The Rel/NF-kappaB signal transduction pathway: introduction

NFkappaB is a Key Player in the Crosstalk between Inflammation and Cardiovascular Diseases

Inflammation is a key mechanism of cardiovascular diseases. It is an essential component of atherosclerosis and a significant risk factor for the development of cardiovascular events. In the crosstalk between inflammation and cardiovascular diseases, the transcription factor NFκB seems to be a key player since it is involved in the development and progression of both inflammation and cardiac and vascular damage. In this review, we deal with the recent findings of the role of inflammation in cardiac diseases, focusing, in particular, on NFκB as a functional link. We describe strategies for the therapeutic targeting of NFκB as a potential strategy for the failing heart.

Nuclear factor-kappa β as a therapeutic target for Alzheimer's disease

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a typical progressive, chronic neurodegenerative disorder with worldwide prevalence. Its clinical manifestation involves the presence of extracellular plaques and intracellular neurofibrillary tangles (NFTs). NFTs occur in brain tissues as a result of both Aβ agglomeration and Tau phosphorylation. Although there is no known cure for AD, research into possible cures and treatment options continues using cell-cultures and model animals/organisms. The nuclear factor-kappa β (NF-κβ) plays an active role in the progression of AD. Impairment to this signaling module triggers undesirable phenotypic changes such as neuroinflammation, activation of microglia, oxidative stress related complications, and apoptotic cell death. These imbalances further lead to homeostatic abnormalities in the brain or in initial stages of AD essentially pushing normal neurons toward the degeneration process. Interestingly, the role of NF-κβ signaling associated receptor-interacting protein kinase is currently observed in apoptotic and necrotic cell death, and has been reported in brains. Conversely, the NF-κβ signaling pathway has also been reported to be involved in normal brain functioning. This pathway plays a crucial role in maintaining synaptic plasticity and balancing between learning and memory. Since any impairment in the pathways associated with NF-κβ signaling causes altered neuronal dynamics, neurotherapeutics using compounds including, antioxidants, bioflavonoids, and non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs against such abnormalities offer possibilities to rectify aberrant excitatory neuronal activity in AD. In this review, we have provided an extensive overview of the crucial role of NF-κβ signaling in normal brain homeostasis. We have also thoroughly outlined several established pathomechanisms associated with NF-κβ pathways in AD, along with their respective therapeutic approaches.

Genome-wide association study implicates immune dysfunction in the development of Hodgkin lymphoma

To further our understanding of inherited susceptibility to Hodgkin lymphoma (HL), we performed a meta-analysis of 7 genome-wide association studies totaling 5325 HL cases and 22 423 control patients. We identify 5 new HL risk loci at 6p21.31 (rs649775; P = 2.11 × 10-10), 6q23.3 (rs1002658; P = 2.97 × 10-8), 11q23.1 (rs7111520; P = 1.44 × 10-11), 16p11.2 (rs6565176; P = 4.00 × 10-8), and 20q13.12 (rs2425752; P = 2.01 × 10-8). Integration of gene expression, histone modification, and in situ promoter capture Hi-C data at the 5 new and 13 known risk loci implicates dysfunction of the germinal center reaction, disrupted T-cell differentiation and function, and constitutive NF-κB activation as mechanisms of predisposition. These data provide further insights into the genetic susceptibility and biology of HL.

The role of NF-κB and miRNA in oral cancer and cancer stem cells with or without HPV16 infection

A small subpopulation of cancer stem-like cells (CSCs) present in almost all tumors is responsible for drug resistance and tumor recurrence. The role of NF-kB and miRNA in close association with essential risk factors, tobacco, alcohol and high risk HPV infection during oral carcinogenesis and its prognosis is not well understood. We have isolated cancer stem like SP cells from both HPV+/-ve oral squamous cell carcinoma (OSCC) cell lines and primary tumors, which formed orospheres, expressed stemness markers Oct4, Sox-2, CD133 and CD117. These cells showed differentially upregulated expression of NF-kB proteins and selective overexpression of viral oncogenes E6/E7 only in HPV16+ve cells which formed higher number of orospheres, overexpressed c-Rel and selectively activated p65 that heterodimerized with p50 to show higher DNA binding activity. Further, selective over expression of miR-21 and miR-155 and downregulation of miR-34a were demonstrated by HPV+ve CSCs which overexpress HPV16 oncogene E6 that is responsible for the maintenance of stemness. While, HPV-ve CSCs show exclusively p50 homodimeriztion, poor differentiation and worst prognosis, HPV infection induced participation of p65 along with deregulated expression of specific miRNAs led to well differentiation of tumors and better prognosis.

Zinc Inhibits Expression of Androgen Receptor to Suppress Growth of Prostate Cancer Cells

The prostate gland contains a high level of intracellular zinc, which is dramatically diminished during prostate cancer (PCa) development. Owing to the unclear role of zinc in this process, therapeutic applications using zinc are limited. This study aimed to clarify the role of zinc and its underlying mechanism in the growth of PCa. ZnCl₂ suppressed the proliferation of androgen receptor (AR)-retaining PCa cells, whereas it did not affect AR-deficient PCa cells. In LNCaP and TRAMP-C2 cells, zinc downregulated the expression of AR in a dose- and time-dependent fashion. Zinc-mediated AR suppression accordingly inhibited the androgen-mediated transactivation and expression of the androgen target, prostate specific antigen (PSA). This phenomenon resulted from facilitated protein degradation, not transcriptional control. In studies using mice bearing TRAMP-C2 subcutaneous tumors, the intraperitoneal injection of zinc significantly reduced tumor size. Analyses of both xenograft tumors and normal prostates showed reduced expression of AR and increased cell death. Considering the significant loss of intracellular zinc and the dominant growth-modulating role of AR during PCa development, loss of zinc may be a critical step in the transformation of normal cells to cancer cells. This study provides the underlying mechanism by which zinc functions as a PCa suppressor, and forms the foundation for developing zinc-mediated therapeutics for PCa.

The Role of Hydrogen Peroxide in Redox-Dependent Signaling: Homeostatic and Pathological Responses in Mammalian Cells

Hydrogen peroxide (H₂O₂) is an important metabolite involved in most of the redox metabolism reactions and processes of the cells. H₂O₂ is recognized as one of the main molecules in the sensing, modulation and signaling of redox metabolism, and it is acting as a second messenger together with hydrogen sulfide (H₂S) and nitric oxide (NO). These second messengers activate in turn a cascade of downstream proteins via specific oxidations leading to a metabolic response of the cell. This metabolic response can determine proliferation, survival or death of the cell depending on which downstream pathways (homeostatic, pathological, or protective) have been activated. The cells have several sources of H₂O₂ and cellular systems strictly control its concentration in different subcellular compartments. This review summarizes research on the role played by H₂O₂ in signaling pathways of eukaryotic cells and how this signaling leads to homeostatic or pathological responses.

