PhyKIT: a broadly applicable UNIX shell toolkit for processing and analyzing phylogenomic data

Major Revisions in Pancrustacean Phylogeny and Evidence of Sensitivity to Taxon Sampling

The clade Pancrustacea, comprising crustaceans and hexapods, is the most diverse group of animals on earth, containing over 80% of animal species and half of animal biomass. It has been the subject of several recent phylogenomic analyses, yet relationships within Pancrustacea show a notable lack of stability. Here, the phylogeny is estimated with expanded taxon sampling, particularly of malacostracans. We show small changes in taxon sampling have large impacts on phylogenetic estimation. By analyzing identical orthologs between two slightly different taxon sets, we show that the differences in the resulting topologies are due primarily to the effects of taxon sampling on the phylogenetic reconstruction method. We compare trees resulting from our phylogenomic analyses with those from the literature to explore the large tree space of pancrustacean phylogenetic hypotheses and find that statistical topology tests reject the previously published trees in favor of the maximum likelihood trees produced here. Our results reject several clades including Caridoida, Eucarida, Multicrustacea, Vericrustacea, and Syncarida. Notably, we find Copepoda nested within Allotriocarida with high support and recover a novel relationship between decapods, euphausiids, and syncarids that we refer to as the Syneucarida. With denser taxon sampling, we find Stomatopoda sister to this latter clade, which we collectively name Stomatocarida, dividing Malacostraca into three clades: Leptostraca, Peracarida, and Stomatocarida. A new Bayesian divergence time estimation is conducted using 13 vetted fossils. We review our results in the context of other pancrustacean phylogenetic hypotheses and highlight 15 key taxa to sample in future studies.

A Reinvestigation of Multiple Independent Evolution and Triassic-Jurassic Origins of Multicellular Volvocine Algae

The evolution of multicellular organisms is considered to be a major evolutionary transition, profoundly affecting the ecology and evolution of nearly all life on earth. The volvocine algae, a unique clade of chlorophytes with diverse cell morphology, provide an appealing model for investigating the evolution of multicellularity and development. However, the phylogenetic relationship and timescale of the volvocine algae are not fully resolved. Here, we use extensive taxon and gene sampling to reconstruct the phylogeny of the volvocine algae. Our results support that the colonial volvocine algae are not monophyletic group and multicellularity independently evolve at least twice in the volvocine algae, once in Tetrabaenaceae and another in the Goniaceae + Volvocaceae. The simulation analyses suggest that incomplete lineage sorting is a major factor for the tree topology discrepancy, which imply that the multispecies coalescent model better fits the data used in this study. The coalescent-based species tree supports that the Goniaceae is monophyletic and Crucicarteria is the earliest diverging lineage, followed by Hafniomonas and Radicarteria within the Volvocales. By considering the multiple uncertainties in divergence time estimation, the dating analyses indicate that the volvocine algae occurred during the Cryogenian to Ediacaran (696.6-551.1 Ma) and multicellularity in the volvocine algae originated from the Triassic to Jurassic. Our phylogeny and timeline provide an evolutionary framework for studying the evolution of key traits and the origin of multicellularity in the volvocine algae.

Evolutionary origin, population diversity, and diagnostics for a cryptic hybrid pathogen

Cryptic fungal pathogens pose significant identification and disease management challenges due to their morphological resemblance to known pathogenic species while harboring genetic and (often) infectionrelevant trait differences. The cryptic fungal pathogen Aspergillus latus, an allodiploid hybrid originating from Aspergillus spinulosporus and an unknown close relative of Aspergillus quadrilineatus within section Nidulantes, remains poorly understood. The absence of accurate diagnostics for A. latus has led to misidentifications, hindering epidemiological studies and the design of effective treatment plans. We conducted an in-depth investigation of the genomes and phenotypes of 44 globally distributed isolates (41 clinical isolates and three type strains) from Aspergillus section Nidulantes. We found that 21 clinical isolates were A. latus; notably, standard methods of pathogen identification misidentified all A. latus isolates. The remaining isolates were identified as A. spinulosporus (8), A. quadrilineatus (1), or A. nidulans (11). Phylogenomic analyses shed light on the origin of A. latus, indicating one or two hybridization events gave rise to the species during the Miocene, approximately 15.4 to 8.8 million years ago. Characterizing the A. latus pangenome uncovered substantial genetic diversity within gene families and biosynthetic gene clusters. Transcriptomic analysis revealed that both parental genomes are actively expressed in nearly equal proportions and respond to environmental stimuli. Further investigation into infection-relevant chemical and physiological traits, including drug resistance profiles, growth under oxidative stress conditions, and secondary metabolite biosynthesis, highlight distinct phenotypic profiles of the hybrid A. latus compared to its parental and closely related species. Leveraging our comprehensive genomic and phenotypic analyses, we propose five genomic and phenotypic markers as diagnostics for A. latus species identification. These findings provide valuable insights into the evolutionary origin, genomic outcome, and phenotypic implications of hybridization in a cryptic fungal pathogen, thus enhancing our understanding of the underlying processes contributing to fungal pathogenesis. Furthermore, our study underscores the effectiveness of extensive genomic and phenotypic analyses as a promising approach for developing diagnostics applicable to future investigations of cryptic and emerging pathogens.

