51
|
Yu G, Klionsky DJ. Life and Death Decisions—The Many Faces of Autophagy in Cell Survival and Cell Death. Biomolecules 2022; 12:biom12070866. [PMID: 35883421 PMCID: PMC9313301 DOI: 10.3390/biom12070866] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/27/2022] [Revised: 06/16/2022] [Accepted: 06/17/2022] [Indexed: 02/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Autophagy is a process conserved from yeast to humans. Since the discovery of autophagy, its physiological role in cell survival and cell death has been intensively investigated. The inherent ability of the autophagy machinery to sequester, deliver, and degrade cytoplasmic components enables autophagy to participate in cell survival and cell death in multiple ways. The primary role of autophagy is to send cytoplasmic components to the vacuole or lysosomes for degradation. By fine-tuning autophagy, the cell regulates the removal and recycling of cytoplasmic components in response to various stress or signals. Recent research has shown the implications of the autophagy machinery in other pathways independent of lysosomal degradation, expanding the pro-survival role of autophagy. Autophagy also facilitates certain forms of regulated cell death. In addition, there is complex crosstalk between autophagy and regulated cell death pathways, with a number of genes shared between them, further suggesting a deeper connection between autophagy and cell death. Finally, the mitochondrion presents an example where the cell utilizes autophagy to strike a balance between cell survival and cell death. In this review, we consider the current knowledge on the physiological role of autophagy as well as its regulation and discuss the multiple functions of autophagy in cell survival and cell death.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Ge Yu
- Life Sciences Institute, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI 48109-2216, USA;
- Department of Molecular, Cellular and Developmental Biology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI 48109-2216, USA
| | - Daniel J. Klionsky
- Life Sciences Institute, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI 48109-2216, USA;
- Department of Molecular, Cellular and Developmental Biology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI 48109-2216, USA
- Correspondence:
| |
Collapse
|
52
|
Cheng XT, Huang N, Sheng ZH. Programming axonal mitochondrial maintenance and bioenergetics in neurodegeneration and regeneration. Neuron 2022; 110:1899-1923. [PMID: 35429433 PMCID: PMC9233091 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuron.2022.03.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 59] [Impact Index Per Article: 29.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/14/2021] [Revised: 01/04/2022] [Accepted: 03/10/2022] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Mitochondria generate ATP essential for neuronal growth, function, and regeneration. Due to their polarized structures, neurons face exceptional challenges to deliver mitochondria to and maintain energy homeostasis throughout long axons and terminal branches where energy is in high demand. Chronic mitochondrial dysfunction accompanied by bioenergetic failure is a pathological hallmark of major neurodegenerative diseases. Brain injury triggers acute mitochondrial damage and a local energy crisis that accelerates neuron death. Thus, mitochondrial maintenance defects and axonal energy deficits emerge as central problems in neurodegenerative disorders and brain injury. Recent studies have started to uncover the intrinsic mechanisms that neurons adopt to maintain (or reprogram) axonal mitochondrial density and integrity, and their bioenergetic capacity, upon sensing energy stress. In this review, we discuss recent advances in how neurons maintain a healthy pool of axonal mitochondria, as well as potential therapeutic strategies that target bioenergetic restoration to power neuronal survival, function, and regeneration.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Xiu-Tang Cheng
- Synaptic Function Section, The Porter Neuroscience Research Center, National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke, National Institutes of Health, Room 2B-215, 35 Convent Drive, Bethesda, MD 20892-3706, USA
| | - Ning Huang
- Synaptic Function Section, The Porter Neuroscience Research Center, National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke, National Institutes of Health, Room 2B-215, 35 Convent Drive, Bethesda, MD 20892-3706, USA
| | - Zu-Hang Sheng
- Synaptic Function Section, The Porter Neuroscience Research Center, National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke, National Institutes of Health, Room 2B-215, 35 Convent Drive, Bethesda, MD 20892-3706, USA.
| |
Collapse
|
53
|
Li J, Dang X, Franco A, Dorn GW. Reciprocal Regulation of Mitofusin 2-Mediated Mitophagy and Mitochondrial Fusion by Different PINK1 Phosphorylation Events. Front Cell Dev Biol 2022; 10:868465. [PMID: 35646911 PMCID: PMC9133611 DOI: 10.3389/fcell.2022.868465] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/02/2022] [Accepted: 04/11/2022] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Mitochondrial repair is essential to metabolic homeostasis. Outer mitochondrial membrane mitofusin (MFN) proteins orchestrate mitochondrial fusion that opposes mitochondrial degeneration caused by senescence. Depending upon physiological context, MFN2 can either mediate mitochondrial fusion or recruit cytosolic Parkin to initiate mitophagic elimination. Because it is not clear how these events are counter-regulated we engineered and expressed MFN2 mutants that mimic phosphorylated or non-phosphorylatable MFN2 at its PINK1 phosphorylation sites: T111, S378, and S442. By interrogating mitochondrial fusion, polarization status, and Parkin binding/mitophagy as a function of inferred MFN2 phosphorylation, we discovered that individual MFN2 phosphorylation events act as a biological “bar-code”, directing mitochondrial fate based on phosphorylation site state. Experiments in Pink1 deficient cells supported a central role for PINK1 kinase as the pivotal regulator of MFN2 functionality. Contrary to popular wisdom that Parkin-mediated ubiquitination regulates MFN-mediated mitochondrial fusion, results in Prkn null cells demonstrated the dispensability of Parkin for MFN2 inactivation. These data demonstrate that PINK1-mediated phosphorylation is necessary and sufficient, and that Parkin is expendable, to switch MFN2 from fusion protein to mitophagy effector.
Collapse
|
54
|
Griffey CJ, Yamamoto A. Macroautophagy in CNS health and disease. Nat Rev Neurosci 2022; 23:411-427. [PMID: 35505254 DOI: 10.1038/s41583-022-00588-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 03/22/2022] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Macroautophagy is an evolutionarily conserved process that delivers diverse cellular contents to lysosomes for degradation. As our understanding of this pathway grows, so does our appreciation for its importance in disorders of the CNS. Once implicated primarily in neurodegenerative events owing to acute injury and ageing, macroautophagy is now also linked to disorders of neurodevelopment, indicating that it is essential for both the formation and maintenance of a healthy CNS. In parallel to understanding the significance of macroautophagy across contexts, we have gained a greater mechanistic insight into its physiological regulation and the breadth of cargoes it can degrade. Macroautophagy is a broadly used homeostatic process, giving rise to questions surrounding how defects in this single pathway could cause diseases with distinct clinical and pathological signatures. To address this complexity, we herein review macroautophagy in the mammalian CNS by examining three key features of the process and its relationship to disease: how it functions at a basal level in the discrete cell types of the brain and spinal cord; which cargoes are being degraded in physiological and pathological settings; and how the different stages of the macroautophagy pathway intersect with diseases of neurodevelopment and adult-onset neurodegeneration.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Christopher J Griffey
- Doctoral Program in Neurobiology and Behaviour, Medical Scientist Training Program, Columbia University, New York, NY, USA
| | - Ai Yamamoto
- Departments of Neurology, and Pathology and Cell Biology, Columbia University, New York, NY, USA.
| |
Collapse
|
55
|
Eldeeb MA, Thomas RA, Ragheb MA, Fallahi A, Fon EA. Mitochondrial quality control in health and in Parkinson's disease. Physiol Rev 2022; 102:1721-1755. [PMID: 35466694 DOI: 10.1152/physrev.00041.2021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 79] [Impact Index Per Article: 39.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
As a central hub for cellular metabolism and intracellular signalling, the mitochondrion is a pivotal organelle, dysfunction of which has been linked to several human diseases including neurodegenerative disorders, and in particular Parkinson's disease. An inherent challenge that mitochondria face is the continuous exposure to diverse stresses which increase their likelihood of dysregulation. In response, eukaryotic cells have evolved sophisticated quality control mechanisms to monitor, identify, repair and/or eliminate abnormal or misfolded proteins within the mitochondrion and/or the dysfunctional mitochondrion itself. Chaperones identify unstable or otherwise abnormal conformations in mitochondrial proteins and can promote their refolding to recover their correct conformation and stability. However, if repair is not possible, the abnormal protein is selectively degraded to prevent potentially damaging interactions with other proteins or its oligomerization into toxic multimeric complexes. The autophagic-lysosomal system and the ubiquitin-proteasome system mediate the selective and targeted degradation of such abnormal or misfolded protein species. Mitophagy (a specific kind of autophagy) mediates the selective elimination of dysfunctional mitochondria, in order to prevent the deleterious effects the dysfunctional organelles within the cell. Despite our increasing understanding of the molecular responses toward dysfunctional mitochondria, many key aspects remain relatively poorly understood. Herein, we review the emerging mechanisms of mitochondrial quality control including quality control strategies coupled to mitochondrial import mechanisms. In addition, we review the molecular mechanisms regulating mitophagy with an emphasis on the regulation of PINK1/PARKIN-mediated mitophagy in cellular physiology and in the context of Parkinson's disease cell biology.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Mohamed A Eldeeb
- McGill Parkinson Program, Neurodegenerative Diseases Group, Department of Neurology and Neurosurgery, Montreal Neurological Institute, McGill University, Montreal, Quebec, Canada
| | - Rhalena A Thomas
- McGill Parkinson Program, Neurodegenerative Diseases Group, Department of Neurology and Neurosurgery, Montreal Neurological Institute, McGill University, Montreal, Quebec, Canada
| | - Mohamed A Ragheb
- Chemistry Department (Biochemistry Division), Faculty of Science, Cairo University, Giza, Egypt
| | - Armaan Fallahi
- McGill Parkinson Program, Neurodegenerative Diseases Group, Department of Neurology and Neurosurgery, Montreal Neurological Institute, McGill University, Montreal, Quebec, Canada
| | - Edward A Fon
- McGill Parkinson Program, Neurodegenerative Diseases Group, Department of Neurology and Neurosurgery, Montreal Neurological Institute, McGill University, Montreal, Quebec, Canada
| |
Collapse
|
56
|
Xie S, Yang J, Huang S, Fan Y, Xu T, He J, Guo J, Ji X, Wang Z, Li P, Chen J, Zhang Y. Disrupted myelination network in the cingulate cortex of Parkinson's disease. IET Syst Biol 2022; 16:98-119. [PMID: 35394697 PMCID: PMC9290774 DOI: 10.1049/syb2.12043] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/28/2021] [Revised: 01/31/2022] [Accepted: 03/21/2022] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
The cingulate cortex is part of the conserved limbic system, which is considered as a hub of emotional and cognitive control. Accumulating evidence suggested that involvement of the cingulate cortex is significant for cognitive impairment of Parkinson's disease (PD). However, mechanistic studies of the cingulate cortex in PD pathogenesis are limited. Here, transcriptomic and regulatory network analyses were conducted for the cingulate cortex in PD. Enrichment and clustering analyses showed that genes involved in regulation of membrane potential and glutamate receptor signalling pathway were upregulated. Importantly, myelin genes and the oligodendrocyte development pathways were markedly downregulated, indicating disrupted myelination in PD cingulate cortex. Cell‐type‐specific signatures revealed that myelinating oligodendrocytes were the major cell type damaged in the PD cingulate cortex. Furthermore, downregulation of myelination pathways in the cingulate cortex were shared and validated in another independent RNAseq cohort of dementia with Lewy bodies (DLB). In combination with ATACseq data, gene regulatory networks (GRNs) were further constructed for 32 transcription factors (TFs) and 466 target genes among differentially expressed genes (DEGs) using a tree‐based machine learning algorithm. Several transcription factors, including Olig2, Sox8, Sox10, E2F1, and NKX6‐2, were highlighted as key nodes in a sub‐network, which control many overlapping downstream targets associated with myelin formation and gliogenesis. In addition, the authors have validated a subset of DEGs by qPCRs in two PD mouse models. Notably, seven of these genes,TOX3, NECAB2 NOS1, CAPN3, NR4A2, E2F1 and FOXP2, have been implicated previously in PD or neurodegeneration and are worthy of further studies as novel candidate genes. Together, our findings provide new insights into the role of remyelination as a promising new approach to treat PD after demyelination.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Song Xie
- Institute of Genomic Medicine, Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, Zhejiang Province, China.,School of Laboratory Medicine and Life Science, Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, Zhejiang Province, China
| | - Jiajun Yang
- Institute of Genomic Medicine, Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, Zhejiang Province, China.,School of Laboratory Medicine and Life Science, Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, Zhejiang Province, China
| | - Shenghui Huang
- Institute of Genomic Medicine, Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, Zhejiang Province, China.,School of Laboratory Medicine and Life Science, Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, Zhejiang Province, China
| | - Yuanlan Fan
- Institute of Genomic Medicine, Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, Zhejiang Province, China.,School of Laboratory Medicine and Life Science, Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, Zhejiang Province, China
| | - Tao Xu
- Molecular Neuropharmacology Lab, School of Optometry and Ophthalmology, Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, Zhejiang Province, China.,The Eye-Brain Research Center, State Key Laboratory of Ophthalmology, Optometry and Visual Science, Wenzhou, Zhejiang Province, China
| | - Jiangshuang He
- Institute of Genomic Medicine, Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, Zhejiang Province, China.,School of Laboratory Medicine and Life Science, Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, Zhejiang Province, China
| | - Jiahao Guo
- Institute of Genomic Medicine, Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, Zhejiang Province, China.,School of Laboratory Medicine and Life Science, Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, Zhejiang Province, China
| | - Xiang Ji
- Department of Mathematics, School of Science & Engineering, Tulane University, New Orleans, Louisiana, USA
| | - Zhibo Wang
- Institute of Genomic Medicine, Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, Zhejiang Province, China
| | - Peijun Li
- The Second Affiliated Hospital and Yuying Children's Hospital, Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, Zhejiang Province, China
| | - Jiangfan Chen
- Molecular Neuropharmacology Lab, School of Optometry and Ophthalmology, Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, Zhejiang Province, China.,The Eye-Brain Research Center, State Key Laboratory of Ophthalmology, Optometry and Visual Science, Wenzhou, Zhejiang Province, China
| | - Yi Zhang
- Institute of Genomic Medicine, Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, Zhejiang Province, China.,The Eye-Brain Research Center, State Key Laboratory of Ophthalmology, Optometry and Visual Science, Wenzhou, Zhejiang Province, China.,Key Laboratory of Alzheimer's Disease of Zhejiang Province, Institute of Aging, Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, Zhejiang Province, China
| |
Collapse
|
57
|
Zhang S, Zhao J, Quan Z, Li H, Qing H. Mitochondria and Other Organelles in Neural Development and Their Potential as Therapeutic Targets in Neurodegenerative Diseases. Front Neurosci 2022; 16:853911. [PMID: 35450015 PMCID: PMC9016280 DOI: 10.3389/fnins.2022.853911] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/13/2022] [Accepted: 03/07/2022] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
The contribution of organelles to neural development has received increasing attention. Studies have shown that organelles such as mitochondria, endoplasmic reticulum (ER), lysosomes, and endosomes play important roles in neurogenesis. Specifically, metabolic switching, reactive oxygen species production, mitochondrial dynamics, mitophagy, mitochondria-mediated apoptosis, and the interaction between mitochondria and the ER all have roles in neurogenesis. Lysosomes and endosomes can regulate neurite growth and extension. Moreover, metabolic reprogramming represents a novel strategy for generating functional neurons. Accordingly, the exploration and application of mechanisms underlying metabolic reprogramming will be beneficial for neural conversion and regenerative medicine. There is adequate evidence implicating the dysfunction of cellular organelles—especially mitochondria—in neurodegenerative disorders, and that improvement of mitochondrial function may reverse the progression of these diseases through the reinforcement of adult neurogenesis. Therefore, these organelles have potential as therapeutic targets for the treatment of neurodegenerative diseases. In this review, we discuss the function of these organelles, especially mitochondria, in neural development, focusing on their potential as therapeutic targets in neurodegenerative disorders, including Alzheimer’s disease, Parkinson’s disease, Huntington’s disease, and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Shuyuan Zhang
- Key Laboratory of Molecular Medicine and Biotherapy, School of Life Science, Beijing Institute of Technology, Beijing, China
| | - Juan Zhao
- Aerospace Medical Center, Aerospace Center Hospital, Beijing, China
| | - Zhenzhen Quan
- Key Laboratory of Molecular Medicine and Biotherapy, School of Life Science, Beijing Institute of Technology, Beijing, China
| | - Hui Li
- Key Laboratory of Molecular Medicine and Biotherapy, School of Life Science, Beijing Institute of Technology, Beijing, China
- *Correspondence: Hui Li,
| | - Hong Qing
- Key Laboratory of Molecular Medicine and Biotherapy, School of Life Science, Beijing Institute of Technology, Beijing, China
- Hong Qing,
| |
Collapse
|
58
|
New pathogenic insights from large animal models of neurodegenerative diseases. Protein Cell 2022; 13:707-720. [PMID: 35334073 PMCID: PMC9233730 DOI: 10.1007/s13238-022-00912-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/07/2022] [Accepted: 02/23/2022] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Animal models are essential for investigating the pathogenesis and developing the treatment of human diseases. Identification of genetic mutations responsible for neurodegenerative diseases has enabled the creation of a large number of small animal models that mimic genetic defects found in the affected individuals. Of the current animal models, rodents with genetic modifications are the most commonly used animal models and provided important insights into pathogenesis. However, most of genetically modified rodent models lack overt neurodegeneration, imposing challenges and obstacles in utilizing them to rigorously test the therapeutic effects on neurodegeneration. Recent studies that used CRISPR/Cas9-targeted large animal (pigs and monkeys) have uncovered important pathological events that resemble neurodegeneration in the patient’s brain but could not be produced in small animal models. Here we highlight the unique nature of large animals to model neurodegenerative diseases as well as the limitations and challenges in establishing large animal models of neurodegenerative diseases, with focus on Huntington disease, Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, and Parkinson diseases. We also discuss how to use the important pathogenic insights from large animal models to make rodent models more capable of recapitulating important pathological features of neurodegenerative diseases.