Constitutive activation and overexpression of NF-κB/c-Rel in conjunction with p50 contribute to aggressive tongue tumorigenesis

Tongue squamous cell carcinoma (TSCC) is a most aggressive head and neck cancer often associated with a poor survival rate. Yet, it always shows better prognosis in presence of HPV16 infection. NF-κB plays a pivotal role in carcinogenesis and chemo-radio resistance of cancer but its role in tongue cancer is not yet explored. In this study, a total of hundred tongue tissue biopsies comprising precancer, cancer and adjacent normal controls including two tongue cancer cell lines (HPV^+/−ve) were employed to examine expression and transactivation of NF-κB proteins, their silencing by siRNA and invasion assays to understand their contributions in tongue carcinogenesis. An exclusive prevalence (28%) of HR-HPV type 16 was observed mainly in well differentiated tumors (78.5%). Increased DNA binding activity and differential expression of NF-κB proteins was observed with p50 and c-Rel being the two major DNA binding partners forming the functional NF-κB complex that increased as a function of severity of lesions in both HPV^+/−ve tumors but selective participation of p65 in HPV16^+ve TSCCs induced well differentiation of tumors resulting in better prognosis. siRNA treatment against c-Rel or Fra-2 led to upregulation of p27 but strong inhibition of c-Rel, c-Jun, c-myc, HPVE6/E7 and Fra-2 which is exclusively overexpressed in HPV^−ve aggressive tumors. In conclusion, selective participation of c-Rel with p50 that in cross-talk with AP-1/Fra-2 induced poor differentiation and aggressive tumorigenesis mainly in HPV^−ve smokers while HPV infection induced expression of p65 and p27 leading to well differentiation and better prognosis preferably in non-smoking TSCC patients.

Downregulation of aquaporin 9 decreases catabolic factor expression through nuclear factor‑κB signaling in chondrocytes

Aquaporins (AQPs) are small integral membrane proteins that are essential for water transport across membranes. AQP9, one of the 13 mammalian AQPs (including AQP0 to 12), has been reported to be highly expressed in hydrarthrosis and synovitis patients. Given that several studies have identified signal transduction as an additional function of AQPs, it is hypothesized that AQP9 may modulate inflammatory signal transduction in chondrocytes. Therefore, the present study used a model of interleukin (IL)‑1β‑induced inflammation to determine the mechanisms associated with AQP9 functions in chondrocytes. Osteoarthritis (OA) and normal cartilage samples were subjected to immunohistological analysis. In addition, matrix metalloproteinase (MMP)3, MMP13 and a disintegrin and metalloproteinase with thrombospondin motifs 5 (ADAMTS‑5) mRNA and protein analysis was conducted in normal human articular chondrocytes from the knee (NHAC‑Kn) stimulated with IL‑1β by reverse transcription‑polymerase chain reaction (RT‑qPCR) and western blotting, respectively. AQP9 knockdown was also performed by transfection of AQP9‑specific small interfering RNA using Lipofectamine. AQP1, 3, 7, 9 and 11 mRNA expression levels were detected in OA human chondrocytes and in IL‑1β‑treated normal human chondrocytes. The levels of AQP9, MMP‑3, MMP‑13 and ADAMTS‑5 mRNA were increased by treatment with 10 ng/ml IL‑1β in a time‑dependent manner, while knockdown of AQP9 expression significantly decreased the mRNA levels of the MMP3, MMP13 and ADAMTS‑5 genes, as well as the phosphorylation of IκB kinase (IKK). Treatment with a specific IKK inhibitor also significantly decreased the expression levels of MMP‑3, MMP‑13 and ADAMTS‑5 in response to IL‑1β stimulation. Furthermore, immunohistochemical analysis demonstrated that AQP9 and inflammatory markers were highly expressed in OA cartilage. In addition, the downregulation of AQP9 in cultured chondrocytes decreased the catabolic gene expression in response to IL‑1β stimulation through nuclear factor‑κB signaling. Therefore, AQP9 may be a promising target for the treatment of OA.

Gene family innovation, conservation and loss on the animal stem lineage

Choanoflagellates, the closest living relatives of animals, can provide unique insights into the changes in gene content that preceded the origin of animals. However, only two choanoflagellate genomes are currently available, providing poor coverage of their diversity. We sequenced transcriptomes of 19 additional choanoflagellate species to produce a comprehensive reconstruction of the gains and losses that shaped the ancestral animal gene repertoire. We identified ~1944 gene families that originated on the animal stem lineage, of which only 39 are conserved across all animals in our study. In addition, ~372 gene families previously thought to be animal-specific, including Notch, Delta, and homologs of the animal Toll-like receptor genes, instead evolved prior to the animal-choanoflagellate divergence. Our findings contribute to an increasingly detailed portrait of the gene families that defined the biology of the Urmetazoan and that may underpin core features of extant animals.

All animals, from sea sponges and reef-building corals to elephants and humans, share a single common ancestor that lived over half a billion years ago. This single-celled predecessor evolved the ability to develop into a creature made up of many cells with specialized jobs. Reconstructing the steps in this evolutionary process has been difficult because the earliest animals were soft-bodied and microscopic and did not leave behind fossils that scientists can study.

Though their bodies have since disintegrated, many of the instructions for building the first animals live on in genes that were passed on to life forms that still exist. Scientists are trying to retrace those genes back to the first animal by comparing the genomes of living animals with their closest relatives, the choanoflagellates. Choanoflagellates are single-celled, colony-forming organisms that live in waters around the world. Comparisons with choanoflagellates may help scientists identify which genes were necessary to help animals evolve and diversify into so many different species. So far, 1,000 animal and two choanoflagellate genomes have been sequenced. But the gene repertoires of most species of choanoflagellates have yet to be analyzed.

Now, Richter et al. have cataloged the genes of 19 more species of choanoflagellates. This added information allowed them to recreate the likely gene set of the first animal and to identify genetic changes that occurred during animal evolution. The analyses showed that modern animals lost about a quarter of the genes present in their last common ancestor with choanoflagellates and gained an equal number of new genes. Richter et al. identified several dozen core animal genes that were gained and subsequently preserved throughout animal evolution. Many of these are necessary so that an embryo can develop properly, but the precise roles of some core genes remain a mystery. Most other genes that emerged in the first animals have been lost in at least one living animal.

The study of Richter et al. also showed that some very important genes in animals, including genes essential for early development and genes that help the immune system detect pathogens, predate animals. These key genes trace back to animals’ last common ancestor with choanoflagellates and may have evolved new roles in animals.

Synergism in aluminum and mercury neurotoxicity

Aluminum and mercury are common neurotoxic contaminants in our environment - from the air we breathe to the water that we drink to the foods that we eat. It is remarkable that to date neither of these two well-established environmental neurotoxins (i.e. those having a general toxicity towards brain cells) and genotoxins (those agents which exhibit directed toxicity toward the genetic apparatus) have been critically studied, nor have their neurotoxicities been evaluated in human neurobiology or in cells of the human central nervous system (CNS). In this paper we report the effects of added aluminum [sulfate; Al₂(SO₄)₃] and/or mercury [sulfate; HgSO4] to human neuronal-glial (HNG) cells in primary co-culture using the evolution of the pro-inflammatory transcription factor NF-kB (p50/p65) complex as a critical indicator for the onset of inflammatory neurodegeneration and pathogenic inflammatory signaling. As indexed by significant induction of the NF-kB (p50/p65) complex the results indicate: (i) a notable increase in pro-inflammatory signaling imparted by each of these two environmental neurotoxins toward HNG cells in the ambient 20-200 nM range; and (ii) a significant synergism in the neurotoxicity when aluminum (sulfate) and mercury (sulfate) were added together. This is the first report on the neurotoxic effects of aluminum sulfate and/or mercury sulfate on the initiation of inflammatory signaling in human brain cells in primary culture. The effects aluminum+mercury together on other neurologically important signaling molecules or the effects of other combinations of common environmental metallic neurotoxins to human neurobiology currently remain not well understood but certainly warrant additional investigation and further study in laboratory animals, in human primary tissue cultures of CNS cells, and in other neurobiologically realistic experimental test systems.