The monoaminergic system is a bilaterian innovation

Monoamines like serotonin, dopamine, and adrenaline/noradrenaline (epinephrine/norepinephrine) act as neuromodulators in the nervous system. They play a role in complex behaviours, cognitive functions such as learning and memory formation, as well as fundamental homeostatic processes such as sleep and feeding. However, the evolutionary origin of the genes required for monoaminergic modulation is uncertain. Using a phylogenomic approach, in this study, we show that most of the genes involved in monoamine production, modulation, and reception originated in the bilaterian stem group. This suggests that the monoaminergic system is a bilaterian novelty and that its evolution may have contributed to the Cambrian diversification.

Independent rediploidization masks shared whole genome duplication in the sturgeon-paddlefish ancestor

Whole genome duplication (WGD) is a dramatic evolutionary event generating many new genes and which may play a role in survival through mass extinctions. Paddlefish and sturgeon are sister lineages that both show genomic evidence for ancient WGD. Until now this has been interpreted as two independent WGD events due to a preponderance of duplicate genes with independent histories. Here we show that although there is indeed a plurality of apparently independent gene duplications, these derive from a shared genome duplication event occurring well over 200 million years ago, likely close to the Permian-Triassic mass extinction period. This was followed by a prolonged process of reversion to stable diploid inheritance (rediploidization), that may have promoted survival during the Triassic-Jurassic mass extinction. We show that the sharing of this WGD is masked by the fact that paddlefish and sturgeon lineage divergence occurred before rediploidization had proceeded even half-way. Thus, for most genes the resolution to diploidy was lineage-specific. Because genes are only truly duplicated once diploid inheritance is established, the paddlefish and sturgeon genomes are thus a mosaic of shared and non-shared gene duplications resulting from a shared genome duplication event.

Identification of the Neoaspergillic Acid Biosynthesis Gene Cluster by Establishing an In Vitro CRISPR-Ribonucleoprotein Genetic System in Aspergillus melleus

Filamentous fungi are an essential source of bioactive mycotoxins. Recent efforts have focused on developing antifungal agents that are effective against invasive yeasts, such as Candida spp. By screening fungal strains isolated from regions surrounding the Chernobyl nuclear power plant disaster for antifungal activity against Candida albicans, we found that Aspergillus melleus IMV 01140 produced compounds that inhibited the growth of the yeast. The active compound produced by A. melleus was isolated and found to be neoaspergillic acid, a compound that is closely related to aspergillic acid. While aspergillic acid and its derivatives have been characterized and were found to have antibacterial and antifungal properties, neoaspergillic acid has been much less studied. Even though neoaspergillic acid and related compounds were found to have antibacterial and antitumoral effects, further investigation into this group of compounds is limited by challenges associated with large-scale production, isolation, and purification. The production of neoaspergillic acid has been shown to require co-cultivation methods or special growth conditions. In this work, neoaspergillic acid and related compounds were found to be produced by A. melleus under laboratory growth conditions. The biosynthetic gene cluster of neoaspergillic acid was predicted using the aspergillic acid gene cluster as a model. The biosynthetic pathway for neoaspergillic acid was then confirmed by establishing an in vitro CRISPR-ribonucleoprotein system to individually delete genes within the cluster. A negative transcriptional factor, mcrA, was also eliminated to further improve the production of neoaspergillic acid and the related compounds for future studies.