Collapse
|
59
|
Therapeutic targeting of mitophagy in Parkinson's disease. Biochem Soc Trans 2022; 50:783-797. [PMID: 35311891 PMCID: PMC9162468 DOI: 10.1042/bst20211107] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/21/2022] [Revised: 03/04/2022] [Accepted: 03/07/2022] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Parkinson's disease is a neurodegenerative disorder characterised by cardinal motor symptoms and a diverse range of non-motor disorders in patients. Parkinson's disease is the fastest growing neurodegenerative condition and was described for the first time over 200 years ago, yet there are still no reliable diagnostic markers and there are only treatments that temporarily alleviate symptoms in patients. Early-onset Parkinson's disease is often linked to defects in specific genes, including PINK1 and Parkin, that encode proteins involved in mitophagy, the process of selective autophagic elimination of damaged mitochondria. Impaired mitophagy has been associated with sporadic Parkinson's and agents that damage mitochondria are known to induce Parkinson's-like motor symptoms in humans and animal models. Thus, modulating mitophagy pathways may be an avenue to treat a subset of early-onset Parkinson's disease that may additionally provide therapeutic opportunities in sporadic disease. The PINK1/Parkin mitophagy pathway, as well as alternative mitophagy pathways controlled by BNIP3L/Nix and FUNDC1, are emerging targets to enhance mitophagy to treat Parkinson's disease. In this review, we report the current state of the art of mitophagy-targeted therapeutics and discuss the approaches being used to overcome existing limitations to develop innovative new therapies for Parkinson's disease. Key approaches include the use of engineered mouse models that harbour pathogenic mutations, which will aid in the preclinical development of agents that can modulate mitophagy. Furthermore, the recent development of chimeric molecules (AUTACs) that can bypass mitophagy pathways to eliminate damaged mitochondria thorough selective autophagy offer new opportunities.
Collapse
|
60
|
Neonatal 6-hydroxydopamine lesioning of rats and dopaminergic neurotoxicity: proposed animal model of Parkinson’s disease. J Neural Transm (Vienna) 2022; 129:445-461. [DOI: 10.1007/s00702-022-02479-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/16/2021] [Accepted: 02/11/2022] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
|
61
|
Ebanks B, Chakrabarti L. Mitochondrial ATP Synthase is a Target of Oxidative Stress in Neurodegenerative Diseases. Front Mol Biosci 2022; 9:854321. [PMID: 35237666 PMCID: PMC8882969 DOI: 10.3389/fmolb.2022.854321] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/13/2022] [Accepted: 01/26/2022] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
The mitochondrial ATP synthase is responsible for the production of cellular ATP, and it does so by harnessing the membrane potential of the mitochondria that is produced by the sequential oxidation of select cellular metabolites. Since the structural features of ATP synthase were first resolved nearly three decades ago, significant progress has been made in understanding its role in health and disease. Mitochondrial dysfunction is common to neurodegeneration, with elevated oxidative stress a hallmark of this dysfunction. The patterns of this oxidative stress, including molecular targets and the form of oxidative modification, can vary widely. In this mini review we discuss the oxidative modifications of ATP synthase that have been observed in Alzheimer’s disease, Parkinson’s disease, and Huntington’s disease. Oxidative modifications of ATP synthase in Alzheimer’s disease are well-documented, and there is a growing body of knowledge on the subject in Parkinson’s disease. The consideration of ATP synthase as a pharmacological target in a variety of diseases underlines the importance of understanding these modifications, both as a potential target, and also as inhibitors of any pharmacological intervention.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Brad Ebanks
- School of Veterinary Medicine and Science, University of Nottingham, Nottingham, United Kingdom
- *Correspondence: Brad Ebanks,
| | - Lisa Chakrabarti
- School of Veterinary Medicine and Science, University of Nottingham, Nottingham, United Kingdom
- MRC Versus Arthritis Centre for Musculoskeletal Ageing Research, Nottingham, United Kingdom
| |
Collapse
|
62
|
Chowdhury A, Witte S, Aich A. Role of Mitochondrial Nucleic Acid Sensing Pathways in Health and Patho-Physiology. Front Cell Dev Biol 2022; 10:796066. [PMID: 35223833 PMCID: PMC8873532 DOI: 10.3389/fcell.2022.796066] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/15/2021] [Accepted: 01/14/2022] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Mitochondria, in symbiosis with the host cell, carry out a wide variety of functions from generating energy, regulating the metabolic processes, cell death to inflammation. The most prominent function of mitochondria relies on the oxidative phosphorylation (OXPHOS) system. OXPHOS heavily influences the mitochondrial-nuclear communication through a plethora of interconnected signaling pathways. Additionally, owing to the bacterial ancestry, mitochondria also harbor a large number of Damage Associated Molecular Patterns (DAMPs). These molecules relay the information about the state of the mitochondrial health and dysfunction to the innate immune system. Consequently, depending on the intracellular or extracellular nature of detection, different inflammatory pathways are elicited. One group of DAMPs, the mitochondrial nucleic acids, hijack the antiviral DNA or RNA sensing mechanisms such as the cGAS/STING and RIG-1/MAVS pathways. A pro-inflammatory response is invoked by these signals predominantly through type I interferon (T1-IFN) cytokines. This affects a wide range of organ systems which exhibit clinical presentations of auto-immune disorders. Interestingly, tumor cells too, have devised ingenious ways to use the mitochondrial DNA mediated cGAS-STING-IRF3 response to promote neoplastic transformations and develop tumor micro-environments. Thus, mitochondrial nucleic acid-sensing pathways are fundamental in understanding the source and nature of disease initiation and development. Apart from the pathological interest, recent studies also attempt to delineate the structural considerations for the release of nucleic acids across the mitochondrial membranes. Hence, this review presents a comprehensive overview of the different aspects of mitochondrial nucleic acid-sensing. It attempts to summarize the nature of the molecular patterns involved, their release and recognition in the cytoplasm and signaling. Finally, a major emphasis is given to elaborate the resulting patho-physiologies.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Arpita Chowdhury
- Department of Cellular Biochemistry, University Medical Center, Göttingen, Germany
| | - Steffen Witte
- Department of Cellular Biochemistry, University Medical Center, Göttingen, Germany
| | - Abhishek Aich
- Department of Cellular Biochemistry, University Medical Center, Göttingen, Germany
- Cluster of Excellence “Multiscale Bioimaging, from Molecular Machines to Networks of Excitable Cells” (MBExC), University of Göttingen, Göttingen, Germany
| |
Collapse
|
63
|
Gock N, Follett J, Rintoul GL, Beischlag TV, Lee FJ. Endosomal recycling and dopamine neurotransmission: Exploring the links between the retromer and Parkinson's disease. Synapse 2022; 76:e22224. [DOI: 10.1002/syn.22224] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/06/2021] [Revised: 12/17/2021] [Accepted: 01/23/2022] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Nathan Gock
- Faculty of Health Sciences Simon Fraser University 8888 University Dr Burnaby BC V5A 1S6 Canada
- Centre for Cell Biology, Development, and Disease Simon Fraser University 8888 University Dr Burnaby BC V5A 1S6 Canada
| | - Jordan Follett
- Laboratory of Neurogenetics and Neuroscience Department of Neurology University of Florida 1149 Newell Dr Gainesville FL 32610‐0236 United States
| | - Gordon L Rintoul
- Department of Biological Sciences Simon Fraser University 8888 University Dr Burnaby BC V5A 1S6 Canada
- Centre for Cell Biology, Development, and Disease Simon Fraser University 8888 University Dr Burnaby BC V5A 1S6 Canada
| | - Timothy V Beischlag
- Faculty of Health Sciences Simon Fraser University 8888 University Dr Burnaby BC V5A 1S6 Canada
- Centre for Cell Biology, Development, and Disease Simon Fraser University 8888 University Dr Burnaby BC V5A 1S6 Canada
| | - Frank J.S. Lee
- Faculty of Health Sciences Simon Fraser University 8888 University Dr Burnaby BC V5A 1S6 Canada
- Centre for Cell Biology, Development, and Disease Simon Fraser University 8888 University Dr Burnaby BC V5A 1S6 Canada
| |
Collapse
|
64
|
Bareiss SK, Johnston T, Lu Q, Tran TD. The effect of exercise on early sensorimotor performance alterations in the 3xTg-AD model of Alzheimer's disease. Neurosci Res 2022; 178:60-68. [PMID: 35033583 DOI: 10.1016/j.neures.2022.01.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/18/2021] [Revised: 12/29/2021] [Accepted: 01/12/2022] [Indexed: 01/13/2023]
Abstract
Alzheimer's disease (AD) is characterized by a progressive decline in cognitive function; however, recent evidence suggests that non-cognitive sensorimotor and psychomotor symptoms accompany early stages of the disease in humans and AD models. Although exercise is emerging as an important therapeutic to combat AD progression, little is known about the effect of exercise on sensorimotor domain functions. The purpose of this study was to determine if early sensorimotor symptoms accompany deficits in Morris water maze (MWM) performance in the 3xTg-AD model, and investigate if exercise could protect against early behavioral decline. 3xTg-AD and wild-type (WT) control mice were subjected to 12 weeks of moderate intensity wheel running or remained sedentary. At 6 months of age, animals underwent a series of sensorimotor and MWM testing. 3xTg-AD mice displayed deficits in sensorimotor function (beam traversal, spontaneous activity, and adhesive removal) and MWM performance. Interestingly, 3xTg-AD animals exhibited increased freezing and unusual shaking/tremoring behaviors not displayed by WT controls. Exercise improved beam traversal, adhesive removal, and reduced the unusual motor-related behaviors in 3xTg-AD mice. Our study shows that sensorimotor symptoms coincide with deficits in MWM performance, and suggest that exercise may mitigate deficits associated with early disease in 3xTg-AD mice.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Sonja K Bareiss
- Department of Physical Therapy, School of Rehabilitation and Movement Sciences, Bellarmine University, Louisville, KY 40205, United States; Department of Neurological Surgery, University of Louisville, United States; The Harriet and John Wooten Laboratory for Alzheimer's and Neurodegenerative Diseases Research, East Carolina University, United States.
| | - Tyler Johnston
- Department of Physical Therapy, East Carolina University, Greenville, NC 27834, United States.
| | - Qun Lu
- Department of Anatomy and Cell Biology, Brody School of Medicine, United States; The Harriet and John Wooten Laboratory for Alzheimer's and Neurodegenerative Diseases Research, East Carolina University, United States.
| | - Tuan D Tran
- The Harriet and John Wooten Laboratory for Alzheimer's and Neurodegenerative Diseases Research, East Carolina University, United States; Department of Psychology East Carolina University, Greenville, NC 27834, United States.
| |
Collapse
|
65
|
Klonarakis M, De Vos M, Woo E, Ralph L, Thacker JS, Gil-Mohapel J. The three sisters of fate: Genetics, pathophysiology and outcomes of animal models of neurodegenerative diseases. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2022; 135:104541. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2022.104541] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/03/2021] [Revised: 11/28/2021] [Accepted: 01/13/2022] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
|
66
|
Cai Q, Ganesan D. Regulation of neuronal autophagy and the implications in neurodegenerative diseases. Neurobiol Dis 2022; 162:105582. [PMID: 34890791 PMCID: PMC8764935 DOI: 10.1016/j.nbd.2021.105582] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/17/2021] [Revised: 11/22/2021] [Accepted: 12/06/2021] [Indexed: 01/03/2023] Open
Abstract
Neurons are highly polarized and post-mitotic cells with the specific requirements of neurotransmission accompanied by high metabolic demands that create a unique challenge for the maintenance of cellular homeostasis. Thus, neurons rely heavily on autophagy that constitutes a key quality control system by which dysfunctional cytoplasmic components, protein aggregates, and damaged organelles are sequestered within autophagosomes and then delivered to the lysosome for degradation. While mature lysosomes are predominantly located in the soma of neurons, the robust, constitutive biogenesis of autophagosomes occurs in the synaptic terminal via a conserved pathway that is required to maintain synaptic integrity and function. Following formation, autophagosomes fuse with late endosomes and then are rapidly and efficiently transported by the microtubule-based cytoplasmic dynein motor along the axon toward the soma for lysosomal clearance. In this review, we highlight the recent knowledge of the roles of autophagy in neuronal health and disease. We summarize the available evidence about the normal functions of autophagy as a protective factor against neurodegeneration and discuss the mechanism underlying neuronal autophagy regulation. Finally, we describe how autophagy function is affected in major neurodegenerative diseases with a special focus on Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, and Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis.