(DEAD)-box RNA helicase 3 modulates NF-κB signal pathway by controlling the phosphorylation of PP2A-C subunit

Asp-Glu-Ala-Asp (DEAD)-box RNA helicase 3 (DDX3), an ATP-dependent RNA helicase, is associated with RNA splicing, mRNA export, transcription, translation, and RNA decay. Recent studies revealed that DDX3 participates in innate immune response during virus infection by interacting with TBK1 and regulating the production of IFN-β. In our studies, we demonstrated that DDX3 regulated NF-κB signal pathway. We found that DDX3 knockdown reduced the phosphorylation of p65 and IKK-β and ultimately attenuated the production of inflammatory cytokines induced by poly(I:C) or TNF-α stimulation. The regulatory effect of DDX3 on NF-κB signal pathway was not affected by the loss of its ATPase or helicase activity. We further identified PP2A C subunit (PP2A-C) as an interaction partner of DDX3 by co-immunoprecipitation and mass spectrum analysis. We confirmed that DDX3 formed the complex with PP2A-C/IKK-β and regulated the interaction between IKK-β and PP2A-C. Furthermore, we demonstrated that DDX3 modulated the activity of PP2A by controlling the phosphorylation of PP2A-C, which might enable PP2A-C to regulate NF-κB signal pathway by dephosphorylating IKK-β. All these findings suggested DDX3 plays multiple roles in modulating innate immune system.

Cellular Stress Responses and Monitored Cellular Activities

To survive, organisms require mechanisms that enable them to sense changes in the outside environment, introduce necessary responses, and resist unfavorable distortion. Consequently, through evolutionary adaptation, cells have become equipped with the apparatus required to monitor their fundamental intracellular processes and the mechanisms needed to try to offset malfunction without receiving any direct signals from the outside environment. It has been shown recently that eukaryotic cells are equipped with a special mechanism that monitors their fundamental cellular functions and that some pathogenic proteobacteria can override this monitoring mechanism to cause harm. The monitored cellular activities involved in the stressed intracellular response have been researched extensively in Caenorhabditis elegans, where discovery of an association between key mitochondrial activities and innate immune responses was named "cellular associated detoxification and defenses (cSADD)." This cellular surveillance pathway (cSADD) oversees core cellular activities such as mitochondrial respiration and protein transport into mitochondria, detects xenobiotics and invading pathogens, and activates the endocrine pathways controlling behavior, detoxification, and immunity. The cSADD pathway is probably associated with cellular responses to stress in human inflammatory diseases. In the critical care field, the pathogenesis of lethal inflammatory syndromes (e.g., respiratory distress syndromes and sepsis) involves the disturbance of mitochondrial respiration leading to cell death. Up-to-date knowledge about monitored cellular activities and cSADD, especially focusing on mitochondrial involvement, can probably help fill a knowledge gap regarding the pathogenesis of lethal inflammatory syndromes in the critical care field.

The crossroads of breast cancer progression: insights into the modulation of major signaling pathways

Cancer is the disease with highest public health impact in developed countries. Particularly, breast cancer has the highest incidence in women worldwide and the fifth highest mortality in the globe, imposing a significant social and economic burden to society. The disease has a complex heterogeneous etiology, being associated with several risk factors that range from lifestyle to age and family history. Breast cancer is usually classified according to the site of tumor occurrence and gene expression profiling. Although mutations in a few key genes, such as BRCA1 and BRCA2, are associated with high breast cancer risk, the large majority of breast cancer cases are related to mutated genes of low penetrance, which are frequently altered in the whole population. Therefore, understanding the molecular basis of breast cancer, including the several deregulated genes and related pathways linked to this pathology, is essential to ensure advances in early tumor detection and prevention. In this review, we outline key cellular pathways whose deregulation has been associated with breast cancer, leading to alterations in cell proliferation, apoptosis, and the delicate hormonal balance of breast tissue cells. Therefore, here we describe some potential breast cancer-related nodes and signaling concepts linked to the disease, which can be positively translated into novel therapeutic approaches and predictive biomarkers.

Broadleaf Mahonia attenuates granulomatous lobular mastitis‑associated inflammation by inhibiting CCL‑5 expression in macrophages

Granulomatous lobular mastitis (GLM) is a type of chronic mammary inflammation with unclear etiology. Currently systematic corticosteroids and methitrexate are considered as the main drugs for GLM treatment, but a high toxicity and risk of recurrence greatly limit their application. It is therefore an urgent requirement that safe and efficient natural drugs are found to improve the GLM prognosis. Broadleaf Mahonia (BM) is a traditional Chinese herb that is believed to have anti-inflammatory properties according to ancient records of traditional Chinese medicine. The present study investigated this belief and demonstrated that BM significantly inhibited the expression of interleukin-1β (IL-1β), IL-6, cyclooxygenase-2 and inducible nitric oxide synthase in RAW264.7 cells, but had little influence on the cell viability, cell cycle and apoptosis. Meanwhile, the lipopolysaccharide-induced elevation of reactive oxygen species and nitric oxide was also blocked following BM treatment, accompanied with decreased activity of nuclear factor-κB and MAPK signaling. A cytokine array further validated that BM exhibited significant inhibitory effects on several chemoattractants, including chemokine (C-C motif) ligand (CCL)-2, CCL-3, CCL-5 and secreted tumor necrosis factor receptor 1, among which CCL-5 exhibited the highest inhibition ratio in cell and clinical GLM specimens. Collectively, the results show that BM is a novel effective anti-inflammatory herb in vitro and ex vivo, and that CCL-5 may be closely associated with GLM pathogenesis.

