Biodistribution and targeting properties of iron oxide nanoparticles for treatments of cancer and iron anemia disease

Toxicity and biodistribution assessment of curcumin-coated iron oxide nanoparticles: Multidose administration

AIM

Iron oxide nanoparticles (IONPs) have been widely used in diagnosis, drug delivery, and therapy. However, the biodistribution and toxicity profile of IONPs remain debatable and incomplete, thus limiting their further use. We predict that coating iron oxide nanoparticles using curcumin (Cur-IONPs) will provide an advantage for their safety profile.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

In this study, an evaluation of the multidose effect (6 doses of 5 mg/kg Cur-IONPs to male BALB/c mice, on alternating days for two weeks) on the toxicity and biodistribution of Cur-IONPs was conducted.

KEY FINDINGS

Serum biochemical analysis demonstrated no significant difference in enzyme levels in the liver and kidney between the Cur-IONP-treated and control groups. Blood glucose level measurements showed a nonsignificant change between groups. However, the serum iron concentration was found to initially increase significantly but then decreased at 10 days after the final injection. Histopathological examination of the liver, spleen, kidneys, and brain showed no abnormalities or differences between the Cur-IONP-treated and control groups. There were no abnormal changes in mouse body weight. The biodistribution results showed that Cur-IONPs accumulated mainly in the liver, spleen, and brain, while almost no Cur-IONPs were found in the kidney. The iron content in the liver remained high even 10 days after the final injection, while the iron content in the spleen and brain had returned to normal levels by this time point, indicating their complete clearance.

SIGNIFICANCE

These results are significant and promising for the further application of Cur-IONPs as theragnostic nanoparticles.

The Potential Application of Magnetic Nanoparticles for Liver Fibrosis Theranostics

Liver fibrosis is a major cause of morbidity and mortality worldwide due to chronic liver damage and leading to cirrhosis, liver cancer, and liver failure. To date, there is no effective and specific therapy for patients with hepatic fibrosis. As a result of their various advantages such as biocompatibility, imaging contrast ability, improved tissue penetration, and superparamagnetic properties, magnetic nanoparticles have a great potential for diagnosis and therapy in various liver diseases including fibrosis. In this review, we focus on the molecular mechanisms and important factors for hepatic fibrosis and on potential magnetic nanoparticles-based therapeutics. New strategies for the diagnosis of liver fibrosis are also discussed, with a summary of the challenges and perspectives in the translational application of magnetic nanoparticles from bench to bedside.

Contactless Nanoparticle-Based Guiding of Cells by Controllable Magnetic Fields

Controlled and contactless movements of magnetic nanoparticles are crucial for fundamental biotechnological and clinical research (eg, cell manipulation and sorting, hyperthermia, and magnetic drug targeting). However, the key technological question, how to generate suitable magnetic fields on various length scales (µm-m), is still unsolved. Here, we present a system of permanent magnets which allows for steering of iron oxide nanoparticles (SPIONs) on arbitrary trajectories observable by microscopy. The movement of the particles is simply controlled by an almost force-free rotation of cylindrical arrangements of permanent magnets. The same instrument can be used to move suspended cells loaded with SPIONs along with predetermined directions. Surprisingly, it also allows for controlled movements of intracellular compartments inside of individual cells. The exclusive use of permanent magnets simplifies scaled up versions for animals or even humans, which would open the door for remotely controlled in vivo guidance of nanoparticles or micro-robots.

Light-Interacting iron-based nanomaterials for localized cancer detection and treatment