Collapse
|
67
|
Yang W, Chen X, Li S, Li XJ. Genetically modified large animal models for investigating neurodegenerative diseases. Cell Biosci 2021; 11:218. [PMID: 34933675 PMCID: PMC8690884 DOI: 10.1186/s13578-021-00729-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/29/2021] [Accepted: 12/07/2021] [Indexed: 12/02/2022] Open
Abstract
Neurodegenerative diseases represent a large group of neurological disorders including Alzheimer’s disease, amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, Parkinson’s disease, and Huntington’s disease. Although this group of diseases show heterogeneous clinical and pathological phenotypes, they share important pathological features characterized by the age-dependent and progressive degeneration of nerve cells that is caused by the accumulation of misfolded proteins. The association of genetic mutations with neurodegeneration diseases has enabled the establishment of various types of animal models that mimic genetic defects and have provided important insights into the pathogenesis. However, most of genetically modified rodent models lack the overt and selective neurodegeneration seen in the patient brains, making it difficult to use the small animal models to validate the effective treatment on neurodegeneration. Recent studies of pig and monkey models suggest that large animals can more faithfully recapitulate pathological features of neurodegenerative diseases. In this review, we discuss the important differences in animal models for modeling pathological features of neurodegenerative diseases, aiming to assist the use of animal models to better understand the pathogenesis and to develop effective therapeutic strategies.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Weili Yang
- Guangdong Key Laboratory of Non-Human Primate Research, Guangdong-Hongkong-Macau Institute of CNS Regeneration, Jinan University, Guangzhou, 510632, China.
| | - Xiusheng Chen
- Guangdong Key Laboratory of Non-Human Primate Research, Guangdong-Hongkong-Macau Institute of CNS Regeneration, Jinan University, Guangzhou, 510632, China
| | - Shihua Li
- Guangdong Key Laboratory of Non-Human Primate Research, Guangdong-Hongkong-Macau Institute of CNS Regeneration, Jinan University, Guangzhou, 510632, China
| | - Xiao-Jiang Li
- Guangdong Key Laboratory of Non-Human Primate Research, Guangdong-Hongkong-Macau Institute of CNS Regeneration, Jinan University, Guangzhou, 510632, China.
| |
Collapse
|
68
|
Li Y, Zheng W, Lu Y, Zheng Y, Pan L, Wu X, Yuan Y, Shen Z, Ma S, Zhang X, Wu J, Chen Z, Zhang X. BNIP3L/NIX-mediated mitophagy: molecular mechanisms and implications for human disease. Cell Death Dis 2021; 13:14. [PMID: 34930907 PMCID: PMC8688453 DOI: 10.1038/s41419-021-04469-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 56] [Impact Index Per Article: 18.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/04/2021] [Revised: 11/26/2021] [Accepted: 12/10/2021] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Mitophagy is a highly conserved cellular process that maintains the mitochondrial quantity by eliminating dysfunctional or superfluous mitochondria through autophagy machinery. The mitochondrial outer membrane protein BNIP3L/Nix serves as a mitophagy receptor by recognizing autophagosomes. BNIP3L is initially known to clear the mitochondria during the development of reticulocytes. Recent studies indicated it also engages in a variety of physiological and pathological processes. In this review, we provide an overview of how BNIP3L induces mitophagy and discuss the biological functions of BNIP3L and its regulation at the molecular level. We further discuss current evidence indicating the involvement of BNIP3L-mediated mitophagy in human disease, particularly in cancer and neurological disorders.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Yue Li
- Institute of Pharmacology & Toxicology, College of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Key Laboratory of Medical Neurobiology of The Ministry of Health of China, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China
| | - Wanqing Zheng
- Institute of Pharmacology & Toxicology, College of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Key Laboratory of Medical Neurobiology of The Ministry of Health of China, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China
| | - Yangyang Lu
- Institute of Pharmacology & Toxicology, College of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Key Laboratory of Medical Neurobiology of The Ministry of Health of China, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China
| | - Yanrong Zheng
- Institute of Pharmacology & Toxicology, College of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Key Laboratory of Medical Neurobiology of The Ministry of Health of China, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China
- Key Laboratory of Neuropharmacology and Translational Medicine of Zhejiang Province, College of Pharmacology Science, Zhejiang Chinese Medical University, Hangzhou, China
| | - Ling Pan
- Institute of Pharmacology & Toxicology, College of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Key Laboratory of Medical Neurobiology of The Ministry of Health of China, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China
| | - Xiaoli Wu
- Institute of Pharmacology & Toxicology, College of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Key Laboratory of Medical Neurobiology of The Ministry of Health of China, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China
| | - Yang Yuan
- Institute of Pharmacology & Toxicology, College of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Key Laboratory of Medical Neurobiology of The Ministry of Health of China, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China
| | - Zhe Shen
- Institute of Pharmacology & Toxicology, College of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Key Laboratory of Medical Neurobiology of The Ministry of Health of China, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China
| | - Shijia Ma
- Institute of Pharmacology & Toxicology, College of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Key Laboratory of Medical Neurobiology of The Ministry of Health of China, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China
| | - Xingxian Zhang
- Institute of Pharmacology & Toxicology, College of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Key Laboratory of Medical Neurobiology of The Ministry of Health of China, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China
| | - Jiaying Wu
- Department of Pharmacy, The First Affiliated Hospital, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou, China
| | - Zhong Chen
- Institute of Pharmacology & Toxicology, College of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Key Laboratory of Medical Neurobiology of The Ministry of Health of China, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China.
- Key Laboratory of Neuropharmacology and Translational Medicine of Zhejiang Province, College of Pharmacology Science, Zhejiang Chinese Medical University, Hangzhou, China.
| | - Xiangnan Zhang
- Institute of Pharmacology & Toxicology, College of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Key Laboratory of Medical Neurobiology of The Ministry of Health of China, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China.
| |
Collapse
|
69
|
Macroautophagy and Mitophagy in Neurodegenerative Disorders: Focus on Therapeutic Interventions. Biomedicines 2021; 9:biomedicines9111625. [PMID: 34829854 PMCID: PMC8615936 DOI: 10.3390/biomedicines9111625] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/24/2021] [Revised: 11/01/2021] [Accepted: 11/03/2021] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Macroautophagy, a quality control mechanism, is an evolutionarily conserved pathway of lysosomal degradation of protein aggregates, pathogens, and damaged organelles. As part of its vital homeostatic role, macroautophagy deregulation is associated with various human disorders, including neurodegenerative diseases. There are several lines of evidence that associate protein misfolding and mitochondrial dysfunction in the etiology of Alzheimer’s, Parkinson’s, and Huntington’s diseases. Macroautophagy has been implicated in the degradation of different protein aggregates such as Aβ, tau, alpha-synuclein (α-syn), and mutant huntingtin (mHtt) and in the clearance of dysfunctional mitochondria. Taking these into consideration, targeting autophagy might represent an effective therapeutic strategy to eliminate protein aggregates and to improve mitochondrial function in these disorders. The present review describes our current understanding on the role of macroautophagy in neurodegenerative disorders and focuses on possible strategies for its therapeutic modulation.
Collapse
|
70
|
Deshimaru M, Mishima T, Watanabe T, Kubota K, Hosoi M, Kinoshita-Kawada M, Yuasa-Kawada J, Ikeda M, Mori M, Murata Y, Abe T, Enjoji M, Kiyonari H, Kodama S, Fujioka S, Iwasaki K, Tsuboi Y. Behavioral profile in a Dctn1 G71A knock-in mouse model of Perry disease. Neurosci Lett 2021; 764:136234. [PMID: 34508845 DOI: 10.1016/j.neulet.2021.136234] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/10/2021] [Revised: 09/06/2021] [Accepted: 09/06/2021] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Perry disease (Perry syndrome) is a rare, rapidly progressive, autosomal dominant neurodegenerative disease characterized by parkinsonism, depression/apathy, weight loss, and respiratory symptoms including central hypoventilation. It is caused by missense mutations (e.g. p.G71A) in the DCTN1 gene. We previously generated transgenic mice that expressed human DCTN1G71A mutant protein under the control of Thy1 promoter. These mice exhibited apathy-like behavior and parkinsonism. However, it is possible that this phenotype was due to a gene-dosage imbalance or transgene insertion position. To circumvent these potential caveats, we have generated a knock-in mouse model carrying a p.G71A mutation in Dctn1. Heterozygous Dctn1G71A and wild-type littermates were subjected to a battery of behavioral analyses. Furthermore, immunohistochemistry for tyrosine hydroxylase (TH) was performed on brain sections of these mice, and TH signal intensity in substantia nigral neurons was quantified. Dctn1G71A mice were immobile for longer than wild-type mice of the same age and sex in the tail-suspension test, revealing depressive characteristics. In addition, the beam-walking test and pole test detected motor deficits in Dctn1G71A female mice. Finally, immunostaining revealed a decrease in TH immunoreactivity in neurons of the substantia nigra in the Dctn1G71A mice. Collectively, heterozygous Dctn1G71A mice showed depression-like behavior, motor deficits, and a functional reduction in substantia nigral neurons, as judged by TH immunostaining, thereby exhibiting multiple features of Perry disease. Hence, this mouse model will be useful in elucidating pathological mechanisms of Perry disease and for developing novel therapeutic strategies against it.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Manami Deshimaru
- Department of Neurology, Fukuoka University, Fukuoka 814-0180, Japan
| | - Takayasu Mishima
- Department of Neurology, Fukuoka University, Fukuoka 814-0180, Japan
| | - Takuya Watanabe
- Department of Neuropharmacology, Fukuoka University, Fukuoka 814-0180, Japan
| | - Kaori Kubota
- Department of Neuropharmacology, Fukuoka University, Fukuoka 814-0180, Japan
| | - Mana Hosoi
- Department of Neuropharmacology, Fukuoka University, Fukuoka 814-0180, Japan
| | | | | | - Maiko Ikeda
- Department of Neurology, Fukuoka University, Fukuoka 814-0180, Japan
| | - Masayoshi Mori
- Department of Pharmacotherapeutics, Fukuoka University, Fukuoka 814-0180, Japan
| | - Yusuke Murata
- Department of Pharmacotherapeutics, Fukuoka University, Fukuoka 814-0180, Japan
| | - Takaya Abe
- Laboratory for Animal Resources and Genetic Engineering, RIKEN Center for Biosystems Dynamics Research, Kobe 650-0047, Japan
| | - Munechika Enjoji
- Department of Pharmacotherapeutics, Fukuoka University, Fukuoka 814-0180, Japan
| | - Hiroshi Kiyonari
- Laboratory for Animal Resources and Genetic Engineering, RIKEN Center for Biosystems Dynamics Research, Kobe 650-0047, Japan
| | - Shohta Kodama
- Department of Regenerative Medicine and Transplantation, Fukuoka University, Fukuoka 814-0180, Japan; Center for Regenerative Medicine, Fukuoka University Hospital, Fukuoka 814-0180, Japan; Central Research Institute for Regenerative Medicine, Fukuoka University, Fukuoka 814-0180, Japan
| | - Shinsuke Fujioka
- Department of Neurology, Fukuoka University, Fukuoka 814-0180, Japan
| | - Katsunori Iwasaki
- Department of Neuropharmacology, Fukuoka University, Fukuoka 814-0180, Japan
| | - Yoshio Tsuboi
- Department of Neurology, Fukuoka University, Fukuoka 814-0180, Japan.
| |
Collapse
|
71
|
Agarwal S, Muqit MMK. PTEN-induced kinase 1 (PINK1) and Parkin: Unlocking a mitochondrial quality control pathway linked to Parkinson's disease. Curr Opin Neurobiol 2021; 72:111-119. [PMID: 34717133 DOI: 10.1016/j.conb.2021.09.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/14/2021] [Revised: 08/17/2021] [Accepted: 09/07/2021] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
Dissection of the function of two Parkinson's disease-linked genes encoding the protein kinase, PTEN-induced kinase 1 (PINK1) and ubiquitin E3 ligase, Parkin, has illuminated a highly conserved mitochondrial quality control pathway found in nearly every cell type including neurons. Mitochondrial damage-induced activation of PINK1 stimulates phosphorylation-dependent activation of Parkin and ubiquitin-dependent elimination of mitochondria by autophagy (mitophagy). Structural, cell biological and neuronal studies are unravelling the key steps of PINK1/Parkin-dependent mitophagy and uncovering new insights into how the pathway is regulated. The emerging role for aberrant immune activation as a driver of dopaminergic neuron degeneration after loss of PINK1 and Parkin poses new exciting questions on cell-autonomous and noncell-autonomous mechanisms of PINK1/Parkin signalling in vivo.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Shalini Agarwal
- MRC Protein Phosphorylation and Ubiquitylation Unit, The Sir James Black Centre, School of Life Sciences, University of Dundee, Dundee, DD1 5EH, UK
| | - Miratul M K Muqit
- MRC Protein Phosphorylation and Ubiquitylation Unit, The Sir James Black Centre, School of Life Sciences, University of Dundee, Dundee, DD1 5EH, UK; Aligning Science Across Parkinson's (ASAP) Collaborative Research Network, Chevy Chase, MD 20815, USA.
| |
Collapse
|
72
|
Targetable Pathways for Alleviating Mitochondrial Dysfunction in Neurodegeneration of Metabolic and Non-Metabolic Diseases. Int J Mol Sci 2021; 22:ijms222111444. [PMID: 34768878 PMCID: PMC8583882 DOI: 10.3390/ijms222111444] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/09/2021] [Revised: 10/18/2021] [Accepted: 10/18/2021] [Indexed: 02/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Many neurodegenerative and inherited metabolic diseases frequently compromise nervous system function, and mitochondrial dysfunction and oxidative stress have been implicated as key events leading to neurodegeneration. Mitochondria are essential for neuronal function; however, these organelles are major sources of endogenous reactive oxygen species and are vulnerable targets for oxidative stress-induced damage. The brain is very susceptible to oxidative damage due to its high metabolic demand and low antioxidant defence systems, therefore minimal imbalances in the redox state can result in an oxidative environment that favours tissue damage and activates neuroinflammatory processes. Mitochondrial-associated molecular pathways are often compromised in the pathophysiology of neurodegeneration, including the parkin/PINK1, Nrf2, PGC1α, and PPARγ pathways. Impairments to these signalling pathways consequently effect the removal of dysfunctional mitochondria, which has been suggested as contributing to the development of neurodegeneration. Mitochondrial dysfunction prevention has become an attractive therapeutic target, and there are several molecular pathways that can be pharmacologically targeted to remove damaged mitochondria by inducing mitochondrial biogenesis or mitophagy, as well as increasing the antioxidant capacity of the brain, in order to alleviate mitochondrial dysfunction and prevent the development and progression of neurodegeneration in these disorders. Compounds such as natural polyphenolic compounds, bioactive quinones, and Nrf2 activators have been reported in the literature as novel therapeutic candidates capable of targeting defective mitochondrial pathways in order to improve mitochondrial function and reduce the severity of neurodegeneration in these disorders.
Collapse
|
73
|
Pirooznia SK, Rosenthal LS, Dawson VL, Dawson TM. Parkinson Disease: Translating Insights from Molecular Mechanisms to Neuroprotection. Pharmacol Rev 2021; 73:33-97. [PMID: 34663684 DOI: 10.1124/pharmrev.120.000189] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Parkinson disease (PD) used to be considered a nongenetic condition. However, the identification of several autosomal dominant and recessive mutations linked to monogenic PD has changed this view. Clinically manifest PD is then thought to occur through a complex interplay between genetic mutations, many of which have incomplete penetrance, and environmental factors, both neuroprotective and increasing susceptibility, which variably interact to reach a threshold over which PD becomes clinically manifested. Functional studies of PD gene products have identified many cellular and molecular pathways, providing crucial insights into the nature and causes of PD. PD originates from multiple causes and a range of pathogenic processes at play, ultimately culminating in nigral dopaminergic loss and motor dysfunction. An in-depth understanding of these complex and possibly convergent pathways will pave the way for therapeutic approaches to alleviate the disease symptoms and neuroprotective strategies to prevent disease manifestations. This review is aimed at providing a comprehensive understanding of advances made in PD research based on leveraging genetic insights into the pathogenesis of PD. It further discusses novel perspectives to facilitate identification of critical molecular pathways that are central to neurodegeneration that hold the potential to develop neuroprotective and/or neurorestorative therapeutic strategies for PD. SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT: A comprehensive review of PD pathophysiology is provided on the complex interplay of genetic and environmental factors and biologic processes that contribute to PD pathogenesis. This knowledge identifies new targets that could be leveraged into disease-modifying therapies to prevent or slow neurodegeneration in PD.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Sheila K Pirooznia
- Neuroregeneration and Stem Cell Programs, Institute for Cell Engineering (S.K.P., V.L.D., T.M.D.), Departments of Neurology (S.K.P., L.S.R., V.L.D., T.M.D.), Departments of Physiology (V.L.D.), Solomon H. Snyder Department of Neuroscience (V.L.D., T.M.D.), Department of Pharmacology and Molecular Sciences (T.M.D.), Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland; Adrienne Helis Malvin Medical Research Foundation, New Orleans, Louisiana (S.K.P., V.L.D., T.M.D.); and Diana Helis Henry Medical Research Foundation, New Orleans, Louisiana (S.K.P., V.L.D., T.M.D.)
| | - Liana S Rosenthal
- Neuroregeneration and Stem Cell Programs, Institute for Cell Engineering (S.K.P., V.L.D., T.M.D.), Departments of Neurology (S.K.P., L.S.R., V.L.D., T.M.D.), Departments of Physiology (V.L.D.), Solomon H. Snyder Department of Neuroscience (V.L.D., T.M.D.), Department of Pharmacology and Molecular Sciences (T.M.D.), Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland; Adrienne Helis Malvin Medical Research Foundation, New Orleans, Louisiana (S.K.P., V.L.D., T.M.D.); and Diana Helis Henry Medical Research Foundation, New Orleans, Louisiana (S.K.P., V.L.D., T.M.D.)
| | - Valina L Dawson
- Neuroregeneration and Stem Cell Programs, Institute for Cell Engineering (S.K.P., V.L.D., T.M.D.), Departments of Neurology (S.K.P., L.S.R., V.L.D., T.M.D.), Departments of Physiology (V.L.D.), Solomon H. Snyder Department of Neuroscience (V.L.D., T.M.D.), Department of Pharmacology and Molecular Sciences (T.M.D.), Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland; Adrienne Helis Malvin Medical Research Foundation, New Orleans, Louisiana (S.K.P., V.L.D., T.M.D.); and Diana Helis Henry Medical Research Foundation, New Orleans, Louisiana (S.K.P., V.L.D., T.M.D.)