4-(E)-{(p-tolylimino)-methylbenzene-1,2-diol} (TIMBD) suppresses HIV1-gp120 mediated production of IL6 and IL8 but not CCL5

Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) has been associated with inflammatory effects that may potentially result in neurodegenerative changes and a number of newer chemotherapeutic agents are being tested to ameliorate these effects. In this study, we investigated the anti-neuroinflammatory activity of a novel resveratrol analog 4-(E)-{(p-tolylimino)-methylbenzene-1,2-diol} (TIMBD) against HIV1-gp120 induced neuroinflammation in SVG astrocytes. SVG astrocytic cells were pretreated with TIMBD or resveratrol (RES) and then transfected with a plasmid encoding HIV1-gp120. The mRNA and protein expression levels of proinflammatory cytokines IL6, IL8 and CCL5 were determined. Protein expression levels of NF-κB, AP1, p-STAT3, p-AKT, p-IKKs and p-p38 MAPK were also determined. TIMBD inhibited gp120-induced RNA and protein expression levels of IL6 and IL8, but not that of CCL5 in SVG astrocytes. Moreover, TIMBD attenuated gp120-induced phosphorylation of cJUN, cFOS, STAT3, p38-MAPK, AKT and IKKs, and the nuclear translocation of NF-κB p-65 subunit whereas RES mostly affected NF-κB protein expression levels. Our results suggest that TIMBD exerts anti-inflammatory effects better than that of RES in SVG astrocytes in vitro. These effects seem to be regulated by AP1, STAT-3 and NF-κB signaling pathways. TIMBD may thus have a potential of being a novel agent for treating HIV1-gp120-mediated neuroinflammatory diseases.

Identification of Gene Transcription Start Sites and Enhancers Responding to Pulmonary Carbon Nanotube Exposure in Vivo

Increased use of nanomaterials in industry, medicine, and consumer products has raised concerns over their toxicity. To ensure safe use of nanomaterials, understanding their biological effects at the molecular level is crucial. In particular, the regulatory mechanisms responsible for the cascade of genes activated by nanomaterial exposure are not well-characterized. To this end, we profiled the genome-wide usage of gene transcription start sites and linked active enhancer regions in lungs of C57BL/6 mice 24 h after intratracheal instillation of a single dose of the multiwalled carbon nanotube (MWCNT) Mitsui-7. Our results revealed a massive gene regulatory response, where expression of key inflammatory genes (e.g., Csf3, Il24, and Fgf23) was increased >100-fold 24 h after Mitsui-7 exposure. Many of the Mitsui-7-responsive transcription start sites were alternative transcription start sites for known genes, and the number of alternative transcription start sites used in a given gene was correlated with overall Mitsui-7 response. Strikingly, genes that were up-regulated after Mitsui-7 exposure only through their main annotated transcription start site were linked to inflammatory and defense responses, while genes up-regulated only through alternative transcription start sites were functionally heterogeneous and not inflammation-associated. Furthermore, we identified almost 12 000 active enhancers, many of which were Mitsui-7-responsive, and we identified similarly responding putative target genes. Overall, our study provides the location and activity of Mitsui-7-induced enhancers and transcription start sites, providing a useful resource for targeted experiments elucidating the biological effects of nanomaterials and the identification of biomarkers for early detection of MWCNT-induced inflammation.

Targeting IKK and NF-κB for Therapy

In addition to regulating immune responses, the NF-κB family of transcription factors also promotes cellular proliferation and survival. NF-κB and its activating kinase, IKK, have become appealing therapeutic targets because of their critical roles in the progression of many diseases including chronic inflammation and cancer. Here, we discuss the conditions that lead to pathway activation, the effects of constitutive activation, and some of the strategies used to inhibit NF-κB signaling.

Anti‑inflammatory effects of Ciwujianoside C3, extracted from the leaves of Acanthopanax henryi (Oliv.) Harms, on LPS‑stimulated RAW 264.7 cells

The present study aimed to investigate the unknown mechanisms underlying the anti‑inflammatory activity of Ciwujianoside C3 (CJS C3), extracted from the leaves of Acanthopanax henryi Harms, on lipopolysaccharide (LPS)‑stimulated RAW 264.7 cells. Cells were treated with CJS C3 for 1 h prior to the addition of 200 ng/ml LPS. Cell viability was measured using the MTS assay. Nitric oxide levels were determined by Griess assay. Proinflammatory cytokine production was measured by enzyme‑linked immunosorbent assay. The expression levels of cyclooxygenase (COX)‑2, inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS), and mitogen‑activated protein kinases (MAPKs) were investigated by western blotting, reverse transcription (RT)‑polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and RT‑quantitative PCR. Nuclear factor (NF)‑κB/p65 localization, and interaction of the TLR4 receptor with LPS was examined by immunofluorescence assay. The results indicated that CJS C3 exhibited no cytotoxicity at the measured concentrations. Treatment with CJS C3 inhibited NO production, proinflammatory cytokine levels, including interleukin (IL)‑6, tumor necrosis factor (TNF)‑α, and prostaglandin E2 (PGE2), and protein and mRNA expression levels of iNOS and COX‑2. Furthermore, CJS C3 suppressed phosphorylation of extracellular signal‑regulated kinases and c‑jun N‑terminal kinases. It was also able to suppress activation of NF‑κB via inhibition of the TLR4 signaling pathway. These results suggested that CJS C3 exerts inhibitory effects on LPS‑induced PGE2, NO, IL‑6 and TNF‑α production. In addition, iNOS and COX‑2 expression was decreased in murine macrophages. These inhibitory effects may be achieved via suppression of MAPKs and NF‑κB phosphorylation following inhibition of the TLR4 signaling pathway.

Stromal COX-2 signaling are correlated with colorectal cancer: A review

Cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) and its product prostaglandin E₂ (PGE₂) play a critical role in development and progression of colorectal cancer. Yet the detailed mechanistic pathways of COX-2 mediated signaling are still controversial and the role of COX-2 interaction in epithelial-stromal compartments on colorectal carcinogenesis is not well-understood either. In this review, we provide experimental evidence to support that (1) COX-2 signaling plays a major role in development and progression of colorectal cancer; (2) Stromal fibroblasts are a major source of COX-2 and PGE₂; (3) Stromal-epithelial interaction mediated by COX-2 signaling promotes colorectal carcinogenesis and (4) Inhibition of stromal COX-2 signaling is necessary to control colorectal cancer. In conclusion, the evidences summarized in the review reflect recent advances and insight in mechanistic studies of colorectal cancer which can help the audiences to further understand the etiology and the control of this disease.

Structure elucidation, proliferation effect on macrophage and its mechanism of a new heteropolysaccharide from Lactarius deliciosus Gray

A new heteropolysaccharide was isolated from the fruiting bodies of Lactarius deliciosus Gray which had a molecular weight of 16kDa and was mainly composed of the galactose and glucose. Structural elucidation results indicated that Lactarius deliciosus Gray polysaccharide (LDG-B) had a backbone of (1,6)-linked d-galactose and (1, 2, 6)-linked d-galactose which branches were mainly composed of 4-linked d-glucose and 6-linked d-galactose residue. Cell cycle test results showed that LDG-B could promote the proliferation of B cells and macrophage cells by affecting G0/G1 phase, S phases and G2/M phases. The analysis of transcriptomes sequence of macrophages showed a total of 1839 genes were identified as DEGs, and approximately 708 genes were up-regulated, whereas 1131 genes were down-regulated in LDG-B group. KEGG pathway enrichment analysis showed that the MAPK, JAK-STAT and NF-κB signaling pathways are significantly enriched for DEGs in LDG-B group. Analysis of transcriptome resources enabled us to examine gene expression profiles, verify differential gene expression, and select candidate signaling pathways as the mechanisms of the immunomodulatory activity of LDG-B.