To improve the prognosis of cancer patients, methods of local cancer detection and treatment could be implemented. For that, iron-based nanomaterials (IBN) are particularly well-suited due to their biocompatibility and the various ways in which they can specifically target a tumor, i.e. through passive, active or magnetic targeting. Furthermore, when it is needed, IBN can be associated with well-known fluorescent compounds, such as dyes, clinically approved ICG, fluorescent proteins, or quantum dots. They may also be excited and detected using well-established optical methods, relying on scattering or fluorescent mechanisms, depending on whether IBN are associated with a fluorescent compound or not. Systems combining IBN with optical methods are diverse, thus enabling tumor detection in various ways. In addition, these systems provide a wealth of information, which is inaccessible with more standard diagnostic tools, such as single tumor cell detection, in particular by combining IBN with near-field scanning optical microscopy, dark-field microscopy, confocal microscopy or super-resolution microscopy, or the highlighting of certain dynamic phenomena such as the diffusion of a fluorescent compound in an organism, e.g. using fluorescence lifetime imaging, fluorescence resonance energy transfer, fluorescence anisotropy, or fluorescence tomography. Furthermore, they can in some cases be complemented by a therapeutic approach to destroy tumors, e.g. when the fluorescent compound is a drug, or when a technique such as photo-thermal or photodynamic therapy is employed. This review brings forward the idea that iron-based nanomaterials may be associated with various optical techniques to form a commercially available toolbox, which can serve to locally detect or treat cancer with a better efficacy than more standard medical approaches. STATEMENT OF SIGNIFICANCE: New tools should be developed to improve cancer treatment outcome. For that, two closely-related aspects deserve to be considered, i.e. early tumor detection and local tumor treatment. Here, I present various types of iron-based nanomaterials, which can achieve this double objective when they interact with a beam of light under specific and accurately chosen conditions. Indeed, these materials are biocompatible and can be used/combined with most standard microscopic/optical methods. Thus, these systems enable on the one hand tumor cell detection with a high sensitivity, i.e. down to single tumor cell level, and on the other hand tumor destruction through various mechanisms in a controlled and localized manner by deciding whether or not to apply a beam of light and by having these nanomaterials specifically target tumor cells.

Therapeutic nanostructures and nanotoxicity

Nanotechnology, with its continuous advancement, leads to the development of nanoscale-level therapeutics to mitigate many complex diseases. This results in the emergence of numerous novel nanomaterials and its composite products into the market such as liposome, polymeric nanoparticles, dendrimers, and nanostructured lipid carrier. However, their application is always determined by a high benefit to risk ratio. Very few research have been done on the toxicity assessment of nanoparticles in the biological system; therefore, the limited knowledge regarding the toxicity profile of nanotherapeutics is available leading to the ignorance of its side effects. Nanoparticles can distribute in the whole body through translocating in the bloodstream by crossing membrane barriers efficiently and shows effect in organs and tissues at cellular and molecular levels. The interaction of nanoparticle with cell may consequences into nanotoxicity. The narrow size distribution, large surface area to mass ratio and surface properties of nanoparticle are significantly associated with nanotoxicity. Nanoparticles can enter into the tissue and cell by invading the membranes and cause cellular injury as well as toxicity. Therefore, the exploration of mechanisms of nanotoxicity has prime importance now a day. The toxicity assessment should be an integral part of the development of nanotherapeutics using various toxicity evaluation models. This review has focused on the exploration of different nanostructures for therapeutic delivery system along with its physicochemical characteristics responsible for adverse effects on human biology, various toxicity evaluation models, and environmental and regulatory hurdles.

Ultra-Small Iron Nanoparticles Target Mitochondria Inducing Autophagy, Acting on Mitochondrial DNA and Reducing Respiration

The application of metallic nanoparticles (materials with size at least in one dimension ranging from 1 to 100 nm) as a new therapeutic tool will improve the diagnosis and treatment of diseases. The mitochondria could be a therapeutic target to treat pathologies whose origin lies in mitochondrial dysfunctions or whose progression is dependent on mitochondrial function. We aimed to study the subcellular distribution of 2-4 nm iron nanoparticles and its effect on mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA), mitochondrial function, and autophagy in colorectal cell lines (HT-29). Results showed that when cells were exposed to ultra-small iron nanoparticles, their subcellular fate was mainly mitochondria, affecting its respiratory and glycolytic parameters, inducing the migration of the cellular state towards quiescence, and promoting and triggering the autophagic process. These effects support the potential use of nanoparticles as therapeutic agents using mitochondria as a target for cancer and other treatments for mitochondria-dependent pathologies.