| | - Ted M Dawson
- Neuroregeneration and Stem Cell Programs, Institute for Cell Engineering (S.K.P., V.L.D., T.M.D.), Departments of Neurology (S.K.P., L.S.R., V.L.D., T.M.D.), Departments of Physiology (V.L.D.), Solomon H. Snyder Department of Neuroscience (V.L.D., T.M.D.), Department of Pharmacology and Molecular Sciences (T.M.D.), Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland; Adrienne Helis Malvin Medical Research Foundation, New Orleans, Louisiana (S.K.P., V.L.D., T.M.D.); and Diana Helis Henry Medical Research Foundation, New Orleans, Louisiana (S.K.P., V.L.D., T.M.D.)
| |
Collapse
|
74
|
Abstract
Mitochondria, which resemble their α-proteobacteria ancestors, are a major cellular asset, producing energy 'on the cheap' through oxidative phosphorylation. They are also a liability. Increased oxidative phosphorylation means increased oxidative stress, and damaged mitochondria incite inflammation through release of their bacteria-like macromolecules. Mitophagy (the selective macroautophagy of mitochondria) controls mitochondria quality and number to manage these risky assets. Parkin, BNIP3 and NIX were identified as being part of the first mitophagy pathways identified in mammals over a decade ago, with additional pathways, including that mediated by FUNDC1 reported more recently. Loss of Parkin or PINK1 function causes Parkinson's disease, highlighting the importance of mitophagy as a quality control mechanism in the brain. Additionally, mitophagy is induced in idiopathic Parkinson's disease and Alzheimer's disease, protects the heart and other organs against energy stress and lipotoxicity, regulates metabolism by controlling mitochondrial number in brown and beige fat, and clears mitochondria during terminal differentiation of glycolytic cells, such as red blood cells and neurons. Despite its importance in disease, mitophagy is likely dispensable under physiological conditions. This Review explores the in vivo roles of mitophagy in mammalian systems, focusing on the best studied examples - mitophagy in neurodegeneration, cardiomyopathy, metabolism, and red blood cell development - to draw out common themes.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Derek P. Narendra
- Inherited Movement Disorders Unit, Neurogenetics Branch, National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA
| |
Collapse
|
75
|
Klionsky DJ, Petroni G, Amaravadi RK, Baehrecke EH, Ballabio A, Boya P, Bravo‐San Pedro JM, Cadwell K, Cecconi F, Choi AMK, Choi ME, Chu CT, Codogno P, Colombo M, Cuervo AM, Deretic V, Dikic I, Elazar Z, Eskelinen E, Fimia GM, Gewirtz DA, Green DR, Hansen M, Jäättelä M, Johansen T, Juhász G, Karantza V, Kraft C, Kroemer G, Ktistakis NT, Kumar S, Lopez‐Otin C, Macleod KF, Madeo F, Martinez J, Meléndez A, Mizushima N, Münz C, Penninger JM, Perera R, Piacentini M, Reggiori F, Rubinsztein DC, Ryan K, Sadoshima J, Santambrogio L, Scorrano L, Simon H, Simon AK, Simonsen A, Stolz A, Tavernarakis N, Tooze SA, Yoshimori T, Yuan J, Yue Z, Zhong Q, Galluzzi L, Pietrocola F. Autophagy in major human diseases. EMBO J 2021; 40:e108863. [PMID: 34459017 PMCID: PMC8488577 DOI: 10.15252/embj.2021108863] [Citation(s) in RCA: 662] [Impact Index Per Article: 220.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/01/2021] [Revised: 07/07/2021] [Accepted: 07/12/2021] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Autophagy is a core molecular pathway for the preservation of cellular and organismal homeostasis. Pharmacological and genetic interventions impairing autophagy responses promote or aggravate disease in a plethora of experimental models. Consistently, mutations in autophagy-related processes cause severe human pathologies. Here, we review and discuss preclinical data linking autophagy dysfunction to the pathogenesis of major human disorders including cancer as well as cardiovascular, neurodegenerative, metabolic, pulmonary, renal, infectious, musculoskeletal, and ocular disorders.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
| | - Giulia Petroni
- Department of Radiation OncologyWeill Cornell Medical CollegeNew YorkNYUSA
| | - Ravi K Amaravadi
- Department of MedicineUniversity of PennsylvaniaPhiladelphiaPAUSA
- Abramson Cancer CenterUniversity of PennsylvaniaPhiladelphiaPAUSA
| | - Eric H Baehrecke
- Department of Molecular, Cell and Cancer BiologyUniversity of Massachusetts Medical SchoolWorcesterMAUSA
| | - Andrea Ballabio
- Telethon Institute of Genetics and MedicinePozzuoliItaly
- Department of Translational Medical SciencesSection of PediatricsFederico II UniversityNaplesItaly
- Department of Molecular and Human GeneticsBaylor College of Medicine, and Jan and Dan Duncan Neurological Research InstituteTexas Children HospitalHoustonTXUSA
| | - Patricia Boya
- Margarita Salas Center for Biological ResearchSpanish National Research CouncilMadridSpain
| | - José Manuel Bravo‐San Pedro
- Faculty of MedicineDepartment Section of PhysiologyComplutense University of MadridMadridSpain
- Center for Networked Biomedical Research in Neurodegenerative Diseases (CIBERNED)MadridSpain
| | - Ken Cadwell
- Kimmel Center for Biology and Medicine at the Skirball InstituteNew York University Grossman School of MedicineNew YorkNYUSA
- Department of MicrobiologyNew York University Grossman School of MedicineNew YorkNYUSA
- Division of Gastroenterology and HepatologyDepartment of MedicineNew York University Langone HealthNew YorkNYUSA
| | - Francesco Cecconi
- Cell Stress and Survival UnitCenter for Autophagy, Recycling and Disease (CARD)Danish Cancer Society Research CenterCopenhagenDenmark
- Department of Pediatric Onco‐Hematology and Cell and Gene TherapyIRCCS Bambino Gesù Children's HospitalRomeItaly
- Department of BiologyUniversity of Rome ‘Tor Vergata’RomeItaly
| | - Augustine M K Choi
- Division of Pulmonary and Critical Care MedicineJoan and Sanford I. Weill Department of MedicineWeill Cornell MedicineNew YorkNYUSA
- New York‐Presbyterian HospitalWeill Cornell MedicineNew YorkNYUSA
| | - Mary E Choi
- New York‐Presbyterian HospitalWeill Cornell MedicineNew YorkNYUSA
- Division of Nephrology and HypertensionJoan and Sanford I. Weill Department of MedicineWeill Cornell MedicineNew YorkNYUSA
| | - Charleen T Chu
- Department of PathologyUniversity of Pittsburgh School of MedicinePittsburghPAUSA
| | - Patrice Codogno
- Institut Necker‐Enfants MaladesINSERM U1151‐CNRS UMR 8253ParisFrance
- Université de ParisParisFrance
| | - Maria Isabel Colombo
- Laboratorio de Mecanismos Moleculares Implicados en el Tráfico Vesicular y la Autofagia‐Instituto de Histología y Embriología (IHEM)‐Universidad Nacional de CuyoCONICET‐ Facultad de Ciencias MédicasMendozaArgentina
| | - Ana Maria Cuervo
- Department of Developmental and Molecular BiologyAlbert Einstein College of MedicineBronxNYUSA
- Institute for Aging StudiesAlbert Einstein College of MedicineBronxNYUSA
| | - Vojo Deretic
- Autophagy Inflammation and Metabolism (AIMCenter of Biomedical Research ExcellenceUniversity of New Mexico Health Sciences CenterAlbuquerqueNMUSA
- Department of Molecular Genetics and MicrobiologyUniversity of New Mexico Health Sciences CenterAlbuquerqueNMUSA
| | - Ivan Dikic
- Institute of Biochemistry IISchool of MedicineGoethe UniversityFrankfurt, Frankfurt am MainGermany
- Buchmann Institute for Molecular Life SciencesGoethe UniversityFrankfurt, Frankfurt am MainGermany
| | - Zvulun Elazar
- Department of Biomolecular SciencesThe Weizmann Institute of ScienceRehovotIsrael
| | | | - Gian Maria Fimia
- Department of Molecular MedicineSapienza University of RomeRomeItaly
- Department of EpidemiologyPreclinical Research, and Advanced DiagnosticsNational Institute for Infectious Diseases ‘L. Spallanzani’ IRCCSRomeItaly
| | - David A Gewirtz
- Department of Pharmacology and ToxicologySchool of MedicineVirginia Commonwealth UniversityRichmondVAUSA
| | - Douglas R Green
- Department of ImmunologySt. Jude Children's Research HospitalMemphisTNUSA
| | - Malene Hansen
- Sanford Burnham Prebys Medical Discovery InstituteProgram of DevelopmentAging, and RegenerationLa JollaCAUSA
| | - Marja Jäättelä
- Cell Death and MetabolismCenter for Autophagy, Recycling & DiseaseDanish Cancer Society Research CenterCopenhagenDenmark
- Department of Cellular and Molecular MedicineFaculty of Health SciencesUniversity of CopenhagenCopenhagenDenmark
| | - Terje Johansen
- Department of Medical BiologyMolecular Cancer Research GroupUniversity of Tromsø—The Arctic University of NorwayTromsøNorway
| | - Gábor Juhász
- Institute of GeneticsBiological Research CenterSzegedHungary
- Department of Anatomy, Cell and Developmental BiologyEötvös Loránd UniversityBudapestHungary
| | | | - Claudine Kraft
- Institute of Biochemistry and Molecular BiologyZBMZFaculty of MedicineUniversity of FreiburgFreiburgGermany
- CIBSS ‐ Centre for Integrative Biological Signalling StudiesUniversity of FreiburgFreiburgGermany
| | - Guido Kroemer
- Centre de Recherche des CordeliersEquipe Labellisée par la Ligue Contre le CancerUniversité de ParisSorbonne UniversitéInserm U1138Institut Universitaire de FranceParisFrance
- Metabolomics and Cell Biology PlatformsInstitut Gustave RoussyVillejuifFrance
- Pôle de BiologieHôpital Européen Georges PompidouAP‐HPParisFrance
- Suzhou Institute for Systems MedicineChinese Academy of Medical SciencesSuzhouChina
- Karolinska InstituteDepartment of Women's and Children's HealthKarolinska University HospitalStockholmSweden
| | | | - Sharad Kumar
- Centre for Cancer BiologyUniversity of South AustraliaAdelaideSAAustralia
- Faculty of Health and Medical SciencesUniversity of AdelaideAdelaideSAAustralia
| | - Carlos Lopez‐Otin
- Departamento de Bioquímica y Biología MolecularFacultad de MedicinaInstituto Universitario de Oncología del Principado de Asturias (IUOPA)Universidad de OviedoOviedoSpain
- Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red de Cáncer (CIBERONC)MadridSpain
| | - Kay F Macleod
- The Ben May Department for Cancer ResearchThe Gordon Center for Integrative SciencesW‐338The University of ChicagoChicagoILUSA
- The University of ChicagoChicagoILUSA
| | - Frank Madeo
- Institute of Molecular BiosciencesNAWI GrazUniversity of GrazGrazAustria
- BioTechMed‐GrazGrazAustria
- Field of Excellence BioHealth – University of GrazGrazAustria
| | - Jennifer Martinez
- Immunity, Inflammation and Disease LaboratoryNational Institute of Environmental Health SciencesNIHResearch Triangle ParkNCUSA
| | - Alicia Meléndez
- Biology Department, Queens CollegeCity University of New YorkFlushingNYUSA
- The Graduate Center Biology and Biochemistry PhD Programs of the City University of New YorkNew YorkNYUSA
| | - Noboru Mizushima
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular BiologyGraduate School of MedicineThe University of TokyoTokyoJapan
| | - Christian Münz
- Viral ImmunobiologyInstitute of Experimental ImmunologyUniversity of ZurichZurichSwitzerland
| | - Josef M Penninger
- Institute of Molecular Biotechnology of the Austrian Academy of Sciences (IMBA)Vienna BioCenter (VBC)ViennaAustria
- Department of Medical GeneticsLife Sciences InstituteUniversity of British ColumbiaVancouverBCCanada
| | - Rushika M Perera
- Department of AnatomyUniversity of California, San FranciscoSan FranciscoCAUSA
- Department of PathologyUniversity of California, San FranciscoSan FranciscoCAUSA
- Helen Diller Family Comprehensive Cancer CenterUniversity of California, San FranciscoSan FranciscoCAUSA
| | - Mauro Piacentini
- Department of BiologyUniversity of Rome “Tor Vergata”RomeItaly
- Laboratory of Molecular MedicineInstitute of Cytology Russian Academy of ScienceSaint PetersburgRussia
| | - Fulvio Reggiori
- Department of Biomedical Sciences of Cells & SystemsMolecular Cell Biology SectionUniversity of GroningenUniversity Medical Center GroningenGroningenThe Netherlands
| | - David C Rubinsztein
- Department of Medical GeneticsCambridge Institute for Medical ResearchUniversity of CambridgeCambridgeUK
- UK Dementia Research InstituteUniversity of CambridgeCambridgeUK
| | - Kevin M Ryan
- Cancer Research UK Beatson InstituteGlasgowUK
- Institute of Cancer SciencesUniversity of GlasgowGlasgowUK
| | - Junichi Sadoshima
- Department of Cell Biology and Molecular MedicineCardiovascular Research InstituteRutgers New Jersey Medical SchoolNewarkNJUSA
| | - Laura Santambrogio
- Department of Radiation OncologyWeill Cornell Medical CollegeNew YorkNYUSA
- Sandra and Edward Meyer Cancer CenterNew YorkNYUSA
- Caryl and Israel Englander Institute for Precision MedicineNew YorkNYUSA
| | - Luca Scorrano
- Istituto Veneto di Medicina MolecolarePadovaItaly
- Department of BiologyUniversity of PadovaPadovaItaly
| | - Hans‐Uwe Simon
- Institute of PharmacologyUniversity of BernBernSwitzerland
- Department of Clinical Immunology and AllergologySechenov UniversityMoscowRussia
- Laboratory of Molecular ImmunologyInstitute of Fundamental Medicine and BiologyKazan Federal UniversityKazanRussia
| | | | - Anne Simonsen
- Department of Molecular MedicineInstitute of Basic Medical SciencesUniversity of OsloOsloNorway
- Centre for Cancer Cell ReprogrammingInstitute of Clinical MedicineUniversity of OsloOsloNorway
- Department of Molecular Cell BiologyInstitute for Cancer ResearchOslo University Hospital MontebelloOsloNorway
| | - Alexandra Stolz
- Institute of Biochemistry IISchool of MedicineGoethe UniversityFrankfurt, Frankfurt am MainGermany
- Buchmann Institute for Molecular Life SciencesGoethe UniversityFrankfurt, Frankfurt am MainGermany
| | - Nektarios Tavernarakis
- Institute of Molecular Biology and BiotechnologyFoundation for Research and Technology‐HellasHeraklion, CreteGreece
- Department of Basic SciencesSchool of MedicineUniversity of CreteHeraklion, CreteGreece
| | - Sharon A Tooze
- Molecular Cell Biology of AutophagyThe Francis Crick InstituteLondonUK
| | - Tamotsu Yoshimori
- Department of GeneticsGraduate School of MedicineOsaka UniversitySuitaJapan
- Department of Intracellular Membrane DynamicsGraduate School of Frontier BiosciencesOsaka UniversitySuitaJapan
- Integrated Frontier Research for Medical Science DivisionInstitute for Open and Transdisciplinary Research Initiatives (OTRI)Osaka UniversitySuitaJapan
| | - Junying Yuan
- Interdisciplinary Research Center on Biology and ChemistryShanghai Institute of Organic ChemistryChinese Academy of SciencesShanghaiChina
- Department of Cell BiologyHarvard Medical SchoolBostonMAUSA
| | - Zhenyu Yue
- Department of NeurologyFriedman Brain InstituteIcahn School of Medicine at Mount SinaiNew YorkNYUSA
| | - Qing Zhong
- Key Laboratory of Cell Differentiation and Apoptosis of Chinese Ministry of EducationDepartment of PathophysiologyShanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine (SJTU‐SM)ShanghaiChina
| | - Lorenzo Galluzzi
- Department of Radiation OncologyWeill Cornell Medical CollegeNew YorkNYUSA
- Sandra and Edward Meyer Cancer CenterNew YorkNYUSA
- Caryl and Israel Englander Institute for Precision MedicineNew YorkNYUSA
- Department of DermatologyYale School of MedicineNew HavenCTUSA
- Université de ParisParisFrance
| | | |
Collapse
|
76
|
Sharma A, Bazylianska V, Moszczynska A. Parkin-deficient rats are resistant to neurotoxicity of chronic high-dose methamphetamine. Exp Neurol 2021; 345:113811. [PMID: 34298012 DOI: 10.1016/j.expneurol.2021.113811] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/18/2021] [Revised: 06/18/2021] [Accepted: 07/12/2021] [Indexed: 01/13/2023]
Abstract
Methamphetamine (METH) is a highly addictive and powerful central nervous system psychostimulant with no FDA-approved pharmacotherapy. Parkin is a neuroprotective protein and its loss of function contributes to Parkinson's disease. This study used 3-month-old homozygous parkin knockout (PKO) rats to determine whether loss of parkin protein potentiates neurotoxicity of chronic METH to the nigrostriatal dopamine pathway. PKO rats were chronically treated with 10 mg/kg METH for 10 consecutive days and assessed for neurotoxicity markers in the striatum on the 5th and 10th day of withdrawal from METH. The PKO rats showed higher METH-induced hyperthermia; however, they did not display augmented deficits in dopaminergic and serotonergic neurotoxicity markers, astrocyte activation or decreased mitochondrial enzyme levels as compared to wild-type (WT) rats. Interestingly, saline-treated PKO rats had lower levels of dopamine (DA) as well as mitochondrial complex I and II levels while having increased basal levels of glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP), a marker of gliosis. These results indicate PKO display a certain resistance to METH neurotoxicity, possibly mediated by lowered DA levels and downregulated mitochondria.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Akhil Sharma
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Eugene Applebaum College of Pharmacy and Health Sciences, Wayne State University, 259 Mack Ave, Detroit, MI 48201, USA
| | - Viktoriia Bazylianska
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Eugene Applebaum College of Pharmacy and Health Sciences, Wayne State University, 259 Mack Ave, Detroit, MI 48201, USA
| | - Anna Moszczynska
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Eugene Applebaum College of Pharmacy and Health Sciences, Wayne State University, 259 Mack Ave, Detroit, MI 48201, USA.