Comparative analysis of macrophage transcriptomes reveals a key mechanism of the immunomodulatory activity of Tricholoma matsutake polysaccharide

In the present study, we performed a proliferation assay, phagocytosis assay and cell cycle analysis of macrophages and sequenced the transcriptomes of control group macrophages and TMP-A group macrophages using Illumina sequencing technology to identify differentially expressed genes (DEGs) and determine the molecular mechanisms associated with differences in the immunomodulatory activity of TMP-A in macrophages. The results showed that TMP-A exhibits strong proliferation activity and phagocytosis activity in RAW264.7 cells in vitro and could also promote the proliferation of macrophage cells by abolishing cell-cycle arrest in the G0/G1 phase and promoting the cell cycle in the G2/M phase, which may induce cell division. A total of 12,616,096 and 11,798,839 bp paired-end reads were obtained for the control group and TMP-A group, respectively, and they corresponded to a total size of 12.5 G bp and 11.7 G bp, respectively, after the low-quality reads and adapter sequences were removed. Approximately 79.8% of the total number of genes (10,191) were expressed (RPKM ≥1), and more than 1,372 genes were highly expressed (RPKM >60) in the TMP-A group. A total of 1,043 unigenes were identified as DEGs, and approximately 486 genes were upregulated, whereas 557 genes were down-regulated, which might have contributed to the proliferation activity and phagocytosis activity of TMP-A in the RAW264.7 cells in vitro. A Gene Ontology (GO) enrichment analysis generated 13,042 assignments to cellular components, 13,094 assignments to biological processes, and 13,135 assignments to molecular functions. A KEGG pathway enrichment analysis showed that the MAPK and NF-κB signaling pathways are significantly enriched for DEGs between the two cell groups. Based on the experimental data, we believe that the significant antitumor activities of TMP-A in vivo involve the MAPK and NF-κB signaling pathways because the two signaling pathways intersect.

Anti-inflammatory Function of Phyllostachys Edulis Extract in the Hippocampus of HIV-1 Transgenic Rats

HIV induces neuroinflammation. We evaluated the anti-inflammatory effect of an extract from bamboo Phyllostachys edulis in the hippocampus of HIV-1 transgenic (TG) rats. Five (5) one-month-old TG rats and 5 Fisher 344 (F344) rats were fed a control diet, another 5 TG rats were fed the control diet supplemented with bamboo extract (BEX, 11 grams dry mass per 4057 Kcal). After 9 months of dietary treatment, the gene and protein expression of interleukin 1 beta (IL-1β), glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP), and ionized calcium-binding adapter molecule 1 (Iba1), and the protein expression p65 and c-Jun were analyzed in the hippocampus. Compared to the F344 rats, the TG rats fed control diet showed significantly higher protein expression of GFAP and c-Jun, and mRNA and protein levels of IL-1β. BEX supplement to the TG rats significantly lowered protein expressions of GFAP, p65, and c-Jun, and showed a trend to decrease the protein expression of IL-1β. Compared to the TG rats, TG+BEX rats also downregulated the mRNA levels of IL-1β and TNFα. In summary, neuroinflammation mediated by the NFκB and AP-1 pathways in the hippocampus of the TG rats was effectively abolished by dietary supplement of BEX.

Thymoquinone inhibits growth of human medulloblastoma cells by inducing oxidative stress and caspase-dependent apoptosis while suppressing NF-κB signaling and IL-8 expression

Medulloblastoma (MB) is the most common malignant brain tumor of childhood. The transcription factor NF-κB is overexpressed in human MB and is a critical factor for MB tumor growth. NF-κB is known to regulate the expression of interleukin-8 (IL-8), the chemokine that enhances cancer cell growth and resistance to chemotherapy. We have recently shown that thymoquinone (TQ) suppresses growth of hepatocellular carcinoma cells in part by inhibiting NF-κB signaling. Here we sought to extend these studies in MB cells and show that TQ suppresses growth of MB cells in a dose- and time-dependent manner, causes G2M cell cycle arrest, and induces apoptosis. TQ significantly increased generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS), while pretreatment of MB cells with the ROS scavenger N-acetylcysteine (NAC) abrogated TQ-induced cell death and apoptosis, suggesting that TQ-induced cell death and apoptosis are oxidative stress-mediated. TQ inhibitory effects were associated with inhibition of NF-κB and altered expression of its downstream effectors IL-8 and its receptors, the anti-apoptotic Bcl-2, Bcl-xL, X-IAP, and FLIP, as well as the pro-apoptotic TRAIL-R1, caspase-8, caspase-9, Bcl-xS, and cytochrome c. TQ-triggered apoptosis was substantiated by up-regulation of the executioner caspase-3 and caspase-7, as well as cleavage of the death substrate poly(ADP-ribose)polymerase. Interestingly, pretreatment of MB cells with NAC or the pan-caspase inhibitor zVAD-fmk abrogated TQ-induced apoptosis, loss of cyclin B1 and NF-κB activity, suggesting that these TQ-mediated effects are oxidative stress- and caspase-dependent. These findings reveal that TQ induces both extrinsic and intrinsic pathways of apoptosis in MB cells, and suggest its potential usefulness in the treatment of MB.

Light induces translocation of NF-κB p65 to the mitochondria and suppresses expression of cytochrome c oxidase subunit III (COX III) in the rat retina

The transcription factor nuclear factor kappaB (NF-κB) plays various roles in cell survival, apoptosis, and inflammation. In the rat retina, NF-κB activity increases after exposure to damaging light, resulting in degeneration of photoreceptors. Here, we report that in dark-adapted rats exposed for 6 h to bright white light, the p65 subunit of retinal NF-κB translocates to the mitochondria, an event associated with a decrease in expression of cytochrome c oxidase subunit III (COX III). However, sustained exposure for 12 h depleted p65 from the mitochondria, and enhanced COX III expression. Treatment with the protective antioxidant PBN prior to light exposure prevents p65 depletion in the mitochondria and COX III upregulation during prolonged exposure, and apoptosis in photoreceptor cells. These results indicate that COX III expression is sensitive to the abundance of NF-κB p65 in the mitochondria, which, in turn, is affected by exposure to damaging light.

MiR-26 down-regulates TNF-α/NF-κB signalling and IL-6 expression by silencing HMGA1 and MALT1

MiR-26 has emerged as a key tumour suppressor in various cancers. Accumulating evidence supports that miR-26 regulates inflammation and tumourigenicity largely through down-regulating IL-6 production, but the underlying mechanism remains obscure. Here, combining a transcriptome-wide approach with manipulation of cellular miR-26 levels, we showed that instead of directly targeting IL-6 mRNA for gene silencing, miR-26 diminishes IL-6 transcription activated by TNF-α through silencing NF-κB signalling related factors HMGA1 and MALT1. We demonstrated that miR-26 extensively dampens the induction of many inflammation-related cytokine, chemokine and tissue-remodelling genes that are activated via NF-κB signalling pathway. Knocking down both HMGA1 and MALT1 by RNAi had a silencing effect on NF-κB-responsive genes similar to that caused by miR-26. Moreover, we discovered that poor patient prognosis in human lung adenocarcinoma is associated with low miR-26 and high HMGA1 or MALT1 levels and not with levels of any of them individually. These new findings not only unravel a novel mechanism by which miR-26 dampens IL-6 production transcriptionally but also demonstrate a direct role of miR-26 in down-regulating NF-κB signalling pathway, thereby revealing a more critical and broader role of miR-26 in inflammation and cancer than previously realized.

