Malaria, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia
| | - Naomi W Lucchi
- Malaria Branch and Division of Parasitic Diseases and Malaria, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia
| | - Vasant Muralidharan
- Center for Tropical and Emerging Global Diseases, University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia.,Department of Cellular Biology, University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia
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67
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Patel A, Perrin AJ, Flynn HR, Bisson C, Withers-Martinez C, Treeck M, Flueck C, Nicastro G, Martin SR, Ramos A, Gilberger TW, Snijders AP, Blackman MJ, Baker DA. Cyclic AMP signalling controls key components of malaria parasite host cell invasion machinery. PLoS Biol 2019; 17:e3000264. [PMID: 31075098 PMCID: PMC6530879 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pbio.3000264] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/07/2019] [Revised: 05/22/2019] [Accepted: 04/26/2019] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Cyclic AMP (cAMP) is an important signalling molecule across evolution, but its role in malaria parasites is poorly understood. We have investigated the role of cAMP in asexual blood stage development of Plasmodium falciparum through conditional disruption of adenylyl cyclase beta (ACβ) and its downstream effector, cAMP-dependent protein kinase (PKA). We show that both production of cAMP and activity of PKA are critical for erythrocyte invasion, whilst key developmental steps that precede invasion still take place in the absence of cAMP-dependent signalling. We also show that another parasite protein with putative cyclic nucleotide binding sites, Plasmodium falciparum EPAC (PfEpac), does not play an essential role in blood stages. We identify and quantify numerous sites, phosphorylation of which is dependent on cAMP signalling, and we provide mechanistic insight as to how cAMP-dependent phosphorylation of the cytoplasmic domain of the essential invasion adhesin apical membrane antigen 1 (AMA1) regulates erythrocyte invasion.
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Affiliation(s)
- Avnish Patel
- Faculty of Infectious Diseases, London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine, London, United Kingdom
| | - Abigail J. Perrin
- Malaria Biochemistry Laboratory, The Francis Crick Institute, London, United Kingdom
| | - Helen R. Flynn
- Mass Spectrometry Proteomics Platform, The Francis Crick Institute, London, United Kingdom
| | - Claudine Bisson
- Crystallography, Institute of Structural and Molecular Biology, Birkbeck College, London, United Kingdom
| | | | - Moritz Treeck
- Signalling in Apicomplexan Parasites Laboratory, The Francis Crick Institute, London, United Kingdom
| | - Christian Flueck
- Faculty of Infectious Diseases, London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine, London, United Kingdom
| | - Giuseppe Nicastro
- Macromolecular Structure Laboratory, The Francis Crick Institute, London, United Kingdom
| | - Stephen R. Martin
- Macromolecular Structure Laboratory, The Francis Crick Institute, London, United Kingdom
| | - Andres Ramos
- Institute of Structural and Molecular Biology, University College London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Tim W. Gilberger
- Bernhard-Nocht Institute for Tropical Medicine, Hamburg, Germany
| | - Ambrosius P. Snijders
- Mass Spectrometry Proteomics Platform, The Francis Crick Institute, London, United Kingdom
| | - Michael J. Blackman
- Faculty of Infectious Diseases, London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine, London, United Kingdom
- Malaria Biochemistry Laboratory, The Francis Crick Institute, London, United Kingdom
| | - David A. Baker
- Faculty of Infectious Diseases, London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine, London, United Kingdom
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68
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Dubois DJ, Soldati-Favre D. Biogenesis and secretion of micronemes in Toxoplasma gondii. Cell Microbiol 2019; 21:e13018. [PMID: 30791192 DOI: 10.1111/cmi.13018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 61] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/08/2018] [Revised: 02/11/2019] [Accepted: 02/17/2019] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
One of the hallmarks of the parasitic phylum of Apicomplexa is the presence of highly specialised, apical secretory organelles, called the micronemes and rhoptries that play critical roles in ensuring survival and dissemination. Upon exocytosis, the micronemes release adhesin complexes, perforins, and proteases that are crucially implicated in egress from infected cells, gliding motility, migration across biological barriers, and host cell invasion. Recent studies on Toxoplasma gondii and Plasmodium species have shed more light on the signalling events and the machinery that trigger microneme secretion. Intracellular cyclic nucleotides, calcium level, and phosphatidic acid act as key mediators of microneme exocytosis, and several downstream effectors have been identified. Here, we review the key steps of microneme biogenesis and exocytosis, summarising the still fractal knowledge at the molecular level regarding the fusion event with the parasite plasma membrane.