| |
Collapse
|
77
|
Bastioli G, Regoni M, Cazzaniga F, De Luca CMG, Bistaffa E, Zanetti L, Moda F, Valtorta F, Sassone J. Animal Models of Autosomal Recessive Parkinsonism. Biomedicines 2021; 9:biomedicines9070812. [PMID: 34356877 PMCID: PMC8301401 DOI: 10.3390/biomedicines9070812] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/25/2021] [Revised: 07/05/2021] [Accepted: 07/06/2021] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Parkinson’s disease (PD) is the most common neurodegenerative movement disorder. The neuropathological hallmark of the disease is the loss of dopamine neurons of the substantia nigra pars compacta. The clinical manifestations of PD are bradykinesia, rigidity, resting tremors and postural instability. PD patients often display non-motor symptoms such as depression, anxiety, weakness, sleep disturbances and cognitive disorders. Although, in 90% of cases, PD has a sporadic onset of unknown etiology, highly penetrant rare genetic mutations in many genes have been linked with typical familial PD. Understanding the mechanisms behind the DA neuron death in these Mendelian forms may help to illuminate the pathogenesis of DA neuron degeneration in the more common forms of PD. A key step in the identification of the molecular pathways underlying DA neuron death, and in the development of therapeutic strategies, is the creation and characterization of animal models that faithfully recapitulate the human disease. In this review, we outline the current status of PD modeling using mouse, rat and non-mammalian models, focusing on animal models for autosomal recessive PD.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Guendalina Bastioli
- Division of Neuroscience, San Raffaele Scientific Institute, 20132 Milan, Italy; (G.B.); (M.R.); (L.Z.); (F.V.)
- Faculty of Medicine and Surgery, Vita-Salute San Raffaele University, 20132 Milan, Italy
| | - Maria Regoni
- Division of Neuroscience, San Raffaele Scientific Institute, 20132 Milan, Italy; (G.B.); (M.R.); (L.Z.); (F.V.)
- Faculty of Medicine and Surgery, Vita-Salute San Raffaele University, 20132 Milan, Italy
| | - Federico Cazzaniga
- Division of Neurology 5 and Neuropathology, Fondazione IRCCS Istituto Neurologico Carlo Besta, 20133 Milan, Italy; (F.C.); (C.M.G.D.L.); (E.B.); (F.M.)
| | - Chiara Maria Giulia De Luca
- Division of Neurology 5 and Neuropathology, Fondazione IRCCS Istituto Neurologico Carlo Besta, 20133 Milan, Italy; (F.C.); (C.M.G.D.L.); (E.B.); (F.M.)
- Laboratory of Prion Biology, Department of Neuroscience, Scuola Internazionale Superiore di Studi Avanzati, 34136 Trieste, Italy
| | - Edoardo Bistaffa
- Division of Neurology 5 and Neuropathology, Fondazione IRCCS Istituto Neurologico Carlo Besta, 20133 Milan, Italy; (F.C.); (C.M.G.D.L.); (E.B.); (F.M.)
| | - Letizia Zanetti
- Division of Neuroscience, San Raffaele Scientific Institute, 20132 Milan, Italy; (G.B.); (M.R.); (L.Z.); (F.V.)
- Faculty of Medicine and Surgery, Vita-Salute San Raffaele University, 20132 Milan, Italy
| | - Fabio Moda
- Division of Neurology 5 and Neuropathology, Fondazione IRCCS Istituto Neurologico Carlo Besta, 20133 Milan, Italy; (F.C.); (C.M.G.D.L.); (E.B.); (F.M.)
| | - Flavia Valtorta
- Division of Neuroscience, San Raffaele Scientific Institute, 20132 Milan, Italy; (G.B.); (M.R.); (L.Z.); (F.V.)
- Faculty of Medicine and Surgery, Vita-Salute San Raffaele University, 20132 Milan, Italy
| | - Jenny Sassone
- Division of Neuroscience, San Raffaele Scientific Institute, 20132 Milan, Italy; (G.B.); (M.R.); (L.Z.); (F.V.)
- Faculty of Medicine and Surgery, Vita-Salute San Raffaele University, 20132 Milan, Italy
- Correspondence:
| |
Collapse
|
78
|
Anandhan A, Nguyen N, Syal A, Dreher LA, Dodson M, Zhang DD, Madhavan L. NRF2 Loss Accentuates Parkinsonian Pathology and Behavioral Dysfunction in Human α-Synuclein Overexpressing Mice. Aging Dis 2021; 12:964-982. [PMID: 34221542 PMCID: PMC8219498 DOI: 10.14336/ad.2021.0511] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/06/2021] [Accepted: 05/11/2021] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Nuclear factor (erythroid-derived 2)-like 2 (NRF2) is a central regulator of cellular stress responses and its transcriptional activation promotes multiple cellular defense and survival mechanisms. The loss of NRF2 has been shown to increase oxidative and proteotoxic stress, two key pathological features of neurodegenerative disorders such as Parkinson's disease (PD). Moreover, compromised redox homeostasis and protein quality control can cause the accumulation of pathogenic proteins, including alpha-synuclein (α-Syn) which plays a key role in PD. However, despite this link, the precise mechanisms by which NRF2 may regulate PD pathology is not clear. In this study, we generated a humanized mouse model to study the importance of NRF2 in the context of α-Syn-driven neuropathology in PD. Specifically, we developed NRF2 knockout and wild-type mice that overexpress human α-Syn (hα-Syn+/Nrf2-/- and hα-Syn+/Nrf2+/+ respectively) and tested changes in their behavior through nest building, challenging beam, and open field tests at three months of age. Cellular and molecular alterations in α-Syn, including phosphorylation and subsequent oligomerization, as well as changes in oxidative stress, inflammation, and autophagy were also assessed across multiple brain regions. It was observed that although monomeric α-Syn levels did not change, compared to their wild-type counterparts, hα-Syn+/Nrf2-/- mice exhibited increased phosphorylation and oligomerization of α-Syn. This was associated with a loss of tyrosine hydroxylase expressing dopaminergic neurons in the substantia nigra, and more pronounced behavioral deficits reminiscent of early-stage PD, in the hα-Syn+/Nrf2-/- mice. Furthermore, hα-Syn+/Nrf2-/- mice showed significantly amplified oxidative stress, greater expression of inflammatory markers, and signs of increased autophagic burden, especially in the midbrain, striatum and cortical brain regions. These results support an important role for NRF2, early in PD progression. More broadly, it indicates NRF2 biology as fundamental to PD pathogenesis and suggests that targeting NRF2 activation may delay the onset and progression of PD.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Annadurai Anandhan
- Pharmacology and Toxicology, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ, USA.
- Department of Neurology, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ, USA.
| | - Nhat Nguyen
- Physiology Undergraduate Program, Tucson, AZ, USA.
| | - Arjun Syal
- Neuroscience and Cognitive Science Undergraduate Program, Tucson, AZ, USA.
| | - Luke A Dreher
- Ecology and Evolutionary Biology Undergraduate Program, Tucson, AZ, USA.
| | - Matthew Dodson
- Pharmacology and Toxicology, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ, USA.
| | - Donna D Zhang
- Pharmacology and Toxicology, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ, USA.
| | - Lalitha Madhavan
- Department of Neurology, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ, USA.
- Evelyn F McKnight Brain Institute and Bio5 Institute, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ, USA.
| |
Collapse
|
79
|
Abstract
Mitochondria are organelles with vital functions in almost all eukaryotic cells. Often described as the cellular 'powerhouses' due to their essential role in aerobic oxidative phosphorylation, mitochondria perform many other essential functions beyond energy production. As signaling organelles, mitochondria communicate with the nucleus and other organelles to help maintain cellular homeostasis, allow cellular adaptation to diverse stresses, and help steer cell fate decisions during development. Mitochondria have taken center stage in the research of normal and pathological processes, including normal tissue homeostasis and metabolism, neurodegeneration, immunity and infectious diseases. The central role that mitochondria assume within cells is evidenced by the broad impact of mitochondrial diseases, caused by defects in either mitochondrial or nuclear genes encoding for mitochondrial proteins, on different organ systems. In this Review, we will provide the reader with a foundation of the mitochondrial 'hardware', the mitochondrion itself, with its specific dynamics, quality control mechanisms and cross-organelle communication, including its roles as a driver of an innate immune response, all with a focus on development, disease and aging. We will further discuss how mitochondrial DNA is inherited, how its mutation affects cell and organismal fitness, and current therapeutic approaches for mitochondrial diseases in both model organisms and humans.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Marlies P. Rossmann
- Department of Stem Cell and Regenerative Biology, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA 01238, USA
- Stem Cell Program and Division of Hematology/Oncology, Boston Children's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Boston, MA 02115, USA
| | - Sonia M. Dubois
- Division of Hematology/Oncology, Boston Children's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115, USA
| | - Suneet Agarwal
- Division of Hematology/Oncology, Boston Children's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115, USA
| | - Leonard I. Zon
- Department of Stem Cell and Regenerative Biology, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA 01238, USA
- Stem Cell Program and Division of Hematology/Oncology, Boston Children's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Boston, MA 02115, USA
| |
Collapse
|
80
|
Early Dysfunction of Substantia Nigra Dopamine Neurons in the ParkinQ311X Mouse. Biomedicines 2021; 9:biomedicines9050514. [PMID: 34063112 PMCID: PMC8148213 DOI: 10.3390/biomedicines9050514] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/01/2021] [Revised: 04/29/2021] [Accepted: 05/02/2021] [Indexed: 12/27/2022] Open
Abstract
Mutations in the PARK2 gene encoding the protein parkin cause autosomal recessive juvenile parkinsonism (ARJP), a neurodegenerative disease characterized by early dysfunction and loss of dopamine (DA) neurons in the substantia nigra pars compacta (SNc). No therapy is currently available to prevent or slow down the neurodegeneration in ARJP patients. Preclinical models are key to clarifying the early events that lead to neurodegeneration and reveal the potential of novel neuroprotective strategies. ParkinQ311X is a transgenic mouse model expressing in DA neurons a mutant parkin variant found in ARJP patients. This model was previously reported to show the neuropathological hallmark of the disease, i.e., the progressive loss of DA neurons. However, the early dysfunctions that precede neurodegeneration have never been investigated. Here, we analyzed SNc DA neurons in parkinQ311X mice and found early features of mitochondrial dysfunction, extensive cytoplasmic vacuolization, and dysregulation of spontaneous in vivo firing activity. These data suggest that the parkinQ311X mouse recapitulates key features of ARJP and provides a useful tool for studying the neurodegenerative mechanisms underlying the human disease and for screening potential neuroprotective drugs.
Collapse
|
81
|
Tokarew JM, El-Kodsi DN, Lengacher NA, Fehr TK, Nguyen AP, Shutinoski B, O’Nuallain B, Jin M, Khan JM, Ng ACH, Li J, Jiang Q, Zhang M, Wang L, Sengupta R, Barber KR, Tran A, Im DS, Callaghan S, Park DS, Zandee S, Dong X, Scherzer CR, Prat A, Tsai EC, Takanashi M, Hattori N, Chan JA, Zecca L, West AB, Holmgren A, Puente L, Shaw GS, Toth G, Woulfe JM, Taylor P, Tomlinson JJ, Schlossmacher MG. Age-associated insolubility of parkin in human midbrain is linked to redox balance and sequestration of reactive dopamine metabolites. Acta Neuropathol 2021; 141:725-754. [PMID: 33694021 PMCID: PMC8043881 DOI: 10.1007/s00401-021-02285-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/20/2020] [Revised: 01/11/2021] [Accepted: 01/13/2021] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
The mechanisms by which parkin protects the adult human brain from Parkinson disease remain incompletely understood. We hypothesized that parkin cysteines participate in redox reactions and that these are reflected in its posttranslational modifications. We found that in post mortem human brain, including in the Substantia nigra, parkin is largely insoluble after age 40 years; this transition is linked to its oxidation, such as at residues Cys95 and Cys253. In mice, oxidative stress induces posttranslational modifications of parkin cysteines that lower its solubility in vivo. Similarly, oxidation of recombinant parkin by hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) promotes its insolubility and aggregate formation, and in exchange leads to the reduction of H2O2. This thiol-based redox activity is diminished by parkin point mutants, e.g., p.C431F and p.G328E. In prkn-null mice, H2O2 levels are increased under oxidative stress conditions, such as acutely by 1-methyl-4-phenyl-1,2,3,6-tetrahydropyridine toxin exposure or chronically due to a second, genetic hit; H2O2 levels are also significantly increased in parkin-deficient human brain. In dopamine toxicity studies, wild-type parkin, but not disease-linked mutants, protects human dopaminergic cells, in part through lowering H2O2. Parkin also neutralizes reactive, electrophilic dopamine metabolites via adduct formation, which occurs foremost at the primate-specific residue Cys95. Further, wild-type but not p.C95A-mutant parkin augments melanin formation in vitro. By probing sections of adult, human midbrain from control individuals with epitope-mapped, monoclonal antibodies, we found specific and robust parkin reactivity that co-localizes with neuromelanin pigment, frequently within LAMP-3/CD63+ lysosomes. We conclude that oxidative modifications of parkin cysteines are associated with protective outcomes, which include the reduction of H2O2, conjugation of reactive dopamine metabolites, sequestration of radicals within insoluble aggregates, and increased melanin formation. The loss of these complementary redox effects may augment oxidative stress during ageing in dopamine-producing cells of mutant PRKN allele carriers, thereby enhancing the risk of Parkinson’s-linked neurodegeneration.