Bitter apricot essential oil induces apoptosis of human HaCaT keratinocytes

Psoriasis is a chronic skin disease that affects approximately 2% of the world's population. Conventional therapeutic approaches are not effective or necessarily safe for treating symptoms due to the serious side effects and resistance to currently prescribed drugs. Traditionally, in oriental medicine, apricot seed (Semen Armeniacae amarum) is used to treat skin diseases. However, the underlying mechanism of action has not been systematically elucidated. In the present study, the anti-proliferative effect of bitter apricot essential oil (BAEO) on cultured HaCaT cells was evaluated and the mechanism of action investigated. BAEO was isolated by hydrodistillation, and gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) analysis identified benzaldehyde (75.35%), benzoic acid (6.21%) and mandelonitrile (5.38%). HaCaT cell growth, measured by sulforhodamine B assay (SRB), was inhibited by BAEO with an IC50 value of 142.45 μg/ml. Apoptosis of HaCaT cells treated with BAEO was detected by cell cycle, flow cytometry, and western blot analyses. These measurements revealed G0/G1 cell cycle arrest, elevated numbers of early and late stage apoptotic cells, and caspases-3/8/9 and PARP activation. Z-VAD-FMK, a broad-spectrum caspase inhibitor, attenuated BAEO-induced apoptosis. Also, increased Bax and decreased Bcl-2 levels suggest that BAEO-induced apoptosis is mediated through both death receptor and mitochondrial pathways. Moreover, reduced Rel/NF-κB levels suggest that BAEO-mediated apoptosis is also associated with inhibition of the NF-κB pathway. These data suggest that BAEO is a naturally occurring material that functions as a potent pro-apoptotic factor for human keratinocytes. Thus, it is a promising candidate to treat psoriasis.

Nuclear Factor Kappa B Activation and Peroxisome Proliferator-activated Receptor Transactivational Effects of Chemical Components of the Roots of Polygonum multiflorum

BACKGROUND

Polygonum multiflorum is well-known as "Heshouwu" in traditional Chinese herbal medicine. In Northeast Asia, it is often used as a tonic to prevent premature aging of the kidney and liver, tendons, and bones and strengthening of the lower back and knees.

OBJECTIVE

To research the anti-inflammatory activities of components from P. multiflorum.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The compounds were isolated by a combination of silica gel and YMC R-18 column chromatography, and their structures were identified by analysis of spectroscopic data (1D, 2D-nuclear magnetic resonance, and mass spectrometry). The anti-inflammatory activities of the isolated compounds 1-15 were evaluated by luciferase reporter gene assays.

RESULTS

Fifteen compounds (1-15) were isolated from the roots of P. multiflorum. Compounds 1-5 and 14-15 significantly inhibited tumor necrosis factor-α-induced nuclear factor kappa B-luciferase activity, with IC50 values of 24.16-37.56 μM. Compounds 1-5 also greatly enhanced peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors transcriptional activity with EC50 values of 18.26-31.45 μM.

CONCLUSION

The anthraquinone derivatives were the active components from the roots of P. multiflorum as an inhibitor on inflammation-related factors in human hepatoma cells. Therefore, we suggest that the roots of P. multiflorum can be used to treat natural inflammatory diseases.

SUMMARY

This study presented that fifteen compounds (1-15) isolated from the roots of Polygonum multiflrum exert signifiant anti inflmmatory effects by inhibiting TNF α induced NF κB activation and PPARs transcription. Abbreviation used: NF κB: Nuclear factor kappa B, PPARs: Peroxisome proliferator activated receptors, PPREs: Peroxisome proliferator response elements, TNF α: Tumor necrosis factor α, ESI-MS: Electrospray ionization mass spectrometry, HepG2: Human hepatoma cells.

Activating transcription factor 3 represses inflammatory responses by binding to the p65 subunit of NF-κB

Activating transcription factor 3 (ATF3) is induced by inflammatory responses, cell death, cytokines, and oxidative stress conditions. ATF3 is a negative regulator in the Toll-like receptor 4 signalling pathway. The principal molecule in this pathway is nuclear factor κB (NF-κB) that translocates into the nucleus to initiate the transcription of inflammatory mediators. However, scarce data are available regarding the interaction of ATF3 and p65, a part of the NF-κB dimer. Therefore, we studied the mechanism of regulation of p65 by ATF3 in RAW 264.7 cells. First, LPS-mediated NF-κB activation was confirmed, and then the direct interaction of ATF3 and p65 was observed through immunoprecipitation (IP). The presence of histone deacetylase 1 (HDAC1) was also detected in the complex. In ATF3 deficient cells, NF-κB activity was up-regulated and HDAC1 was not detected by IP. These observations suggest that p65 is attenuated by ATF3 such that ATF3 recruits HDAC1 to the ATF3/p65 complex and facilitates the deacetylation of p65. Likewise, inflammatory response genes were induced by translocated NF-κB in ATF3-deficient cells. Cumulatively, we uncovered a novel mechanism for the negative regulation of NF-κB by ATF3 via direct interaction with p65.

Hypoxia modulates innate immune factors: A review

Hypoxia is an important factor for transcriptional regulation of cell metabolism and the adaptation to cellular stress. It modulates the function of phagocytic cells by stimulating surface receptors such as scavenger receptors, toll like receptors and their downstream signaling cascades. In response to hypoxia, innate immune modifiers are upregulated through pathways involving the key immune response master regulator nuclear factor-κB leading to the modulation of inflammatory cytokines. In this review, we highlighted the effects of hypoxia on different innate immune factors and consequences thereof.

Reptin physically interacts with p65 and represses NF-κB activation

Reptin and Pontin belong to the AAA+ ATPase family of DNA helicases. Both proteins are present in several chromatin-remodeling machineries and are involved in transcriptional regulation, DNA repair, and telomerase activity, but they also function independently from each other. Here we report the identification of p65 as an interacting partner of Reptin. Using reporter gene assays, we show Reptin inhibits NF-κB transactivation after TNFα stimulation. Reptin is mainly localized in the cytoplasm and impedes NF-κB activation by inhibiting IκB-α degradation and restraining p65 nuclear translocation. These results reveal a novel mechanism for the control of NF-κB pathway by cytoplasmic Reptin.