Phylogenomics and systematics of Entomobryoidea (Collembola): marker design, phylogeny and classification

Entomobryoidea has been the focus of phylogenetic studies in recent years owing to a divergence between morphological and genetic data. Recent phylogenies have converged on the sister relationship of Orchesellidae with the remaining Entomobryoidea, and on the non-monophyly of the traditional Paronellidae and Entomobryidae, but still lack resolution. Known molecular phylogenies of the superfamily differ greatly between mitogenomic and multilocus markers. For this reason, we designed universal single-copy orthologue (USCO) and ultraconserved element (UCE) marker sets specific for Entomobryoidea, based on 11 genome assemblies. Upon the newly designed 3406 USCOs and 4030 UCEs, we analysed 34 species covering all Entomobryoidea families and major subfamilies. New data for 26 species were mined from whole-genome sequencing. Phylogenetic inference confirmed the Orchesellidae as an independent family and the Entomobryinae remained the most puzzling taxon gathering scaled and unscaled lineages of both traditional Entomobryidae and Paronellidae. To accommodate Paronellides, Zhuqinia and related genera, Paronellidinae subfam. nov. is proposed within Entomobryidae. The sampled representatives of Paronellinae were recovered as the sister group of (Seirinae+Lepidocyrtinae), suggesting that reduction on the dorsal macrochaetotaxy and trunk sensillar pattern may have occurred independently within the Lepidocyrtinae and Paronellinae or represent their symplesiomorphy posteriorly modified in the Seirinae. The current systematics of the superfamily are revised here, with Entomobryidae now comprising six subfamilies, including all taxa with smooth dens. Our data also point out that all the main events of cladogenesis of the families and subfamilies of Entomobryoidea occurred during the Jurassic. Our genome-scale phylogenomics provides a complete, reliable example for systematics of Entomobryoidea, as well as other invertebrates in the big data era.

Extensive mitogenomic heteroplasmy and its implications in the phylogeny of the fish genus Megalobrama

Megalobrama is China's most economically valuable fish genera. Four species make up this genus: M. amblycephala (MA), M. terminalis (MT), M. pellegrini (MP), and M. hoffmanni (MH). Many researchers have investigated the genetic relationship of Megalobrama based on mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) and discovered that the branches of the phylogenetic tree for MT and MP are intertwined. We hypothesized that this occurs because mitogenomic heteroplasmy is overlooked when working with mtDNA, which causes MP and MT positions to intersect in phylogenetic trees. To eliminate the influence of nuclear mitochondrial DNA fragments (NUMTs) before analyzing mitogenomic heteroplasmy, we used PLastZ to identify NUMTs, which were then removed from the samples for the subsequent heteroplasmy analysis. Using the heteroplasmy caller icHET, we discovered 126, 339, 135, and 203 heteroplasmic variants in six MA, MT, MP, and MH samples. We reconstructed the Megalobrama fish genus's phylogenetic tree using the RY coding method and rejecting the third position on codons, which improved the performance of the phylogenetic tree by increasing the ratio of treeness to relative component variability from 100.02 ± 1.76 to 688.59 ± 190.56. Despite this, the RY coding method cannot alter the intersection of MP and MT positions in phylogenetic trees. We hypothesize that gene flow between MT and MP leads to intertwining mtDNA-based phylogenetic trees. In conclusion, our findings on the mitogenomic heteroplasmy of Megalobrama provide new insights into mtDNA-based phylogenetic studies.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s13205-023-03523-0.

COVID-19-Associated Pulmonary Aspergillosis Isolates Are Genomically Diverse but Similar to Each Other in Their Responses to Infection-Relevant Stresses