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Affiliation(s)
- David J Dubois
- Department of Microbiology and Molecular Medicine, University of Geneva CMU, Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Dominique Soldati-Favre
- Department of Microbiology and Molecular Medicine, University of Geneva CMU, Geneva, Switzerland
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69
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Mishra M, Singh V, Singh S. Structural Insights Into Key Plasmodium Proteases as Therapeutic Drug Targets. Front Microbiol 2019; 10:394. [PMID: 30891019 PMCID: PMC6411711 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2019.00394] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/11/2018] [Accepted: 02/14/2019] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Malaria, caused by protozoan of genus Plasmodium, remains one of the highest mortality infectious diseases. Malaria parasites have a complex life cycle, easily adapt to their host’s immune system and have evolved with an arsenal of unique proteases which play crucial roles in proliferation and survival within the host cells. Owing to the existing knowledge of enzymatic mechanisms, 3D structures and active sites of proteases, they have been proven to be opportune for target based drug development. Here, we discuss in depth the crucial roles of essential proteases in Plasmodium life cycle and particularly focus on highlighting the atypical “structural signatures” of key parasite proteases which have been exploited for drug development. These features, on one hand aid parasites pathogenicity while on the other hand could be effective in designing targeted and very specific inhibitors for counteracting them. We conclude that Plasmodium proteases are suitable as multistage targets for designing novel drugs with new modes of action to combat malaria.
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Affiliation(s)
- Manasi Mishra
- Department of Life Sciences, School of Natural Sciences, Shiv Nadar University, Dadri, India
| | - Vigyasa Singh
- Special Centre for Molecular Medicine, Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi, India
| | - Shailja Singh
- Department of Life Sciences, School of Natural Sciences, Shiv Nadar University, Dadri, India.,Special Centre for Molecular Medicine, Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi, India
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70
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Anti-bacterial susceptibility profiling of Weissella confusa DD_A7 against the multidrug-resistant ESBL-positive E. coli. Microb Pathog 2019; 128:119-130. [DOI: 10.1016/j.micpath.2018.12.048] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/08/2018] [Revised: 11/19/2018] [Accepted: 12/28/2018] [Indexed: 01/27/2023]
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71
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Zogota R, Kinena L, Withers-Martinez C, Blackman MJ, Bobrovs R, Pantelejevs T, Kanepe-Lapsa I, Ozola V, Jaudzems K, Suna E, Jirgensons A. Peptidomimetic plasmepsin inhibitors with potent anti-malarial activity and selectivity against cathepsin D. Eur J Med Chem 2018; 163:344-352. [PMID: 30529637 PMCID: PMC6336538 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejmech.2018.11.068] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/17/2018] [Revised: 11/26/2018] [Accepted: 11/28/2018] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
Following up the open initiative of anti-malarial drug discovery, a GlaxoSmithKline (GSK) phenotypic screening hit was developed to generate hydroxyethylamine based plasmepsin (Plm) inhibitors exhibiting growth inhibition of the malaria parasite Plasmodium falciparum at nanomolar concentrations. Lead optimization studies were performed with the aim of improving Plm inhibition selectivity versus the related human aspartic protease cathepsin D (Cat D). Optimization studies were performed using Plm IV as a readily accessible model protein, the inhibition of which correlates with anti-malarial activity. Guided by sequence alignment of Plms and Cat D, selectivity-inducing structural motifs were modified in the S3 and S4 sub-pocket occupying substituents of the hydroxyethylamine inhibitors. This resulted in potent anti-malarials with an up to 50-fold Plm IV/Cat D selectivity factor. More detailed investigation of the mechanism of action of the selected compounds revealed that they inhibit maturation of the P. falciparum subtilisin-like protease SUB1, and also inhibit parasite egress from erythrocytes. Our results indicate that the anti-malarial activity of the compounds is linked to inhibition of the SUB1 maturase plasmepsin subtype Plm X. Peptidomimimetic plasmepsin inhibitors are developed using Plm IV as a model enzyme. Up to 50-fold selectivity against Cathepsin D is reached. Compounds show growth inhibition of P. falciparum at nanomolar concentrations. Inhibition of SUB1 maturation and parasite egress imply (co)inhibition of Plm X.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rimants Zogota
- Latvian Institute of Organic Synthesis, Aizkraukles 21, Riga, LV, 1006, Latvia
| | - Linda Kinena
- Latvian Institute of Organic Synthesis, Aizkraukles 21, Riga, LV, 1006, Latvia
| | | | - Michael J Blackman
- Malaria Biochemistry Laboratory, The Francis Crick Institute, 1 Midland Road, London, NW1 1AT, UK; Faculty of Infectious and Tropical Diseases, London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine, London, WC1E 7HT, UK
| | - Raitis Bobrovs
- Latvian Institute of Organic Synthesis, Aizkraukles 21, Riga, LV, 1006, Latvia
| | - Teodors Pantelejevs
- Latvian Institute of Organic Synthesis, Aizkraukles 21, Riga, LV, 1006, Latvia
| | - Iveta Kanepe-Lapsa
- Latvian Institute of Organic Synthesis, Aizkraukles 21, Riga, LV, 1006, Latvia
| | - Vita Ozola
- Latvian Institute of Organic Synthesis, Aizkraukles 21, Riga, LV, 1006, Latvia
| | - Kristaps Jaudzems
- Latvian Institute of Organic Synthesis, Aizkraukles 21, Riga, LV, 1006, Latvia
| | - Edgars Suna
- Latvian Institute of Organic Synthesis, Aizkraukles 21, Riga, LV, 1006, Latvia.