Iron oxide nanoparticle-induced hematopoietic and immunological response in rats

The application and use of iron oxide nanoparticless (IONPs) in the biomedical field are steadily increasing, although it remains uncertain whether IONPs are safe or should be used with caution. In the present study, we investigated the toxicity profile of ultrafine IONPs in rats administered with 7.5, 15 and 30 mg IONPs/kg body wt intravenously once a week for 4 weeks. IONP treatment reduces bone marrow-mononuclear cell proliferation, increases free radical species and DNA damage leading to growth arrest and subsequently apoptosis induction at 15 and 30 mg doses. It also induces apoptosis in undifferentiated hematopoietic stem cells. IONP treatment significantly increased the pro-inflammatory cytokine (Interleukin (IL)-1β, TNF-α, and IL-6) level in serum. The induction in inflammation was likely mediated by splenic M1 macrophages (IL-6 and TNF-α secretion). IONP treatment induces splenocyte apoptosis and alteration in the immune system represented by reduced CD4+/CD8+ ratio and increased B cells. It also reduces innate defense represented by lower natural killer cell cytotoxicity. IONP administration markedly increased lipid peroxidation in the spleen, while the glutathione level was reduced. Similarly, superoxide dismutase activity was increased and catalase activity was reduced in the spleen of IONP-treated rats. At an organ level, IONP treatment did not cause any significant injury or structural alteration in the spleen. Collectively, our results suggest that a high dose of ultrafine IONPs may cause oxidative stress, cell death, and inflammation in a biological system.

The Potential of Various Nanotechnologies for Coronavirus Diagnosis/Treatment Highlighted through a Literature Analysis

With the current COVID-19 outbreak, it has become essential to develop efficient methods for the treatment and detection of this virus. Among the new approaches that could be tested, that relying on nanotechnology finds one of its main grounds in the similarity between nanoparticle (NP) and coronavirus (COV) sizes, which promotes NP-COV interactions. Since COVID-19 is very recent, most studies in this field have focused on other types of coronavirus than COVID-19, such as those involved in MERS or SARS diseases. Although their number is limited, they have led to promising results on various COV using a wide range of different types of nanosystems, e.g., nanoparticles, quantum dos, or nanoassemblies of polymers/proteins. Additional efforts deserve to be spent in this field to consolidate these findings. Here, I first summarize the different nanotechnology-based methods used for COV detection, i.e., optical, electrical, or PCR ones, whose sensitivity was improved by the presence of nanoparticles. Furthermore, I present vaccination methods, which comprise nanoparticles used either as adjuvants or as active principles. They often yield a better-controlled immune response, possibly due to an improved antigen presentation/processing than in non-nanoformulated vaccines. Certain antiviral approaches also took advantage of nanoparticle uses, leading to specific mechanisms such as the blocking of virus replication at the cellular level or the reduction of a COV induced apoptotic cellular death.

Bio-synthesized iron oxide nanoparticles for cancer treatment

Various living organisms, such as bacteria, plants, and animals can synthesize iron oxide nanoparticles (IONP). The mechanism of nanoparticle (NP) formation is usually described as relying on the reduction of ferric/ferrous iron ions into crystallized nanoparticulate iron that is surrounded by an organic stabilizing layer. The properties of these NP are characterized by a composition made of different types of iron oxide whose most stable and purest one appears to be maghemite, by a size predominantly comprised between 5 and 380 nm, by a crystalline core, by a surface charge which depends on the nature of the material coating the iron oxide, and by certain other properties such as a sterility, stability, production in mass, absence of aggregation, that have apparently only been studied in details for IONP synthesized by magnetotactic bacteria, called magnetosomes. In the majority of studies, bio-synthesized IONP are described as being biocompatible and as not inducing cytotoxicity towards healthy cells. Anti-tumor activity of bio-synthesized IONP has mainly been demonstrated in vitro, where this type of NP displayed cytotoxicity towards certain tumor cells, e.g. through the anti-tumor activity of IONP coating or through IONP anti-oxidizing property. Concerning in vivo anti-tumor activity, it was essentially highlighted for magnetosomes administered in different types of glioblastoma tumors (U87-Luc and GL-261), which were exposed to a series of alternating magnetic field applications, resulting in mild hyperthermia treatments at typical temperatures of 41-45 °C, leading to the full disappearance of these tumors without any observable side effects.