Secondary infections caused by the pulmonary fungal pathogen Aspergillus fumigatus are a significant cause of mortality in patients with severe coronavirus disease 19 (COVID-19). Even though epithelial cell damage and aberrant cytokine responses have been linked to susceptibility to COVID-19-associated pulmonary aspergillosis (CAPA), little is known about the mechanisms underpinning copathogenicity. Here, we analyzed the genomes of 11 A. fumigatus isolates from patients with CAPA in three centers from different European countries. CAPA isolates did not cluster based on geographic origin in a genome-scale phylogeny of representative A. fumigatus isolates. Phenotypically, CAPA isolates were more similar to the A. fumigatus A1160 reference strain than to the Af293 strain when grown in infection-relevant stresses, except for interactions with human immune cells wherein macrophage responses were similar to those induced by the Af293 reference strain. Collectively, our data indicate that CAPA isolates are genomically diverse but are more similar to each other in their responses to infection-relevant stresses. A larger number of isolates from CAPA patients should be studied to better understand the molecular epidemiology of CAPA and to identify genetic drivers of copathogenicity and antifungal resistance in patients with COVID-19. IMPORTANCE Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19)-associated pulmonary aspergillosis (CAPA) has been globally reported as a life-threatening complication in some patients with severe COVID-19. Most of these infections are caused by the environmental mold Aspergillus fumigatus, which ranks third in the fungal pathogen priority list of the WHO. However, little is known about the molecular epidemiology of Aspergillus fumigatus CAPA strains. Here, we analyzed the genomes of 11 A. fumigatus isolates from patients with CAPA in three centers from different European countries, and carried out phenotypic analyses with a view to understanding the pathophysiology of the disease. Our data indicate that A. fumigatus CAPA isolates are genomically diverse but are more similar to each other in their responses to infection-relevant stresses.

Chromosome-Level Genome Assembly of Papilio elwesi Leech, 1889 (Lepidoptera: Papilionidae)

A rarely seen butterfly species, the large swallowtail butterfly Papilio elwesi Leech, 1889 (Lepidoptera: Papilionidae), endemic to the Chinese mainland, has been declared a state-protected animal in China since 2000, but its genome is not yet available. To obtain high-quality genome assembly and annotation, we sequenced the genome and transcriptome of P. elwesi using the PacBio and PromethION platforms, respectively. The final assembled genome was 358.51 Mb, of which 97.59% was anchored to chromosomes (30 autosomes and 1 Z sex chromosome), with a contig/scaffold N50 length of 6.79/12.32 Mb and 99.0% (n = 1367) BUSCO completeness. The genome annotation pointed to 36.82% (131.99 Mb) repetitive elements and 1296 non-coding RNAs in the genome, along with 13,681 protein-coding genes that cover 98.6% (1348) of the BUSCO genes. Among the 11,499 identified gene families, 104 underwent significantly rapid expansions or contractions, and these rapidly expanding families play roles in detoxification and metabolism. Additionally, strong synteny exists between the chromosomes of P. elwesi and P. machaon. The chromosome-level genome of P. elwesi could serve as an important genomic resource for furthering our understanding of butterfly evolution and for more in-depth genomic analyses.

Systematics of Lepidocyrtinus boneti Denis, 1948 (Collembola, Seirinae) reveals a new position for the species within Seirinae

Seira boneti Denis, 1948, comb. nov. is examined and redescribed based on syntypes and by a newly discovered Chinese population. Lectotype and paralectotypes were designated, and the type locality of the species has been fixed to Câuda, near Nhatrang, Vietnam. The species was first described in the genus Lepidocyrtinus, but based on morphological and molecular evidence it is here transferred to Seira. For the phylogenetic placement of Seira boneticomb. nov., its mitogenome was included in a dataset comprising 19 species of Seirinae. Maximum Likelihood and Bayesian inferences clustered the species next to Seira sanloemensis Godeiro & Cipola, 2020 from Cambodia, forming a distinct Seira clade from the Old World, confirming the hypothesis of the existence of a different basal lineage of Seirinae in Southern Asia.

A global phylogenomic analysis of the shiitake genus Lentinula

Lentinula is a broadly distributed group of fungi that contains the cultivated shiitake mushroom, L. edodes. We sequenced 24 genomes representing eight described species and several unnamed lineages of Lentinula from 15 countries on four continents. Lentinula comprises four major clades that arose in the Oligocene, three in the Americas and one in Asia-Australasia. To expand sampling of shiitake mushrooms, we assembled 60 genomes of L. edodes from China that were previously published as raw Illumina reads and added them to our dataset. Lentinula edodes sensu lato (s. lat.) contains three lineages that may warrant recognition as species, one including a single isolate from Nepal that is the sister group to the rest of L. edodes s. lat., a second with 20 cultivars and 12 wild isolates from China, Japan, Korea, and the Russian Far East, and a third with 28 wild isolates from China, Thailand, and Vietnam. Two additional lineages in China have arisen by hybridization among the second and third groups. Genes encoding cysteine sulfoxide lyase (lecsl) and γ-glutamyl transpeptidase (leggt), which are implicated in biosynthesis of the organosulfur flavor compound lenthionine, have diversified in Lentinula. Paralogs of both genes that are unique to Lentinula (lecsl 3 and leggt 5b) are coordinately up-regulated in fruiting bodies of L. edodes. The pangenome of L. edodes s. lat. contains 20,308 groups of orthologous genes, but only 6,438 orthogroups (32%) are shared among all strains, whereas 3,444 orthogroups (17%) are found only in wild populations, which should be targeted for conservation.