| | - Aigars Jirgensons
- Latvian Institute of Organic Synthesis, Aizkraukles 21, Riga, LV, 1006, Latvia.
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72
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Flieger A, Frischknecht F, Häcker G, Hornef MW, Pradel G. Pathways of host cell exit by intracellular pathogens. MICROBIAL CELL 2018; 5:525-544. [PMID: 30533418 PMCID: PMC6282021 DOI: 10.15698/mic2018.12.659] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Host cell exit is a critical step in the life-cycle of intracellular pathogens, intimately linked to barrier penetration, tissue dissemination, inflammation, and pathogen transmission. Like cell invasion and intracellular survival, host cell exit represents a well-regulated program that has evolved during host-pathogen co-evolution and that relies on the dynamic and intricate interplay between multiple host and microbial factors. Three distinct pathways of host cell exit have been identified that are employed by three different taxa of intracellular pathogens, bacteria, fungi and protozoa, namely (i) the initiation of programmed cell death, (ii) the active breaching of host cellderived membranes, and (iii) the induced membrane-dependent exit without host cell lysis. Strikingly, an increasing number of studies show that the majority of intracellular pathogens utilize more than one of these strategies, dependent on life-cycle stage, environmental factors and/or host cell type. This review summarizes the diverse exit strategies of intracellular-living bacterial, fungal and protozoan pathogens and discusses the convergently evolved commonalities as well as system-specific variations thereof. Key microbial molecules involved in host cell exit are highlighted and discussed as potential targets for future interventional approaches.
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Affiliation(s)
- Antje Flieger
- Division of Enteropathogenic Bacteria and Legionella, Robert Koch Institute, Wernigerode, Germany
| | | | - Georg Häcker
- Institute of Medical Microbiology and Hygiene, Medical Center - University of Freiburg, Germany
| | - Mathias W Hornef
- Institute of Medical Microbiology, RWTH Aachen University Hospital, Germany
| | - Gabriele Pradel
- Division of Cellular and Applied Infection Biology, Institute of Biology II, RWTH Aachen University, Germany
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73
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Siqueira-Neto JL, Debnath A, McCall LI, Bernatchez JA, Ndao M, Reed SL, Rosenthal PJ. Cysteine proteases in protozoan parasites. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 2018; 12:e0006512. [PMID: 30138453 PMCID: PMC6107107 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0006512] [Citation(s) in RCA: 71] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/27/2022] Open
Abstract
Cysteine proteases (CPs) play key roles in the pathogenesis of protozoan parasites, including cell/tissue penetration, hydrolysis of host or parasite proteins, autophagy, and evasion or modulation of the host immune response, making them attractive chemotherapeutic and vaccine targets. This review highlights current knowledge on clan CA cysteine proteases, the best-characterized group of cysteine proteases, from 7 protozoan organisms causing human diseases with significant impact: Entamoeba histolytica, Leishmania species (sp.), Trypanosoma brucei, T. cruzi, Cryptosporidium sp., Plasmodium sp., and Toxoplasma gondii. Clan CA proteases from three organisms (T. brucei, T. cruzi, and Plasmodium sp.) are well characterized as druggable targets based on in vitro and in vivo models. A number of candidate inhibitors are under development. CPs from these organisms and from other protozoan parasites should be further characterized to improve our understanding of their biological functions and identify novel targets for chemotherapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jair L. Siqueira-Neto
- Center for Discovery and Innovation in Parasitic Diseases, Skaggs School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, California, United States of America
- * E-mail:
| | - Anjan Debnath
- Center for Discovery and Innovation in Parasitic Diseases, Skaggs School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, California, United States of America
| | - Laura-Isobel McCall