Natural Metallic Nanoparticles for Application in Nano-Oncology

Here, the various types of naturally synthesized metallic nanoparticles, which are essentially composed of Ce, Ag, Au, Pt, Pd, Cu, Ni, Se, Fe, or their oxides, are presented, based on a literature analysis. The synthesis methods used to obtain them most often involve the reduction of metallic ions by biological materials or organisms, i.e., essentially plant extracts, yeasts, fungus, and bacteria. The anti-tumor activity of these nanoparticles has been demonstrated on different cancer lines. They rely on various mechanisms of action, such as the release of chemotherapeutic drugs under a pH variation, nanoparticle excitation by radiation, or apoptotic tumor cell death. Among these natural metallic nanoparticles, one type, which consists of iron oxide nanoparticles produced by magnetotactic bacteria called magnetosomes, has been purified to remove endotoxins and abide by pharmacological regulations. It has been tested in vivo for anti-tumor efficacy. For that, purified and stabilized magnetosomes were injected in intracranial mouse glioblastoma tumors and repeatedly heated under the application of an alternating magnetic field, leading to the full disappearance of these tumors. As a whole, the results presented in the literature form a strong basis for pursuing the efforts towards the use of natural metallic nanoparticles for cancer treatment first pre-clinically and then clinically.

A multiparametric model for the industrialization of co-precipitation synthesis of nano-commodities

Magnetite superparamagnetic nanoparticles (MNP) are becoming one of the firsts nanocommodity products. MNP find a number of applications and they are been produced at relatively large scale. The co-precipitation method presents many technical and economical advantages among alternative processes. However, the relationships between physical and chemical reaction conditions during the co-precipitation process and the resulting properties of obtained MNP are not yet fully understood. The novelty of this contribution is the establishment of the cross-dependency effects of the main physical and chemical parameters of the co-precipitation reaction on the properties of resulting MNP. The conditions were varied by following an experimental design. The crystallite size, particle size and magnetization of the MNP and the Z-potential and size of their aggregates were selected as main response properties. A set of equations in the form of 4D surface responses in the space of co-precipitation process variables was obtained and analyzed in terms of the resulting properties. The set of equations is useful to predict, optimize and tailor very precisely the properties of resulting MNP as a function of reaction conditions.

Lanthanide-Based Nanocomposites for Photothermal Therapy under Near-Infrared Laser: Relationship between Light and Heat, Biostability, and Reaction Temperature

In this research, typical organic/inorganic photothermal therapy (PTT) agents were designed with a combination of upconversion luminescent (UCL) or near-infrared (NIR) II imaging rare-earth nanomaterials for photo-acoustic (PA)/UCL/NIR II imaging-guided PTT under NIR laser irradiation. The results show the following: (1) The PTT effect mainly comes from NIR absorption and partly from UCL light conversion. (2) Visible UCL emission is mainly quenched by NIR absorption of the coated PTT agent and partly quenched by visible absorption, indicating that excitation may play a more important role than in the UCL emission process. (3) The biostability of the composite might be decided by the synthesis reaction temperature. Among the five inorganic/organic nanocomposites, UCNP@MnO₂ is the most suitable candidate for cancer diagnosis and treatment because of its stimuli-response ability to the micro-acid environment of tumor cells and highest biostability. The composites generate heat for PTT after entering the tumor cells, and then, the visible light emission gradually regains as MnO₂ is reduced to colorless Mn²⁺ ions, thereby illuminating the cancer cells after the therapy.