Collapse
|
82
|
Franco R, Rivas-Santisteban R, Navarro G, Pinna A, Reyes-Resina I. Genes Implicated in Familial Parkinson's Disease Provide a Dual Picture of Nigral Dopaminergic Neurodegeneration with Mitochondria Taking Center Stage. Int J Mol Sci 2021; 22:4643. [PMID: 33924963 PMCID: PMC8124903 DOI: 10.3390/ijms22094643] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/29/2021] [Revised: 04/16/2021] [Accepted: 04/20/2021] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
The mechanism of nigral dopaminergic neuronal degeneration in Parkinson's disease (PD) is unknown. One of the pathological characteristics of the disease is the deposition of α-synuclein (α-syn) that occurs in the brain from both familial and sporadic PD patients. This paper constitutes a narrative review that takes advantage of information related to genes (SNCA, LRRK2, GBA, UCHL1, VPS35, PRKN, PINK1, ATP13A2, PLA2G6, DNAJC6, SYNJ1, DJ-1/PARK7 and FBXO7) involved in familial cases of Parkinson's disease (PD) to explore their usefulness in deciphering the origin of dopaminergic denervation in many types of PD. Direct or functional interactions between genes or gene products are evaluated using the Search Tool for the Retrieval of Interacting Genes/Proteins (STRING) database. The rationale is to propose a map of the interactions between SNCA, the gene encoding for α-syn that aggregates in PD, and other genes, the mutations of which lead to early-onset PD. The map contrasts with the findings obtained using animal models that are the knockout of one of those genes or that express the mutated human gene. From combining in silico data from STRING-based assays with in vitro and in vivo data in transgenic animals, two likely mechanisms appeared: (i) the processing of native α-syn is altered due to the mutation of genes involved in vesicular trafficking and protein processing, or (ii) α-syn mutants alter the mechanisms necessary for the correct vesicular trafficking and protein processing. Mitochondria are a common denominator since both mechanisms require extra energy production, and the energy for the survival of neurons is obtained mainly from the complete oxidation of glucose. Dopamine itself can result in an additional burden to the mitochondria of dopaminergic neurons because its handling produces free radicals. Drugs acting on G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) in the mitochondria of neurons may hopefully end up targeting those receptors to reduce oxidative burden and increase mitochondrial performance. In summary, the analysis of the data of genes related to familial PD provides relevant information on the etiology of sporadic cases and might suggest new therapeutic approaches.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Rafael Franco
- Department Biochemistry and Molecular Biomedicine, University of Barcelona, 08028 Barcelona, Spain; (R.F.); (R.R.-S.); (I.R.-R.)
- Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red Enfermedades Neurodegenerativas (CiberNed), Instituto de Salud Carlos III, 28031 Madrid, Spain;
| | - Rafael Rivas-Santisteban
- Department Biochemistry and Molecular Biomedicine, University of Barcelona, 08028 Barcelona, Spain; (R.F.); (R.R.-S.); (I.R.-R.)
- Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red Enfermedades Neurodegenerativas (CiberNed), Instituto de Salud Carlos III, 28031 Madrid, Spain;
| | - Gemma Navarro
- Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red Enfermedades Neurodegenerativas (CiberNed), Instituto de Salud Carlos III, 28031 Madrid, Spain;
- Department Biochemistry and Physiology, School of Pharmacy and Food Sciences, University of Barcelona, 08028 Barcelona, Spain
| | - Annalisa Pinna
- National Research Council of Italy (CNR), Neuroscience Institute–Cagliari, Cittadella Universitaria, Blocco A, SP 8, Km 0.700, 09042 Monserrato (CA), Italy
| | - Irene Reyes-Resina
- Department Biochemistry and Molecular Biomedicine, University of Barcelona, 08028 Barcelona, Spain; (R.F.); (R.R.-S.); (I.R.-R.)
| |
Collapse
|
83
|
Yang D, Ying J, Wang X, Zhao T, Yoon S, Fang Y, Zheng Q, Liu X, Yu W, Hua F. Mitochondrial Dynamics: A Key Role in Neurodegeneration and a Potential Target for Neurodegenerative Disease. Front Neurosci 2021; 15:654785. [PMID: 33912006 PMCID: PMC8072049 DOI: 10.3389/fnins.2021.654785] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/17/2021] [Accepted: 03/11/2021] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
In neurodegenerative diseases, neurodegeneration has been related to several mitochondrial dynamics imbalances such as excessive fragmentation of mitochondria, impaired mitophagy, and blocked mitochondria mitochondrial transport in axons. Mitochondria are dynamic organelles, and essential for energy conversion, neuron survival, and cell death. As mitochondrial dynamics have a significant influence on homeostasis, in this review, we mainly discuss the role of mitochondrial dynamics in several neurodegenerative diseases. There is evidence that several mitochondrial dynamics-associated proteins, as well as related pathways, have roles in the pathological process of neurodegenerative diseases with an impact on mitochondrial functions and metabolism. However, specific pathological mechanisms need to be better understood in order to propose new therapeutic strategies targeting mitochondrial dynamics that have shown promise in recent studies.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Danying Yang
- Department of Anesthesiology, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Nanchang University, Nanchang, China.,Key Laboratory of Anesthesiology of Jiangxi Province, Nanchang, China
| | - Jun Ying
- Department of Anesthesiology, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Nanchang University, Nanchang, China.,Key Laboratory of Anesthesiology of Jiangxi Province, Nanchang, China
| | - Xifeng Wang
- Department of Anesthesiology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Nanchang University, Nanchang, China
| | - Tiancheng Zhao
- Mailman School of Public Health, Columbia University, New York, NY, United States
| | - Sungtae Yoon
- Helping Minds International Charitable Foundation, New York, NY, United States
| | - Yang Fang
- Department of Anesthesiology, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Nanchang University, Nanchang, China.,Key Laboratory of Anesthesiology of Jiangxi Province, Nanchang, China
| | - Qingcui Zheng
- Department of Anesthesiology, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Nanchang University, Nanchang, China.,Key Laboratory of Anesthesiology of Jiangxi Province, Nanchang, China
| | - Xing Liu
- Department of Anesthesiology, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Nanchang University, Nanchang, China.,Key Laboratory of Anesthesiology of Jiangxi Province, Nanchang, China
| | - Wen Yu
- Department of Anesthesiology, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Nanchang University, Nanchang, China.,Key Laboratory of Anesthesiology of Jiangxi Province, Nanchang, China
| | - Fuzhou Hua
- Department of Anesthesiology, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Nanchang University, Nanchang, China.,Key Laboratory of Anesthesiology of Jiangxi Province, Nanchang, China
| |
Collapse
|
84
|
Kawabe H, Stegmüller J. The role of E3 ubiquitin ligases in synapse function in the healthy and diseased brain. Mol Cell Neurosci 2021; 112:103602. [DOI: 10.1016/j.mcn.2021.103602] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/03/2020] [Revised: 01/06/2021] [Accepted: 02/02/2021] [Indexed: 02/08/2023] Open
|
85
|
Yokota M, Kakuta S, Shiga T, Ishikawa KI, Okano H, Hattori N, Akamatsu W, Koike M. Establishment of an in vitro model for analyzing mitochondrial ultrastructure in PRKN-mutated patient iPSC-derived dopaminergic neurons. Mol Brain 2021; 14:58. [PMID: 33757554 PMCID: PMC7986497 DOI: 10.1186/s13041-021-00771-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/04/2020] [Accepted: 03/15/2021] [Indexed: 01/11/2023] Open
Abstract
Mitochondrial structural changes are associated with the regulation of mitochondrial function, apoptosis, and neurodegenerative diseases. PRKN is known to be involved with various mechanisms of mitochondrial quality control including mitochondrial structural changes. Parkinson's disease (PD) with PRKN mutations is characterized by the preferential degeneration of dopaminergic neurons in the substantia nigra pars compacta, which has been suggested to result from the accumulation of damaged mitochondria. However, ultrastructural changes of mitochondria specifically in dopaminergic neurons derived from iPSC have rarely been analyzed. The main reason for this would be that the dopaminergic neurons cannot be distinguished directly among a mixture of iPSC-derived differentiated cells under electron microscopy. To selectively label dopaminergic neurons and analyze mitochondrial morphology at the ultrastructural level, we generated control and PRKN-mutated patient tyrosine hydroxylase reporter (TH-GFP) induced pluripotent stem cell (iPSC) lines. Correlative light-electron microscopy analysis and live cell imaging of GFP-expressing dopaminergic neurons indicated that iPSC-derived dopaminergic neurons had smaller and less functional mitochondria than those in non-dopaminergic neurons. Furthermore, the formation of spheroid-shaped mitochondria, which was induced in control dopaminergic neurons by a mitochondrial uncoupler, was inhibited in the PRKN-mutated dopaminergic neurons. These results indicate that our established TH-GFP iPSC lines are useful for characterizing mitochondrial morphology, such as spheroid-shaped mitochondria, in dopaminergic neurons among a mixture of various cell types. Our in vitro model would provide insights into the vulnerability of dopaminergic neurons and the processes leading to the preferential loss of dopaminergic neurons in patients with PRKN mutations.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Mutsumi Yokota
- Department of Cell Biology and Neuroscience, Juntendo University Graduate School of Medicine, 2-1-1 Hongo, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo, 113-8421, Japan
| | - Soichiro Kakuta
- Laboratory of Morphology and Image Analysis, Research Support Center, Juntendo University Graduate School of Medicine, Tokyo, 113-8421, Japan
- Department of Cellular and Molecular Neuropathology, Juntendo University Graduate School of Medicine, Tokyo, 113-8421, Japan
| | - Takahiro Shiga
- Center for Genomic and Regenerative Medicine, Juntendo University Graduate School of Medicine, Tokyo, 113-8421, Japan
| | - Kei-Ichi Ishikawa
- Center for Genomic and Regenerative Medicine, Juntendo University Graduate School of Medicine, Tokyo, 113-8421, Japan
- Department of Neurology, Juntendo University School of Medicine, Tokyo, 113-8421, Japan
| | - Hideyuki Okano
- Department of Physiology, Keio University School of Medicine, Tokyo, 160-8582, Japan
| | - Nobutaka Hattori
- Department of Neurology, Juntendo University School of Medicine, Tokyo, 113-8421, Japan
- Advanced Research Institute for Health Sciences, Juntendo University, Bunkyo, Tokyo, 113-8421, Japan
| | - Wado Akamatsu
- Center for Genomic and Regenerative Medicine, Juntendo University Graduate School of Medicine, Tokyo, 113-8421, Japan
- Advanced Research Institute for Health Sciences, Juntendo University, Bunkyo, Tokyo, 113-8421, Japan
| | - Masato Koike
- Department of Cell Biology and Neuroscience, Juntendo University Graduate School of Medicine, 2-1-1 Hongo, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo, 113-8421, Japan.
- Advanced Research Institute for Health Sciences, Juntendo University, Bunkyo, Tokyo, 113-8421, Japan.
| |
Collapse
|
86
|
Wang B, Huang M, Shang D, Yan X, Zhao B, Zhang X. Mitochondrial Behavior in Axon Degeneration and Regeneration. Front Aging Neurosci 2021; 13:650038. [PMID: 33762926 PMCID: PMC7982458 DOI: 10.3389/fnagi.2021.650038] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/06/2021] [Accepted: 02/18/2021] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Mitochondria are organelles responsible for bioenergetic metabolism, calcium homeostasis, and signal transmission essential for neurons due to their high energy consumption. Accumulating evidence has demonstrated that mitochondria play a key role in axon degeneration and regeneration under physiological and pathological conditions. Mitochondrial dysfunction occurs at an early stage of axon degeneration and involves oxidative stress, energy deficiency, imbalance of mitochondrial dynamics, defects in mitochondrial transport, and mitophagy dysregulation. The restoration of these defective mitochondria by enhancing mitochondrial transport, clearance of reactive oxidative species (ROS), and improving bioenergetic can greatly contribute to axon regeneration. In this paper, we focus on the biological behavior of axonal mitochondria in aging, injury (e.g., traumatic brain and spinal cord injury), and neurodegenerative diseases (Alzheimer's disease, AD; Parkinson's disease, PD; Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, ALS) and consider the role of mitochondria in axon regeneration. We also compare the behavior of mitochondria in different diseases and outline novel therapeutic strategies for addressing abnormal mitochondrial biological behavior to promote axonal regeneration in neurological diseases and injuries.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Biyao Wang
- The VIP Department, School and Hospital of Stomatology, China Medical University, Liaoning Provincial Key Laboratory of Oral Diseases, Shenyang, China
| | - Minghao Huang
- Center of Implant Dentistry, School and Hospital of Stomatology, China Medical University, Liaoning Provincial Key Laboratory of Oral Diseases, Shenyang, China
| | - Dehao Shang
- Center of Implant Dentistry, School and Hospital of Stomatology, China Medical University, Liaoning Provincial Key Laboratory of Oral Diseases, Shenyang, China
| | - Xu Yan
- The VIP Department, School and Hospital of Stomatology, China Medical University, Liaoning Provincial Key Laboratory of Oral Diseases, Shenyang, China
| | - Baohong Zhao
- Center of Implant Dentistry, School and Hospital of Stomatology, China Medical University, Liaoning Provincial Key Laboratory of Oral Diseases, Shenyang, China
| | - Xinwen Zhang
- Center of Implant Dentistry, School and Hospital of Stomatology, China Medical University, Liaoning Provincial Key Laboratory of Oral Diseases, Shenyang, China
| |
Collapse
|
87
|
Vos M, Klein C. The Importance of Drosophila melanogaster Research to UnCover Cellular Pathways Underlying Parkinson's Disease. Cells 2021; 10:579. [PMID: 33800736 PMCID: PMC7998316 DOI: 10.3390/cells10030579] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/08/2021] [Revised: 03/01/2021] [Accepted: 03/05/2021] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Parkinson's disease (PD) is a complex neurodegenerative disorder that is currently incurable. As a consequence of an incomplete understanding of the etiology of the disease, therapeutic strategies mainly focus on symptomatic treatment. Even though the majority of PD cases remain idiopathic (~90%), several genes have been identified to be causative for PD, facilitating the generation of animal models that are a good alternative to study disease pathways and to increase our understanding of the underlying mechanisms of PD. Drosophila melanogaster has proven to be an excellent model in these studies. In this review, we will discuss the different PD models in flies and key findings identified in flies in different affected pathways in PD. Several molecular changes have been identified, of which mitochondrial dysfunction and a defective endo-lysosomal pathway emerge to be the most relevant for PD pathogenesis. Studies in flies have significantly contributed to our knowledge of how disease genes affect and interact in these pathways enabling a better understanding of the disease etiology and providing possible therapeutic targets for the treatment of PD, some of which have already resulted in clinical trials.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Melissa Vos
- Institute of Neurogenetics, University of Luebeck, Ratzeburger Allee 160, Building 67, 23562 Luebeck, Germany
| | - Christine Klein
- Institute of Neurogenetics, University of Luebeck, Ratzeburger Allee 160, Building 67, 23562 Luebeck, Germany
| |
Collapse
|
88
|
Gcwensa NZ, Russell DL, Cowell RM, Volpicelli-Daley LA. Molecular Mechanisms Underlying Synaptic and Axon Degeneration in Parkinson's Disease. Front Cell Neurosci 2021; 15:626128. [PMID: 33737866 PMCID: PMC7960781 DOI: 10.3389/fncel.2021.626128] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/04/2020] [Accepted: 02/05/2021] [Indexed: 01/13/2023] Open
Abstract
Parkinson’s disease (PD) is a progressive neurodegenerative disease that impairs movement as well as causing multiple other symptoms such as autonomic dysfunction, rapid eye movement (REM) sleep behavior disorder, hyposmia, and cognitive changes. Loss of dopamine neurons in the substantia nigra pars compacta (SNc) and loss of dopamine terminals in the striatum contribute to characteristic motor features. Although therapies ease the symptoms of PD, there are no treatments to slow its progression. Accumulating evidence suggests that synaptic impairments and axonal degeneration precede neuronal cell body loss. Early synaptic changes may be a target to prevent disease onset and slow progression. Imaging of PD patients with radioligands, post-mortem pathologic studies in sporadic PD patients, and animal models of PD demonstrate abnormalities in presynaptic terminals as well as postsynaptic dendritic spines. Dopaminergic and excitatory synapses are substantially reduced in PD, and whether other neuronal subtypes show synaptic defects remains relatively unexplored. Genetic studies implicate several genes that play a role at the synapse, providing additional support for synaptic dysfunction in PD. In this review article we: (1) provide evidence for synaptic defects occurring in PD before neuron death; (2) describe the main genes implicated in PD that could contribute to synapse dysfunction; and (3) show correlations between the expression of Snca mRNA and mouse homologs of PD GWAS genes demonstrating selective enrichment of Snca and synaptic genes in dopaminergic, excitatory and cholinergic neurons. Altogether, these findings highlight the need for novel therapeutics targeting the synapse and suggest that future studies should explore the roles for PD-implicated genes across multiple neuron types and circuits.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Nolwazi Z Gcwensa
- Department of Neurobiology, Center for Neurodegeneration and Experimental Therapeutics, Civitan International Research Center, Birmingham, AL, United States
| | - Drèson L Russell
- Department of Neurobiology, Center for Neurodegeneration and Experimental Therapeutics, Civitan International Research Center, Birmingham, AL, United States
| | - Rita M Cowell
- Department of Neuroscience, Southern Research, Birmingham, AL, United States
| | - Laura A Volpicelli-Daley
- Department of Neurobiology, Center for Neurodegeneration and Experimental Therapeutics, Civitan International Research Center, Birmingham, AL, United States
| |
Collapse
|
89
|
Wilkaniec A, Lenkiewicz AM, Babiec L, Murawska E, Jęśko HM, Cieślik M, Culmsee C, Adamczyk A. Exogenous Alpha-Synuclein Evoked Parkin Downregulation Promotes Mitochondrial Dysfunction in Neuronal Cells. Implications for Parkinson's Disease Pathology. Front Aging Neurosci 2021; 13:591475. [PMID: 33716707 PMCID: PMC7943853 DOI: 10.3389/fnagi.2021.591475] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/04/2020] [Accepted: 02/01/2021] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Aberrant secretion and accumulation of α-synuclein (α-Syn) as well as the loss of parkin function are associated with the pathogenesis of Parkinson's disease (PD). Our previous study suggested a functional interaction between those two proteins, showing that the extracellular α-Syn evoked post-translational modifications of parkin, leading to its autoubiquitination and degradation. While parkin plays an important role in mitochondrial biogenesis and turnover, including mitochondrial fission/fusion as well as mitophagy, the involvement of parkin deregulation in α-Syn-induced mitochondrial damage is largely unknown. In the present study, we demonstrated that treatment with exogenous α-Syn triggers mitochondrial dysfunction, reflected by the depolarization of the mitochondrial membrane, elevated synthesis of the mitochondrial superoxide anion, and a decrease in cellular ATP level. At the same time, we observed a protective effect of parkin overexpression on α-Syn-induced mitochondrial dysfunction. α-Syn-dependent disturbances of mitophagy were also shown to be directly related to reduced parkin levels in mitochondria and decreased ubiquitination of mitochondrial proteins. Also, α-Syn impaired mitochondrial biosynthesis due to the parkin-dependent reduction of PGC-1α protein levels. Finally, loss of parkin function as a result of α-Syn treatment induced an overall breakdown of mitochondrial homeostasis that led to the accumulation of abnormal mitochondria. These findings may thus provide the first compelling evidence for the direct association of α-Syn-mediated parkin depletion to impaired mitochondrial function in PD. We suggest that improvement of parkin function may serve as a novel therapeutic strategy to prevent mitochondrial impairment and neurodegeneration in PD (thereby slowing the progression of the disease).