- Center for Discovery and Innovation in Parasitic Diseases, Skaggs School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, California, United States of America
| | - Jean A. Bernatchez
- Center for Discovery and Innovation in Parasitic Diseases, Skaggs School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, California, United States of America
| | - Momar Ndao
- National Reference Centre for Parasitology, The Research Institute of the McGill University Health Center, Montreal, Canada
- Program in Infectious Diseases and Immunity in Global Health, The Research Institute of the McGill University Health Centre, Montreal, Quebec, Canada
| | - Sharon L. Reed
- Departments of Pathology and Medicine, University of California San Diego School of Medicine, La Jolla, California, United States of America
| | - Philip J. Rosenthal
- Department of Medicine, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, California, United States of America
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74
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Mathews ES, Odom John AR. Tackling resistance: emerging antimalarials and new parasite targets in the era of elimination. F1000Res 2018; 7. [PMID: 30135714 PMCID: PMC6073090 DOI: 10.12688/f1000research.14874.1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 07/26/2018] [Indexed: 12/27/2022] Open
Abstract
Malaria remains a significant contributor to global human mortality, and roughly half the world’s population is at risk for infection with
Plasmodium spp. parasites. Aggressive control measures have reduced the global prevalence of malaria significantly over the past decade. However, resistance to available antimalarials continues to spread, including resistance to the widely used artemisinin-based combination therapies. Novel antimalarial compounds and therapeutic targets are greatly needed. This review will briefly discuss several promising current antimalarial development projects, including artefenomel, ferroquine, cipargamin, SJ733, KAF156, MMV048, and tafenoquine. In addition, we describe recent large-scale genetic and resistance screens that have been instrumental in target discovery. Finally, we highlight new antimalarial targets, which include essential transporters and proteases. These emerging antimalarial compounds and therapeutic targets have the potential to overcome multi-drug resistance in ongoing efforts toward malaria elimination.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emily S Mathews
- Department of Pediatrics, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, Missouri, USA
| | - Audrey R Odom John
- Department of Pediatrics, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, Missouri, USA.,Department of Molecular Microbiology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, Missouri, USA
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75
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Glushakova S, Beck JR, Garten M, Busse BL, Nasamu AS, Tenkova-Heuser T, Heuser J, Goldberg DE, Zimmerberg J. Rounding precedes rupture and breakdown of vacuolar membranes minutes before malaria parasite egress from erythrocytes. Cell Microbiol 2018; 20:e12868. [PMID: 29900649 DOI: 10.1111/cmi.12868] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/03/2018] [Revised: 05/25/2018] [Accepted: 06/05/2018] [Indexed: 01/17/2023]
Abstract
Because Plasmodium falciparum replicates inside of a parasitophorous vacuole (PV) within a human erythrocyte, parasite egress requires the rupture of two limiting membranes. Parasite Ca2+ , kinases, and proteases contribute to efficient egress; their coordination in space and time is not known. Here, the kinetics of parasite egress were linked to specific steps with specific compartment markers, using live-cell microscopy of parasites expressing PV-targeted fluorescent proteins, and specific egress inhibitors. Several minutes before egress, under control of parasite [Ca2+ ]i , the PV began rounding. Then after ~1.5 min, under control of PfPKG and SUB1, there was abrupt rupture of the PV membrane and release of vacuolar contents. Over the next ~6 min, there was progressive vacuolar membrane deterioration simultaneous with erythrocyte membrane distortion, lasting until the final minute of the egress programme when newly formed parasites mobilised and erythrocyte membranes permeabilised and then ruptured-a dramatic finale to the parasite cycle of replication.