Mitochondrial phylogenomics provides conclusive evidence that the family Ancyrocephalidae is deeply paraphyletic

BACKGROUND

Unresolved taxonomic classification and paraphyly pervade the flatworm class Monogenea: the class itself may be paraphyletic and split into Polyopisthocotylea and Monopisthocotylea; there are some indications that the monopisthocotylean order Dactylogyridea may also be paraphyletic; single-gene markers and some morphological traits indicate that the family Ancyrocephalidae is paraphyletic and intertwined with the family Dactylogyridae.

METHODS

To attempt to study the relationships of Ancyrocephalidae and Monopisthocotylea using a phylogenetic marker with high resolution, we sequenced mitochondrial genomes of two fish ectoparasites from the family Dactylogyridae: Dactylogyrus simplex and Dactylogyrus tuba. We conducted phylogenetic analyses using three datasets and three methods. Datasets were ITS1 (nuclear) and nucleotide and amino acid sequences of almost complete mitogenomes of almost all available Monopisthocotylea mitogenomes. Methods were maximum likelihood (IQ-TREE), Bayesian inference (MrBayes) and CAT-GTR (PhyloBayes).

RESULTS

Both mitogenomes exhibited the ancestral gene order for Neodermata, and both were compact, with few and small intergenic regions and many and large overlaps. Gene sequences were remarkably divergent for nominally congeneric species, with only trnI exhibiting an identity value > 80%. Both mitogenomes had exceptionally low A + T base content and AT skews. We found evidence of pervasive compositional heterogeneity in the dataset and indications that base composition biases cause phylogenetic artefacts. All six mitogenomic analyses produced unique topologies, but all nine analyses produced topologies that rendered Ancyrocephalidae deeply paraphyletic. Mitogenomic data consistently resolved the order Capsalidea as nested within the Dactylogyridea.

CONCLUSIONS

The analyses indicate that taxonomic revisions are needed for multiple Polyopisthocotylea lineages, from genera to orders. In combination with previous findings, these results offer conclusive evidence that Ancyrocephalidae is a paraphyletic taxon. The most parsimonious solution to resolve this is to create a catch-all Dactylogyridae sensu lato clade comprising the current Ancyrocephalidae, Ancylodiscoididae, Pseudodactylogyridae and Dactylogyridae families, but the revision needs to be confirmed by another marker with a sufficient resolution.

Using PhyloSuite for molecular phylogeny and tree-based analyses

Phylogenetic analysis has entered the genomics (multilocus) era. For less experienced researchers, conquering the large number of software programs required for a multilocus-based phylogenetic reconstruction can be somewhat daunting and time-consuming. PhyloSuite, a software with a user-friendly GUI, was designed to make this process more accessible by integrating multiple software programs needed for multilocus and single-gene phylogenies and further streamlining the whole process. In this protocol, we aim to explain how to conduct each step of the phylogenetic pipeline and tree-based analyses in PhyloSuite. We also present a new version of PhyloSuite (v1.2.3), wherein we fixed some bugs, made some optimizations, and introduced some new functions, including a number of tree-based analyses, such as signal-to-noise calculation, saturation analysis, spurious species identification, and etc. The step-by-step protocol includes background information (i.e., what the step does), reasons (i.e., why do the step), and operations (i.e., how to do it). This protocol will help researchers quick-start their way through the multilocus phylogenetic analysis, especially those interested in conducting organelle-based analyses.