LPSF/GQ-02 inhibits the development of hepatic steatosis and inflammation in a mouse model of non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD)

Non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) defines a wide spectrum of liver diseases that extends from simple steatosis to non-alcoholic steatohepatitis. Although the pathogenesis of NAFLD remains undefined, it is recognized that insulin resistance is present in almost all patients who develop this disease. Thiazolidinediones (TZDs) act as an insulin sensitizer and have been used in the treatment of patients with type 2 diabetes and other insulin-resistant conditions, including NAFLD. Hence, therapy of NAFLD with insulin-sensitizing drugs should ideally improve the key hepatic histological changes, while also reducing cardiometabolic and cancer risks. Controversially, TZDs are associated with the development of cardiovascular events and liver problems. Therefore, there is a need for the development of new therapeutic strategies to improve liver function in patients with chronic liver diseases. The aim of the present study was to assess the therapeutic effects of LPSF/GQ-02 on the liver of LDLR-/- mice after a high-fat diet. Eighty male mice were divided into 4 groups and two different experiments: 1-received a standard diet; 2-fed with a high-fat diet (HFD); 3–HFD+pioglitazone; 4–HFD+LPSF/GQ-02. The experiments were conducted for 10 or 12 weeks and in the last two or four weeks respectively, the drugs were administered daily by gavage. The results obtained with an NAFLD murine model indicated that LPSF/GQ-02 was effective in improving the hepatic architecture, decreasing fat accumulation, reducing the amount of collagen, decreasing inflammation by reducing IL-6, iNOS, COX-2 and F4 / 80, and increasing the protein expression of IκBα, cytoplasmic NFκB-65, eNOS and IRS-1 in mice LDLR -/-. These results suggest a direct action by LPSF/GQ-02 on the factors that affect inflammation, insulin resistance and fat accumulation in the liver of these animals. Further studies are being conducted in our laboratory to investigate the possible mechanism of action of LPSF/GQ-02 on hepatic lipid metabolism.

Biological relevance of Hsp90-binding immunophilins in cancer development and treatment

Immunophilins are a family of intracellular receptors for immunosuppressive drugs. Those immunophilins that are related to immunosuppression are the smallest proteins of the family, i.e., FKBP12 and CyPA, whereas the other members of the family have higher molecular weight because the show additional domains to the drug-binding site. Among these extra domains, the TPR-domain is perhaps the most relevant because it permits the interaction of high molecular weight immunophilins with the 90-kDa heat-shock protein, Hsp90. This essential molecular chaperone regulates the biological function of several protein-kinases, oncogenes, protein phosphatases, transcription factors and cofactors . Hsp90-binding immunophilins where first characterized due to their association with steroid receptors. They regulate the cytoplasmic transport and the subcellular localization of these and other Hsp90 client proteins, as well as transcriptional activity, cell proliferation, cell differentiation and apoptosis. Hsp90-binding immunophilins are frequently overexpressed in several types of cancers and play a key role in cell survival. In this article we analyze the most important biological actions of the best characterized Hsp90-binding immunophilins in both steroid receptor function and cancer development and discuss the potential use of these immunophilins for therapeutic purposes as potential targets of specific small molecules.

Golgi phosphoprotein 3 (GOLPH3) promotes hepatocellular carcinoma cell aggressiveness by activating the NF-κB pathway

Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is one of the most lethal malignancies, in which the NF-κB pathway plays an important role and is constitutively activated. Better understanding of the molecular pathogenesis of HCC and the NF-κB pathway are needed to improve patient outcomes. Herein, we identified an unappreciated protein involved in NF-κB-induced activation, Golgi phosphoprotein 3 (GOLPH3). The mRNA and protein expression levels of GOLPH3 were frequently up-regulated in HCC and GOLPH3 expression correlated closely with clinical stage and survival in both the testing and validation cohorts. Ectopic over-expression of GOLPH3 in PLC/PRF/5 (PLC) and Huh7 HCC cells protected against cisplatin-induced apoptosis, promoted angiogenesis and proliferation and increased the aggressiveness of HCC cells in vitro and in vivo, whereas inhibition of GOLPH3 led to decreased aggressiveness. Through analysis of two published HCC patient profiles, GOLPH3 expression significantly correlated with NF-κB signalling. Furthermore, we demonstrated that GOLPH3 promoted K63-linked polyubiquitination of tumour necrosis factor receptor-associated factor 2 (TRAF2), receptor interacting protein (RIP) and NF-κB essential modulator (NEMO) and substantially sustained the activation of NF-κB in HCC cells. Taken together, our findings provided evidence that GOLPH3 is a prognostic and/or potential therapeutic biomarker for HCC patients and plays an important role in activation of the NF-κB pathway during HCC progression.

Antioxidative effects of ethyl 2-(3-(benzo[d]thiazol-2-yl)ureido)acetate against amyloid β-induced oxidative cell death via NF-κB, GSK-3β and β-catenin signaling pathways in cultured cortical neurons

We have previously shown that 2-(3-(benzo[d]thiazol-2-yl)ureido)acetate (KHG21834) attenuates amyloid beta(Aβ)25-35-induced apoptotic death and shows anti-inflammatory activity against Aβ25-35-induced microglial activation. However, antioxidative effects of KHG21834 against Aβ-induced oxidative stress have not yet been reported. In the present study, we investigated the antioxidative function of KHG21834 in primary cultured cortical neurons, to expand the potential therapeutic efficacy of KHG21834. Pretreatment with KHG21834 protected against Aβ-induced neuronal cell death and mitochondrial damage, and significantly restored GSH levels and the activities of catalase, superoxide dismutase, and glutathione peroxidase, and also suppressed the production of reactive oxygen species and protein oxidation. These results imply that KHG21834 may play a role in cellular defense mechanisms against Aβ-induced oxidative stress in cultured cortical neurons. Furthermore, KHG21834 significantly attenuated the effects of Aβ treatment on levels of NF-κB, β-catenin, and GSK-3β proteins in cortical neurons. Taken together, our results suggest that the antioxidant effects of KHG21834 may result at least in part from its ability to regulate the NF-κB, β-catenin, and GSK-3β signaling pathways. To our knowledge, this is the first report showing that KHG21834 significantly attenuates Aβ25-35-induced oxidative stress in primary cortical neurons, and provides novel insights into KHG21834 as a possible therapeutic agent for the treatment of Aβ-mediated neurotoxicity involving oxidative stress.

The role of hypoxia in inflammatory disease (review)

Mammals have developed evolutionarily conserved programs of transcriptional response to hypoxia and inflammation. These stimuli commonly occur together in vivo and there is significant crosstalk between the transcription factors that are classically understood to respond to either hypoxia or inflammation. This crosstalk can be used to modulate the overall response to environmental stress. Several common disease processes are characterised by aberrant transcriptional programs in response to environmental stress. In this review, we discuss the current understanding of the role of the hypoxia-responsive (hypoxia-inducible factor) and inflammatory (nuclear factor-κB) transcription factor families and their crosstalk in rheumatoid arthritis, inflammatory bowel disease and colorectal cancer, with relevance for future therapies for the management of these conditions.

Angiotensin II upregulates endothelial lipase expression via the NF-kappa B and MAPK signaling pathways

BACKGROUND

Angiotensin II (AngII) participates in endothelial damage and inflammation, and accelerates atherosclerosis. Endothelial lipase (EL) is involved in the metabolism and clearance of high density lipoproteins (HDL), the serum levels of which correlate negatively with the onset of cardiovascular diseases including atherosclerosis. However, the relationship between AngII and EL is not yet fully understood. In this study, we investigated the effects of AngII on the expression of EL and the signaling pathways that mediate its effects in human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVECs).