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Affiliation(s)
- Svetlana Glushakova
- Section on Integrative Biophysics, Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland
| | - Josh R Beck
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine, Washington University, St. Louis, Missouri.,Department of Biomedical Sciences, Iowa State University, Ames, Iowa
| | - Matthias Garten
- Section on Integrative Biophysics, Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland
| | - Brad L Busse
- Section on Integrative Biophysics, Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland
| | - Armiyaw S Nasamu
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine, Washington University, St. Louis, Missouri
| | - Tatyana Tenkova-Heuser
- Section on Integrative Biophysics, Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland
| | - John Heuser
- Section on Integrative Biophysics, Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland
| | - Daniel E Goldberg
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine, Washington University, St. Louis, Missouri
| | - Joshua Zimmerberg
- Section on Integrative Biophysics, Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland
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Abstract
Apicomplexa are obligate intracellular parasites that actively invade, replicate within, and egress from host cells. The parasite actinomyosin-based molecular motor complex (often referred to as the glideosome) is considered an important mediator of parasite motility and virulence. Mature intracellular parasites often become motile just prior to egress from their host cells, and in some genera, this motility is important for successful egress as well as for subsequent invasion of new host cells. To determine whether actinomyosin-based motility is important in the red blood cell egress and invasion activities of the malaria parasite, we have used a conditional genetic approach to delete GAP45, a primary component of the glideosome, in asexual blood stages of Plasmodium falciparum Our results confirm the essential nature of GAP45 for invasion but show that P. falciparum does not require a functional motor complex to undergo egress from the red blood cell. Malarial egress therefore differs fundamentally from induced egress in the related apicomplexan Toxoplasma gondiiIMPORTANCE Clinical malaria results from cycles of replication of single-celled parasites of the genus Plasmodium in red blood cells. Intracellular parasite replication is followed by a highly regulated, protease-dependent process called egress, in which rupture of the bounding membranes allows explosive release of daughter merozoites which rapidly invade fresh red cells. A parasite actinomyosin-based molecular motor (the glideosome) has been proposed to provide the mechanical force to drive invasion. Studies of the related parasite Toxoplasma gondii have shown that induced egress requires parasite motility, mediated by a functional glideosome. However, whether the glideosome has a similar essential role in egress of malaria merozoites from red blood cells is unknown. Here, we show that although a functional glideosome is required for red blood cell invasion by Plasmodium falciparum merozoites, it is not required for egress. These findings place further emphasis on the key role of the protease cascade in malarial egress.
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77
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Lehmann C, Tan MSY, de Vries LE, Russo I, Sanchez MI, Goldberg DE, Deu E. Plasmodium falciparum dipeptidyl aminopeptidase 3 activity is important for efficient erythrocyte invasion by the malaria parasite. PLoS Pathog 2018; 14:e1007031. [PMID: 29768491 PMCID: PMC5973627 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1007031] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/23/2017] [Revised: 05/29/2018] [Accepted: 04/15/2018] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Parasite egress from infected erythrocytes and invasion of new red blood cells are essential processes for the exponential asexual replication of the malaria parasite. These two tightly coordinated events take place in less than a minute and are in part regulated and mediated by proteases. Dipeptidyl aminopeptidases (DPAPs) are papain-fold cysteine proteases that cleave dipeptides from the N-terminus of protein substrates. DPAP3 was previously suggested to play an essential role in parasite egress. However, little is known about its enzymatic activity, intracellular localization, or biological function. In this study, we recombinantly expressed DPAP3 and demonstrate that it has indeed dipeptidyl aminopeptidase activity, but contrary to previously studied DPAPs, removal of its internal prodomain is not required for activation. By combining super resolution microscopy, time-lapse fluorescence microscopy, and immunoelectron microscopy, we show that Plasmodium falciparum DPAP3 localizes to apical organelles that are closely associated with the neck of the rhoptries, and from which DPAP3 is secreted immediately before parasite egress. Using a conditional knockout approach coupled to complementation studies with wild type or mutant DPAP3, we show that DPAP3 activity is important for parasite proliferation and critical for efficient red blood cell invasion. We also demonstrate that DPAP3 does not play a role in parasite egress, and that the block in egress phenotype previously reported for DPAP3 inhibitors is due to off target or toxicity effects. Finally, using a flow cytometry assay to differentiate intracellular parasites from extracellular parasites attached to the erythrocyte surface, we show that DPAP3 is involved in the initial attachment of parasites to the red blood cell surface. Overall, this study establishes the presence of a DPAP3-dependent invasion pathway in malaria parasites.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christine Lehmann
- Chemical Biology Approaches to Malaria Laboratory, The Francis Crick Institute, London, United Kingdom
| | - Michele Ser Ying Tan
- Chemical Biology Approaches to Malaria Laboratory, The Francis Crick Institute, London, United Kingdom
| | - Laura E. de Vries
- Department of Medical Microbiology, Radboud University Medical Center, Nijmegen, Netherlands
| | - Ilaria Russo
- Faculty of Life Sciences, University of Manchester, Manchester, United Kingdom
| | - Mateo I. Sanchez
- Department of Genetics, Stanford School of Medicine, Stanford, California, United States of America
| | - Daniel E. Goldberg
- Departments of Molecular Microbiology and Medicine, Washington University School of Medicine, St Louis, Missouri, United States of America
| | - Edgar Deu
- Chemical Biology Approaches to Malaria Laboratory, The Francis Crick Institute, London, United Kingdom
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