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Anna Wilkaniec
- Department of Cellular Signalling, Mossakowski Medical Research Centre (PAN), Polish Academy of Sciences, Warsaw, Poland
| | - Anna M Lenkiewicz
- Department of Cellular Signalling, Mossakowski Medical Research Centre (PAN), Polish Academy of Sciences, Warsaw, Poland
| | - Lidia Babiec
- Department of Cellular Signalling, Mossakowski Medical Research Centre (PAN), Polish Academy of Sciences, Warsaw, Poland
| | - Emilia Murawska
- Department of Cellular Signalling, Mossakowski Medical Research Centre (PAN), Polish Academy of Sciences, Warsaw, Poland
| | - Henryk M Jęśko
- Department of Cellular Signalling, Mossakowski Medical Research Centre (PAN), Polish Academy of Sciences, Warsaw, Poland
| | - Magdalena Cieślik
- Department of Cellular Signalling, Mossakowski Medical Research Centre (PAN), Polish Academy of Sciences, Warsaw, Poland
| | - Carsten Culmsee
- Institute of Pharmacology and Clinical Pharmacy, Philipps-University of Marburg, Marburg, Germany
| | - Agata Adamczyk
- Department of Cellular Signalling, Mossakowski Medical Research Centre (PAN), Polish Academy of Sciences, Warsaw, Poland
| |
Collapse
|
90
|
Shiiba I, Takeda K, Nagashima S, Ito N, Tokuyama T, Yamashita SI, Kanki T, Komatsu T, Urano Y, Fujikawa Y, Inatome R, Yanagi S. MITOL promotes cell survival by degrading Parkin during mitophagy. EMBO Rep 2021; 22:e49097. [PMID: 33565245 PMCID: PMC7926225 DOI: 10.15252/embr.201949097] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/19/2019] [Revised: 12/10/2020] [Accepted: 12/18/2020] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Parkin promotes cell survival by removing damaged mitochondria via mitophagy. However, although some studies have suggested that Parkin induces cell death, the regulatory mechanism underlying the dual role of Parkin remains unknown. Herein, we report that mitochondrial ubiquitin ligase (MITOL/MARCH5) regulates Parkin‐mediated cell death through the FKBP38‐dependent dynamic translocation from the mitochondria to the ER during mitophagy. Mechanistically, MITOL mediates ubiquitination of Parkin at lysine 220 residue, which promotes its proteasomal degradation, and thereby fine‐tunes mitophagy by controlling the quantity of Parkin. Deletion of MITOL leads to accumulation of the phosphorylated active form of Parkin in the ER, resulting in FKBP38 degradation and enhanced cell death. Thus, we have shown that MITOL blocks Parkin‐induced cell death, at least partially, by protecting FKBP38 from Parkin. Our findings unveil the regulation of the dual function of Parkin and provide a novel perspective on the pathogenesis of PD.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Isshin Shiiba
- Laboratory of Molecular Biochemistry, Department of Life Science, Faculty of Science, Gakushuin University, Tokyo, Japan.,Laboratory of Molecular Biochemistry, School of Life Sciences, Tokyo University of Pharmacy and Life Sciences, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Keisuke Takeda
- Laboratory of Molecular Biochemistry, School of Life Sciences, Tokyo University of Pharmacy and Life Sciences, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Shun Nagashima
- Laboratory of Molecular Biochemistry, School of Life Sciences, Tokyo University of Pharmacy and Life Sciences, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Naoki Ito
- Laboratory of Molecular Biochemistry, Department of Life Science, Faculty of Science, Gakushuin University, Tokyo, Japan.,Laboratory of Molecular Biochemistry, School of Life Sciences, Tokyo University of Pharmacy and Life Sciences, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Takeshi Tokuyama
- Laboratory of Molecular Biochemistry, School of Life Sciences, Tokyo University of Pharmacy and Life Sciences, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Shun-Ichi Yamashita
- Department of Cellular Physiology, Niigata University Graduate School of Medical and Dental Sciences, Niigata, Japan
| | - Tomotake Kanki
- Department of Cellular Physiology, Niigata University Graduate School of Medical and Dental Sciences, Niigata, Japan
| | - Toru Komatsu
- Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Yasuteru Urano
- Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan.,Graduate School of Medicine, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan.,Core Research for Evolutional Science and Technology (CREST) Investigator, Japan Agency for Medical Research and Development (AMED), Tokyo, Japan
| | - Yuuta Fujikawa
- Laboratory of Molecular and Chemical Biology, School of Life Sciences, Tokyo University of Pharmacy and Life Sciences, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Ryoko Inatome
- Laboratory of Molecular Biochemistry, Department of Life Science, Faculty of Science, Gakushuin University, Tokyo, Japan.,Laboratory of Molecular Biochemistry, School of Life Sciences, Tokyo University of Pharmacy and Life Sciences, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Shigeru Yanagi
- Laboratory of Molecular Biochemistry, Department of Life Science, Faculty of Science, Gakushuin University, Tokyo, Japan.,Laboratory of Molecular Biochemistry, School of Life Sciences, Tokyo University of Pharmacy and Life Sciences, Tokyo, Japan
| |
Collapse
|
91
|
Paul S, Pickrell AM. Hidden phenotypes of PINK1/Parkin knockout mice. Biochim Biophys Acta Gen Subj 2021; 1865:129871. [PMID: 33571581 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbagen.2021.129871] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/15/2020] [Revised: 01/26/2021] [Accepted: 02/05/2021] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
PINK1, a serine/threonine ubiquitin kinase, and Parkin, an E3 ubiquitin ligase, work in coordination to target damaged mitochondria to the lysosome in a process called mitophagy. This review will cover what we have learned from PINK1 and Parkin knockout (KO) mice. Systemic PINK1 and Parkin KO mouse models haven't faithfully recapitulated early onset forms of Parkinson's disease found in humans with recessive mutations in these genes. However, the utilization of these mouse models has given us insight into how PINK1 and Parkin contribute to mitochondrial quality control and function in different tissues beyond the brain such as in heart and adipose tissue. Although PINK1 and Parkin KO mice have been generated over a decade ago, these models are still being used today to creatively elucidate cell-type specific functions. Recently, these mouse models have uncovered that these proteins contribute to innate immunity and cancer phenotypes.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Swagatika Paul
- Graduate Studies in Biomedical and Veterinary Sciences, Virginia-Maryland College of Veterinary Medicine, Blacksburg, VA 24601, USA; School of Neuroscience, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, VA 24061, USA
| | - Alicia M Pickrell
- School of Neuroscience, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, VA 24061, USA.
| |
Collapse
|
92
|
Khan N, Pelletier D, McAlear TS, Croteau N, Veyron S, Bayne AN, Black C, Ichikawa M, Khalifa AAZ, Chaaban S, Kurinov I, Brouhard G, Bechstedt S, Bui KH, Trempe JF. Crystal structure of human PACRG in complex with MEIG1 reveals roles in axoneme formation and tubulin binding. Structure 2021; 29:572-586.e6. [PMID: 33529594 DOI: 10.1016/j.str.2021.01.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/17/2020] [Revised: 12/16/2020] [Accepted: 01/08/2021] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
The Parkin co-regulated gene protein (PACRG) binds at the inner junction between doublet microtubules of the axoneme, a structure found in flagella and cilia. PACRG binds to the adaptor protein meiosis expressed gene 1 (MEIG1), but how they bind to microtubules is unknown. Here, we report the crystal structure of human PACRG in complex with MEIG1. PACRG adopts a helical repeat fold with a loop that interacts with MEIG1. Using the structure of the axonemal doublet microtubule from the protozoan Chlamydomonas reinhardtii and single-molecule fluorescence microscopy, we propose that PACRG binds to microtubules while simultaneously recruiting free tubulin to catalyze formation of the inner junction. We show that the homologous PACRG-like protein also mediates dual tubulin interactions but does not bind MEIG1. Our findings establish a framework to assess the function of the PACRG family of proteins and MEIG1 in regulating axoneme assembly.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Nimra Khan
- Department of Pharmacology & Therapeutics, McGill University, Montreal, QC, Canada; Centre de Recherche en Biologie Structurale - FRQS, McGill University, Montreal, QC, Canada
| | - Dylan Pelletier
- Department of Pharmacology & Therapeutics, McGill University, Montreal, QC, Canada; Centre de Recherche en Biologie Structurale - FRQS, McGill University, Montreal, QC, Canada
| | - Thomas S McAlear
- Department of Anatomy & Cell Biology, McGill University, Montreal, QC, Canada; Centre de Recherche en Biologie Structurale - FRQS, McGill University, Montreal, QC, Canada
| | - Nathalie Croteau
- Department of Pharmacology & Therapeutics, McGill University, Montreal, QC, Canada; Centre de Recherche en Biologie Structurale - FRQS, McGill University, Montreal, QC, Canada
| | - Simon Veyron
- Department of Pharmacology & Therapeutics, McGill University, Montreal, QC, Canada; Centre de Recherche en Biologie Structurale - FRQS, McGill University, Montreal, QC, Canada
| | - Andrew N Bayne
- Department of Pharmacology & Therapeutics, McGill University, Montreal, QC, Canada; Centre de Recherche en Biologie Structurale - FRQS, McGill University, Montreal, QC, Canada
| | - Corbin Black
- Department of Anatomy & Cell Biology, McGill University, Montreal, QC, Canada; Centre de Recherche en Biologie Structurale - FRQS, McGill University, Montreal, QC, Canada
| | - Muneyoshi Ichikawa
- Department of Anatomy & Cell Biology, McGill University, Montreal, QC, Canada
| | - Ahmad Abdelzaher Zaki Khalifa
- Department of Anatomy & Cell Biology, McGill University, Montreal, QC, Canada; Centre de Recherche en Biologie Structurale - FRQS, McGill University, Montreal, QC, Canada
| | - Sami Chaaban
- Department of Biology, McGill University, Montreal, QC, Canada; Centre de Recherche en Biologie Structurale - FRQS, McGill University, Montreal, QC, Canada
| | - Igor Kurinov
- NECAT, Cornell University, Department of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, Argonne, IL, USA
| | - Gary Brouhard
- Department of Biology, McGill University, Montreal, QC, Canada; Centre de Recherche en Biologie Structurale - FRQS, McGill University, Montreal, QC, Canada
| | - Susanne Bechstedt
- Department of Anatomy & Cell Biology, McGill University, Montreal, QC, Canada; Centre de Recherche en Biologie Structurale - FRQS, McGill University, Montreal, QC, Canada
| | - Khanh Huy Bui
- Department of Anatomy & Cell Biology, McGill University, Montreal, QC, Canada; Centre de Recherche en Biologie Structurale - FRQS, McGill University, Montreal, QC, Canada
| | - Jean-François Trempe
- Department of Pharmacology & Therapeutics, McGill University, Montreal, QC, Canada; Centre de Recherche en Biologie Structurale - FRQS, McGill University, Montreal, QC, Canada.
| |
Collapse
|
93
|
Ke M, Chong CM, Zhu Q, Zhang K, Cai CZ, Lu JH, Qin D, Su H. Comprehensive Perspectives on Experimental Models for Parkinson's Disease. Aging Dis 2021; 12:223-246. [PMID: 33532138 PMCID: PMC7801282 DOI: 10.14336/ad.2020.0331] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/24/2020] [Accepted: 03/31/2020] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Parkinson’s disease (PD) ranks second among the most common neurodegenerative diseases, characterized by progressive and selective loss of dopaminergic neurons. Various cross-species preclinical models, including cellular models and animal models, have been established through the decades to study the etiology and mechanism of the disease from cell lines to nonhuman primates. These models are aimed at developing effective therapeutic strategies for the disease. None of the current models can replicate all major pathological and clinical phenotypes of PD. Selection of the model for PD largely relies on our interest of study. In this review, we systemically summarized experimental PD models, including cellular and animal models used in preclinical studies, to understand the pathogenesis of PD. This review is intended to provide current knowledge about the application of these different PD models, with focus on their strengths and limitations with respect to their contributions to the assessment of the molecular pathobiology of PD and identification of the therapeutic strategies for the disease.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Minjing Ke
- 1State Key Laboratory of Quality Research in Chinese Medicine, Institute of Chinese Medical Sciences, University of Macau, Macao, China
| | - Cheong-Meng Chong
- 1State Key Laboratory of Quality Research in Chinese Medicine, Institute of Chinese Medical Sciences, University of Macau, Macao, China
| | - Qi Zhu
- 1State Key Laboratory of Quality Research in Chinese Medicine, Institute of Chinese Medical Sciences, University of Macau, Macao, China
| | - Ke Zhang
- 1State Key Laboratory of Quality Research in Chinese Medicine, Institute of Chinese Medical Sciences, University of Macau, Macao, China
| | - Cui-Zan Cai
- 1State Key Laboratory of Quality Research in Chinese Medicine, Institute of Chinese Medical Sciences, University of Macau, Macao, China
| | - Jia-Hong Lu
- 1State Key Laboratory of Quality Research in Chinese Medicine, Institute of Chinese Medical Sciences, University of Macau, Macao, China
| | - Dajiang Qin
- 2Guangzhou Regenerative Medicine and Health Guangdong Laboratory, The Fifth Affiliated Hospital of Guangzhou Medical University, Guangzhou, China.,3South China Institute for Stem Cell Biology and Regenerative Medicine, Guangzhou Institute of Biomedicine and Health, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Guangzhou, China
| | - Huanxing Su
- 1State Key Laboratory of Quality Research in Chinese Medicine, Institute of Chinese Medical Sciences, University of Macau, Macao, China
| |
Collapse
|
94
|
Interaction between Parkin and α-Synuclein in PARK2-Mediated Parkinson's Disease. Cells 2021; 10:cells10020283. [PMID: 33572534 PMCID: PMC7911026 DOI: 10.3390/cells10020283] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/29/2020] [Revised: 01/25/2021] [Accepted: 01/26/2021] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Parkin and α-synuclein are two key proteins involved in the pathophysiology of Parkinson's disease (PD). Neurotoxic alterations of α-synuclein that lead to the formation of toxic oligomers and fibrils contribute to PD through synaptic dysfunction, mitochondrial impairment, defective endoplasmic reticulum and Golgi function, and nuclear dysfunction. In half of the cases, the recessively inherited early-onset PD is caused by loss of function mutations in the PARK2 gene that encodes the E3-ubiquitin ligase, parkin. Parkin is involved in the clearance of misfolded and aggregated proteins by the ubiquitin-proteasome system and regulates mitophagy and mitochondrial biogenesis. PARK2-related PD is generally thought not to be associated with Lewy body formation although it is a neuropathological hallmark of PD. In this review article, we provide an overview of post-mortem neuropathological examinations of PARK2 patients and present the current knowledge of a functional interaction between parkin and α-synuclein in the regulation of protein aggregates including Lewy bodies. Furthermore, we describe prevailing hypotheses about the formation of intracellular micro-aggregates (synuclein inclusions) that might be more likely than Lewy bodies to occur in PARK2-related PD. This information may inform future studies aiming to unveil primary signaling processes involved in PD and related neurodegenerative disorders.