METHODS AND FINDINGS

HUVECs were cultured in vitro with different treatments as follows: 1) The control group without any treatment; 2) AngII treatment for 0 h, 4 h, 8 h, 12 h and 24 h; 3) NF-κB activation inhibitor pyrrolidine dithiocarbamate (PDTC) pretreatment for 1 h before AngII treatment; and 4) mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) p38 inhibitor (SB203580) pretreatment for 1 h before AngII treatment. EL levels in each group were detected by immunocytochemical staining and western blotting. HUVECs proliferation was detected by MTT and proliferating cell nuclear antigen (PCNA) immunofluorescence staining. NF-kappa B (NF-κB) p65, MAPK p38, c-Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK), extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK) and phosphorylated extracellular signal-regulated kinase (p-ERK) expression levels were assayed by western blotting. The results showed that the protein levels of EL, NF-κB p65, MAPK p38, JNK, and p-ERK protein levels, in addition to the proliferation of HUVECs, were increased by AngII. Both the NF-kB inhibitor (PDTC) and the MAPK p38 inhibitor (SB203580) partially inhibited the effects of AngII on EL expression.

CONCLUSION

AngII may upregulate EL protein expression via the NF-κB and MAPK signaling pathways.

Global gene expression changes in human peripheral blood after H7N9 infection

A novel avian influenza A virus (H7N9) of human infection emerged in eastern China in 2013, causing mild to lethal human respiratory infections. However, the underlying molecular mechanism remains largely unknown. In this work, we attempt to gain insights into the underlying genetic basis of this disease at the transcription level. We collected peripheral blood samples from patients with H7N9 infection and healthy people, and then we performed transcriptome profiling to comprehensively investigate their expression signatures, which would help us to better understand the molecular basis of the etiology upon viral infection. By employing the high throughput RNA-seq analysis of samples with and without H7N9 viral infection, we totally identified 1091 significantly differentially expressed genes. We found that several biological pathways related to the immunity and inflammation response in the differentially expressed genes. A genome-wide screening of gene regulation between H7N9 virus carrier and healthy people provided some insights into understanding and responsiveness to this potential threat.

DNMT3L interacts with transcription factors to target DNMT3L/DNMT3B to specific DNA sequences: role of the DNMT3L/DNMT3B/p65-NFκB complex in the (de-)methylation of TRAF1

DNMT3L i.e. DNA (cytosine-5)-methyltransferase 3-like protein, is devoid of cytosine methyltransferase activity, despite clear homology to DNMT3A and DNMT3B, due to the mutation of key catalytic residues. However, DNMT3L participates in de novo methylation reactions through its direct interaction with DNMT3A and DNMT3B. In the present study, we investigated if DNMT3L interacts also directly with transcription factors (TFs). Using TF arrays, we identified 73 TFs that interacted with DNMT3L, 13 of which (ASH2L, ATF1, ATF3, BLZF1, CDX2, CERM, E2F3, E2F4, GCNF, GTF2I, GTF3C5, NFkB-p65 and RXRα) interacted only with DNMT3L, but not with DNMT3A/B. By focusing on the interaction with NFkB-p65, we demonstrate that DNMT3L forms a complex with DNMT3B and NFkB-p65 and that this complex is required for the control of DNA methylation at the TRAF1 promoter in the T98G glioma cell line. In addition, our experiments describe the DNA methylation at TRAF1 as being dynamic with a demethylation phase involving TET3. Thus, our data suggests that DNMT3L can address DNMT3A/B to specific sites by directly interacting with TFs that do not directly interact with DNMT3A/B. In summary, our data provide a new avenue for the direction of site-specific de novo DNA methylation catalyzed by DNMT3A/B.

NF-κB transcriptional activity is modulated by FK506-binding proteins FKBP51 and FKBP52: a role for peptidyl-prolyl isomerase activity

Hsp90 binding immunophilins FKBP51 and FKBP52 modulate steroid receptor trafficking and hormone-dependent biological responses. With the purpose to expand this model to other nuclear factors that are also subject to nuclear-cytoplasmic shuttling, we analyzed whether these immunophilins modulate NF-κB signaling. It is demonstrated that FKBP51 impairs both the nuclear translocation rate of NF-κB and its transcriptional activity. The inhibitory action of FKBP51 requires neither the peptidylprolyl-isomerase activity of the immunophilin nor its association with Hsp90. The TPR domain of FKBP51 is essential. On the other hand, FKBP52 favors the nuclear retention time of RelA, its association to a DNA consensus binding sequence, and NF-κB transcriptional activity, the latter effect being strongly dependent on the peptidylprolyl-isomerase activity and also on the TPR domain of FKBP52, but its interaction with Hsp90 is not required. In unstimulated cells, FKBP51 forms endogenous complexes with cytoplasmic RelA. Upon cell stimulation with phorbol ester, the NF-κB soluble complex exchanges FKBP51 for FKBP52, and the NF-κB biological effect is triggered. Importantly, FKBP52 is functionally recruited to the promoter region of NF-κB target genes, whereas FKBP51 is released. Competition assays demonstrated that both immunophilins antagonize one another, and binding assays with purified proteins suggest that the association of RelA and immunophilins could be direct. These observations suggest that the biological action of NF-κB in different cell types could be positively regulated by a high FKBP52/FKBP51 expression ratio by favoring NF-κB nuclear retention, recruitment to the promoter regions of target genes, and transcriptional activity.

Oryeongsan inhibits LPS-induced production of inflammatory mediators via blockade of the NF-kappaB, MAPK pathways and leads to HO-1 induction in macrophage cells

BACKGROUND

Oryeongsan (OR) is an herbal medication used in east-Asian traditional medicine to treat dysuresia, such as urinary frequency, hematuria, and dysuria due to renal disease and chronic nephritis. Recent studies showed that protective effect against acute gastric mucosal injury and an inhibitory effect on the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone pathway of OR. However, its effect on inflammation still remains unknown. In this study, to provide insight into the biological effects of OR, we investigated their effects on lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-mediated inflammation in the RAW 264.7 macrophage cells.

METHODS

We investigated the pharmacological and biological effects of OR on the production of pro-inflammatory cytokines, inflammatory mediators, and related products through Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA), reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) and Western blot analysis. Also, we examined the activation and suppression of nuclear factor (NF)-kappaB and mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPKs) pathways in LPS-stimulated macrophages via Western blot analysis in order to explore inhibitory mechanism of OR.

RESULTS

OR had anti-inflammatory effects by inhibiting the production of nitric oxide (NO), tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-alpha, interleukin (IL)-6, and IL-1 beta. In addition, it strongly suppressed cyclooxygenase (COX)-2 and inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS), NO synthesizing enzymes. It also induced heme oxygenase (HO)-1 expression and inhibited NF-kappaB signaling pathway activation and phosphorylation of MAPKs.

CONCLUSIONS

We further demonstrate the anti-inflammatory effects and inhibitory mechanism of OR in LPS-stimulated macrophages for the first time. OR contains strong anti-inflammatory activity and affects various mechanism pathways including NF-kappaB, MAPKs and HO-1. Our results suggest that OR has potential value to be developed as an inflammatory therapeutic agent from a natural substance.