Hyaluronic acid-functionalized bilosomes for targeted delivery of tripterine to inflamed area with enhancive therapy on arthritis

Arthritis treatment has been challenging because of low drug exposure to the articular cavity. This study was intended to develop hyaluronic acid (HA)-functionalized bilosomes for targeted delivery of tripterine (Tri), an antiphlogistic phytomedicine, to the inflamed joint via ligand-receptor interaction. Tri-loaded bilosomes (Tri-BLs) with cationic lipid (DOTAP) were prepared by a thin film hydration method followed by HA coating to form HA@Tri-BLs. HA@Tri-BLs were then characterized by particle size (PS), entrapment efficiency (EE), and structural morphology. The in vitro drug release, hemocompatibility test and cellular uptake were performed to examine the formulation performances of HA@Tri-BLs. The in vivo pharmacokinetics and antiarthritic efficacy were evaluated in arthritic models, respectively. The obtained HA@Tri-BLs possessed a PS of 118.5 nm around with an EE of 99.56%. HA@Tri-BLs exhibited excellent cellular uptake and targeted delivery efficiency for Tri, which resulted in elongation of circulatory residence time and enhancement of intra-arthritic bioavailability (799.9% relative to Tri solution). The in vivo antiarthritic efficacy of HA@Tri-BLs was also significantly superior to uncoated Tri-BLs that gave rise to obvious inflammation resolution. Our findings suggest that HA-functionalized bilosomes are a promising vehicle for articular delivery of antiphlogistic drugs to potentiate their efficacy.

In vitro and in situ experiments to evaluate the biodistribution and cellular toxicity of ultrasmall iron oxide nanoparticles potentially used as oral iron supplements

Well-absorbed iron-based nanoparticulated materials are a promise for the oral management of iron deficient anemia. In this work, a battery of in vitro and in situ experiments are combined for the evaluation of the uptake, distribution and toxicity of new synthesized ultrasmall (4 nm core) Fe₂O₃ nanoparticles coated with tartaric/adipic acid with potential to be used as oral Fe supplements. First, the in vitro simulated gastric acid solubility studies by TEM and HPLC-ICP-MS reveal a partial reduction of the core size of about 40% after 90 min at pH 3. Such scenario confirms the arrival of the nanoparticulate material in the small intestine. In the next step, the in vivo absorption through the small intestine by intestinal perfusion experiments is conducted using the sought nanoparticles in Wistar rats. The quantification of Fe in the NPs suspension before and after perfusion shows Fe absorption levels above 79%, never reported for other Fe treatments. Such high absorption levels do not seem to compromise cell viability, evaluated in enterocytes-like models (Caco-2 and HT-29) using cytotoxicity, ROS production, genotoxicity and lipid peroxidation tests. Moreover, regional differences in terms of Fe concentration are obtained among different parts of the small intestine as duodenum > jejunum > ileum. Complementary transmission electron microscopy (TEM) images show the presence of the intact particles around the intestinal microvilli without significant tissue damage. These studies show the high potential of these NP preparations for their use as oral management of anemia.

Nano-Therapies for Glioblastoma Treatment

Traditional anti-cancer treatments are inefficient against glioblastoma, which remains one of the deadliest and most aggressive cancers. Nano-drugs could help to improve this situation by enabling: (i) an increase of anti-glioblastoma multiforme (GBM) activity of chemo/gene therapeutic drugs, notably by an improved diffusion of these drugs through the blood brain barrier (BBB), (ii) the sensibilization of radio-resistant GBM tumor cells to radiotherapy, (iii) the removal by surgery of infiltrating GBM tumor cells, (iv) the restoration of an apoptotic mechanism of GBM cellular death, (v) the destruction of angiogenic blood vessels, (vi) the stimulation of anti-tumor immune cells, e.g., T cells, NK cells, and the neutralization of pro-tumoral immune cells, e.g., Treg cells, (vii) the local production of heat or radical oxygen species (ROS), and (viii) the controlled release/activation of anti-GBM drugs following the application of a stimulus. This review covers these different aspects.

Degradable magnetic-response photoacoustic/up-conversion luminescence imaging-guided photodynamic/photothermal antitumor therapy

In this research, a degradable uniform mesoporous platform was designed as an imaging-guided photothermal therapy (PTT)/photodynamic therapy (PDT) agent.

Iron oxide nanoparticles as multimodal imaging tools

In medicine, obtaining simply a resolute and accurate image of an organ of interest is a real challenge.