Collapse
|
95
|
Kamienieva I, Duszyński J, Szczepanowska J. Multitasking guardian of mitochondrial quality: Parkin function and Parkinson's disease. Transl Neurodegener 2021; 10:5. [PMID: 33468256 PMCID: PMC7816312 DOI: 10.1186/s40035-020-00229-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/07/2020] [Accepted: 12/30/2020] [Indexed: 12/27/2022] Open
Abstract
The familial form of Parkinson’s disease (PD) is linked to mutations in specific genes. The mutations in parkin are one of the most common causes of early-onset PD. Mitochondrial dysfunction is an emerging active player in the pathology of neurodegenerative diseases, because mitochondria are highly dynamic structures integrated with many cellular functions. Herein, we overview and discuss the role of the parkin protein product, Parkin E3 ubiquitin ligase, in the cellular processes related to mitochondrial function, and how parkin mutations can result in pathology in vitro and in vivo.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Iryna Kamienieva
- Nencki Institute of Experimental Biology, Polish Academy of Science, 02-093, Warsaw, Poland
| | - Jerzy Duszyński
- Nencki Institute of Experimental Biology, Polish Academy of Science, 02-093, Warsaw, Poland
| | - Joanna Szczepanowska
- Nencki Institute of Experimental Biology, Polish Academy of Science, 02-093, Warsaw, Poland.
| |
Collapse
|
96
|
Doxaki C, Palikaras K. Neuronal Mitophagy: Friend or Foe? Front Cell Dev Biol 2021; 8:611938. [PMID: 33537304 PMCID: PMC7848077 DOI: 10.3389/fcell.2020.611938] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/29/2020] [Accepted: 12/22/2020] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Maintenance of neuronal homeostasis is a challenging task, due to unique cellular organization and bioenergetic demands of post-mitotic neurons. It is increasingly appreciated that impairment of mitochondrial homeostasis represents an early sign of neuronal dysfunction that is common in both age-related neurodegenerative as well as in neurodevelopmental disorders. Mitochondrial selective autophagy, known as mitophagy, regulates mitochondrial number ensuring cellular adaptation in response to several intracellular and environmental stimuli. Mounting evidence underlines that deregulation of mitophagy levels has an instructive role in the process of neurodegeneration. Although mitophagy induction mediates the elimination of damaged mitochondria and confers neuroprotection, uncontrolled runaway mitophagy could reduce mitochondrial content overstressing the remaining organelles and eventually triggering neuronal cell death. Unveiling the molecular mechanisms of neuronal mitophagy and its intricate role in neuronal survival and cell death, will assist in the development of novel mitophagy modulators to promote cellular and organismal homeostasis in health and disease.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
| | - Konstantinos Palikaras
- Institute of Molecular Biology and Biotechnology, Foundation for Research and Technology-Hellas, Crete, Greece
| |
Collapse
|
97
|
Schmidt MF, Gan ZY, Komander D, Dewson G. Ubiquitin signalling in neurodegeneration: mechanisms and therapeutic opportunities. Cell Death Differ 2021; 28:570-590. [PMID: 33414510 PMCID: PMC7862249 DOI: 10.1038/s41418-020-00706-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 181] [Impact Index Per Article: 60.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/15/2020] [Revised: 12/01/2020] [Accepted: 12/01/2020] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Neurodegenerative diseases are characterised by progressive damage to the nervous system including the selective loss of vulnerable populations of neurons leading to motor symptoms and cognitive decline. Despite millions of people being affected worldwide, there are still no drugs that block the neurodegenerative process to stop or slow disease progression. Neuronal death in these diseases is often linked to the misfolded proteins that aggregate within the brain (proteinopathies) as a result of disease-related gene mutations or abnormal protein homoeostasis. There are two major degradation pathways to rid a cell of unwanted or misfolded proteins to prevent their accumulation and to maintain the health of a cell: the ubiquitin–proteasome system and the autophagy–lysosomal pathway. Both of these degradative pathways depend on the modification of targets with ubiquitin. Aging is the primary risk factor of most neurodegenerative diseases including Alzheimer’s disease, Parkinson’s disease and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis. With aging there is a general reduction in proteasomal degradation and autophagy, and a consequent increase of potentially neurotoxic protein aggregates of β-amyloid, tau, α-synuclein, SOD1 and TDP-43. An often over-looked yet major component of these aggregates is ubiquitin, implicating these protein aggregates as either an adaptive response to toxic misfolded proteins or as evidence of dysregulated ubiquitin-mediated degradation driving toxic aggregation. In addition, non-degradative ubiquitin signalling is critical for homoeostatic mechanisms fundamental for neuronal function and survival, including mitochondrial homoeostasis, receptor trafficking and DNA damage responses, whilst also playing a role in inflammatory processes. This review will discuss the current understanding of the role of ubiquitin-dependent processes in the progressive loss of neurons and the emergence of ubiquitin signalling as a target for the development of much needed new drugs to treat neurodegenerative disease. ![]()
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Marlene F Schmidt
- The Walter and Eliza Hall Institute of Medical Research, 1G Royal Parade, Melbourne, VIC, 3052, Australia.,Department of Medical Biology, University of Melbourne, Royal Parade, Melbourne, VIC, 3052, Australia
| | - Zhong Yan Gan
- The Walter and Eliza Hall Institute of Medical Research, 1G Royal Parade, Melbourne, VIC, 3052, Australia.,Department of Medical Biology, University of Melbourne, Royal Parade, Melbourne, VIC, 3052, Australia
| | - David Komander
- The Walter and Eliza Hall Institute of Medical Research, 1G Royal Parade, Melbourne, VIC, 3052, Australia.,Department of Medical Biology, University of Melbourne, Royal Parade, Melbourne, VIC, 3052, Australia
| | - Grant Dewson
- The Walter and Eliza Hall Institute of Medical Research, 1G Royal Parade, Melbourne, VIC, 3052, Australia. .,Department of Medical Biology, University of Melbourne, Royal Parade, Melbourne, VIC, 3052, Australia.
| |
Collapse
|
98
|
Choong CJ, Okuno T, Ikenaka K, Baba K, Hayakawa H, Koike M, Yokota M, Doi J, Kakuda K, Takeuchi T, Kuma A, Nakamura S, Nagai Y, Nagano S, Yoshimori T, Mochizuki H. Alternative mitochondrial quality control mediated by extracellular release. Autophagy 2020; 17:2962-2974. [PMID: 33218272 PMCID: PMC8525996 DOI: 10.1080/15548627.2020.1848130] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Mitochondrial quality control, which is crucial for maintaining cellular homeostasis, has been considered to be achieved exclusively through mitophagy. Here we report an alternative mitochondrial quality control pathway mediated by extracellular mitochondria release. By performing time-lapse confocal imaging on a stable cell line with fluorescent-labeled mitochondria, we observed release of mitochondria from cells into the extracellular space. Correlative light-electron microscopy revealed that majority of the extracellular mitochondria are in free form and, on rare occasions, some are enclosed in membrane-surrounded vesicles. Rotenone- and carbonyl cyanide m-chlorophenylhydrazone-induced mitochondrial quality impairment promotes the extracellular release of depolarized mitochondria. Overexpression of PRKN (parkin RBR E3 ubiquitin protein ligase), which has a pivotal role in mitophagy regulation, suppresses the extracellular mitochondria release under basal and stress condition, whereas its knockdown exacerbates it. Correspondingly, overexpression of PRKN-independent mitophagy regulators, BNIP3 (BCL2 interacting protein 3) and BNIP3L/NIX (BCL2 interacting protein 3 like), suppress extracellular mitochondria release. Autophagy-deficient cell lines show elevated extracellular mitochondria release. These results imply that perturbation of mitophagy pathway prompts mitochondria expulsion. Presence of mitochondrial protein can also be detected in mouse sera. Sera of PRKN-deficient mice contain higher level of mitochondrial protein compared to that of wild-type mice. More importantly, fibroblasts and cerebrospinal fluid samples from Parkinson disease patients carrying loss-of-function PRKN mutations show increased extracellular mitochondria compared to control subjects, providing evidence in a clinical context. Taken together, our findings suggest that extracellular mitochondria release is a comparable yet distinct quality control pathway from conventional mitophagy. Abbreviations: ACTB: actin beta; ANXA5: annexin A5; ATP5F1A/ATP5A: ATP synthase F1 subunit alpha; ATG: autophagy related; BNIP3: BCL2 interacting protein 3; BNIP3L/NIX: BCL2 interacting protein 3 like; CCCP: carbonyl cyanide m-chlorophenylhydrazone; CM: conditioned media; CSF: cerebrospinal fluid; DMSO: dimethyl sulfoxide; EM: electron microscopy; HSPD1/Hsp60: heat shock protein family D (Hsp60) member 1; KD: knockdown; KO: knockout; MAP1LC3A/LC3: microtubule associated protein 1 light chain 3 alpha; MT-CO1: mitochondrially encoded cytochrome c oxidase I; NDUFB8: NADH:ubiquinone oxidoreductase subunit B8; OE: overexpression; OPA1: OPA1 mitochondrial dynamin like GTPase; OXPHOS: oxidative phosphorylation; PBS: phosphate-buffered saline; PB: phosphate buffer; PD: Parkinson disease; PINK1: PTEN induced kinase 1; PRKN: parkin RBR E3 ubiquitin protein ligase; RB1CC1/FIP200: RB1 inducible coiled-coil 1; SDHB: succinate dehydrogenase complex iron sulfur subunit B; TOMM20: translocase of outer mitochondrial membrane 20; TOMM40: translocase of outer mitochondrial membrane 40; UQCRC2: ubiquinol-cytochrome c reductase core protein 2; WT: wild-type
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Chi-Jing Choong
- Department of Neurology, Osaka University Graduate School of Medicine, Suita, Japan
| | - Tatsusada Okuno
- Department of Neurology, Osaka University Graduate School of Medicine, Suita, Japan
| | - Kensuke Ikenaka
- Department of Neurology, Osaka University Graduate School of Medicine, Suita, Japan
| | - Kousuke Baba
- Department of Neurology, Osaka University Graduate School of Medicine, Suita, Japan
| | - Hideki Hayakawa
- Department of Neurology, Osaka University Graduate School of Medicine, Suita, Japan
| | - Masato Koike
- Department of Cell Biology and Neuroscience, Juntendo University Graduate School of Medicine, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Mutsumi Yokota
- Department of Cell Biology and Neuroscience, Juntendo University Graduate School of Medicine, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Junko Doi
- Department of Neurology, Osaka University Graduate School of Medicine, Suita, Japan
| | - Keita Kakuda
- Department of Neurology, Osaka University Graduate School of Medicine, Suita, Japan
| | - Toshihide Takeuchi
- Department of Neurotherapeutics, Osaka University Graduate School of Medicine, Suita, Japan
| | - Akiko Kuma
- Department of Genetics, Osaka University Graduate School of Medicine, Suita, Japan
| | - Shuhei Nakamura
- Department of Genetics, Osaka University Graduate School of Medicine, Suita, Japan
| | - Yoshitaka Nagai
- Department of Neurotherapeutics, Osaka University Graduate School of Medicine, Suita, Japan
| | - Seiichi Nagano
- Department of Neurology, Osaka University Graduate School of Medicine, Suita, Japan
| | - Tamotsu Yoshimori
- Department of Genetics, Osaka University Graduate School of Medicine, Suita, Japan
| | - Hideki Mochizuki
- Department of Neurology, Osaka University Graduate School of Medicine, Suita, Japan
| |
Collapse
|
99
|
de Melo KP, Camargo M. Mechanisms for sperm mitochondrial removal in embryos. BIOCHIMICA ET BIOPHYSICA ACTA-MOLECULAR CELL RESEARCH 2020; 1868:118916. [PMID: 33276010 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbamcr.2020.118916] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/04/2020] [Revised: 11/23/2020] [Accepted: 11/25/2020] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Different animal species have different characteristics regarding the transmission of mitochondrial DNA. While some species have biparental mitochondrial inheritance, others have developed pathways to remove paternal mtDNA. These pathways guarantee the uniparental mitochondrial inheritance, so far well known in mammals, avoiding heteroplasmy, which may have the potential to cause certain mitochondrial diseases in the offspring. SCOPE OF REVIEW This review aims to address the main mechanisms that involve mitochondrial degradation in different animal species, as well as to describe what is present in the literature on the mechanisms involved in mitochondrial inheritance. MAJOR CONCLUSIONS Two theories are proposed to explain the uniparental inheritance of mtDNA: (i) active degradation, where mechanisms for paternal mitochondrial DNA elimination involve mitochondrial degradation pathway by autophagy and, in some species, may also involve the endocytic degradation pathway; and (ii) passive dilution, where the paternal mitochondria are diluted in the cells of the embryo according to cell division, until becoming undetectable. GENERAL SIGNIFICANCE This work brings a wide review of the already published evidence on mitochondrial inheritance in the animal kingdom and the possible mechanisms to mtDNA transmission already described in literature.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Karla Pacheco de Melo
- Department of Surgery, Division of Urology, Human Reproduction Section, Universidade Federal de São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Mariana Camargo
- Department of Surgery, Division of Urology, Human Reproduction Section, Universidade Federal de São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil.
| |
Collapse
|
100
|
Mayfield RD, Zhu L, Smith TA, Tiwari GR, Tucker HO. The SMYD1 and skNAC transcription factors contribute to neurodegenerative diseases. Brain Behav Immun Health 2020; 9:100129. [PMID: 34589886 PMCID: PMC8474399 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbih.2020.100129] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/03/2020] [Revised: 08/10/2020] [Accepted: 08/12/2020] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
SMYD1 and the skNAC isoform of the NAC transcription factor have both previously been characterized as transcription factors in hematopoiesis and cardiac/skeletal muscle. Here we report that comparative analysis of genes deregulated by SMYD1 or skNAC knockdown in differentiating C2C12 myoblasts identified transcripts characteristic of neurodegenerative diseases, including Alzheimer's, Parkinson's and Huntington's Diseases (AD, PD, and HD). This led us to determine whether SMYD1 and skNAC function together or independently within the brain. Based on meta-analyses and direct experimentation, we observed SMYD1 and skNAC expression within cortical striata of human brains, mouse brains and transgenic mouse models of these diseases. We observed some of these features in mouse myoblasts induced to differentiate into neurons. Finally, several defining features of Alzheimer's pathology, including the brain-specific, axon-enriched microtubule-associated protein, Tau, are deregulated upon SMYD1 loss.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- R. Dayne Mayfield
- Waggoner Center for Alcohol and Addiction Research, The University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX, 78712, USA
- Department of Neuroscience, The University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX, 78712, USA
- Department of Molecular Biosciences, The University of Texas at Austin, 1 University Station A5000, Austin, TX, 78712, USA
| | - Li Zhu
- Department of Pathology, Lokey Stem Cell Research Building, 265 Campus Drive, Stanford, CA, 94305, USA
- Department of Molecular Biosciences, The University of Texas at Austin, 1 University Station A5000, Austin, TX, 78712, USA
| | - Tyler A. Smith
- Department of Neuroscience, The University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX, 78712, USA
| | - Gayatri R. Tiwari
- Waggoner Center for Alcohol and Addiction Research, The University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX, 78712, USA
| | - Haley O. Tucker
- Department of Molecular Biosciences, The University of Texas at Austin, 1 University Station A5000, Austin, TX, 78712, USA
| |
Collapse
|