The evolution of the gliotoxin biosynthetic gene cluster in Penicillium fungi

Fungi biosynthesize a diversity of secondary metabolites, small organic bioactive molecules that play diverse roles in fungal ecology. Fungal secondary metabolites are often encoded by physically clustered sets of genes known as biosynthetic gene clusters (BGCs). Fungi in the genus Penicillium produce diverse secondary metabolites that have been both useful (e.g., the antibiotic penicillin and the cholesterol-lowering drug mevastatin) and harmful (e.g., the mycotoxin patulin and the immunosuppressant gliotoxin) to human affairs. BGCs often also encode resistance genes that confer self-protection to the secondary metabolite-producing fungus. Some Penicillium species, such as Penicillium lilacinoechinulatum and Penicillium decumbens, are known to produce gliotoxin, a secondary metabolite with known immunosuppressant activity; however, an evolutionary characterization of the BGC responsible for gliotoxin biosynthesis among Penicillium species is lacking. Here, we examine the conservation of genes involved in gliotoxin biosynthesis and resistance in 35 Penicillium genomes from 23 species. We found homologous, less fragmented gliotoxin BGCs in 12 genomes, mostly fragmented remnants of the gliotoxin BGC in 21 genomes, whereas the remaining two Penicillium genomes lacked the gliotoxin BGC altogether. In contrast, we observed broad conservation of homologs of resistance genes that reside outside the BGC across Penicillium genomes. Evolutionary rate analysis revealed that BGCs with higher numbers of genes evolve slower than BGCs with few genes. Even though the gliotoxin BGC is fragmented to varying degrees in nearly all genomes examined, ancestral state reconstruction suggests that the ancestor of Penicillium species possessed the gliotoxin BGC. Our analyses suggest that genes that are part of BGCs can be retained in genomes long after the loss of secondary metabolite biosynthesis.

Improving Orthologous Signal and Model Fit in Datasets Addressing the Root of the Animal Phylogeny

There is conflicting evidence as to whether Porifera (sponges) or Ctenophora (comb jellies) comprise the root of the animal phylogeny. Support for either a Porifera-sister or Ctenophore-sister tree has been extensively examined in the context of model selection, taxon sampling, and outgroup selection. The influence of dataset construction is comparatively understudied. We re-examine five animal phylogeny datasets that have supported either root hypothesis using an approach designed to enrich orthologous signal in phylogenomic datasets. We find that many component orthogroups in animal datasets fail to recover major lineages as monophyletic with the exception of Ctenophora, regardless of the supported root. Enriching these datasets to retain orthogroups recovering ≥3 major lineages reduces dataset size by up to 50% while retaining underlying phylogenetic information and taxon sampling. Site-heterogeneous phylogenomic analysis of these enriched datasets recovers both Porifera-sister and Ctenophora-sister positions, even with additional constraints on outgroup sampling. Two datasets which previously supported Ctenophora-sister support Porifera-sister upon enrichment. All enriched datasets display improved model fitness under posterior predictive analysis. While not conclusively rooting animals at either Porifera or Ctenophora, we do see an increase in signal for Porifera-sister and a decrease in signal for Ctenophore-sister when data are filtered for orthologous signal. Our results indicate that dataset size and construction as well as model fit influence animal root inference.

Mycoparasites, Gut Dwellers, and Saprotrophs: Phylogenomic Reconstructions and Comparative Analyses of Kickxellomycotina Fungi

Improved sequencing technologies have profoundly altered global views of fungal diversity and evolution. High-throughput sequencing methods are critical for studying fungi due to the cryptic, symbiotic nature of many species, particularly those that are difficult to culture. However, the low coverage genome sequencing (LCGS) approach to phylogenomic inference has not been widely applied to fungi. Here we analyzed 171 Kickxellomycotina fungi using LCGS methods to obtain hundreds of marker genes for robust phylogenomic reconstruction. Additionally, we mined our LCGS data for a set of nine rDNA and protein coding genes to enable analyses across species for which no LCGS data were obtained. The main goals of this study were to: 1) evaluate the quality and utility of LCGS data for both phylogenetic reconstruction and functional annotation, 2) test relationships among clades of Kickxellomycotina, and 3) perform comparative functional analyses between clades to gain insight into putative trophic modes. In opposition to previous studies, our nine-gene analyses support two clades of arthropod gut dwelling species and suggest a possible single evolutionary event leading to this symbiotic lifestyle. Furthermore, we resolve the mycoparasitic Dimargaritales as the earliest diverging clade in the subphylum and find four major clades of Coemansia species. Finally, functional analyses illustrate clear variation in predicted carbohydrate active enzymes and secondary metabolites (SM) based on ecology, that is biotroph versus saprotroph. Saprotrophic Kickxellales broadly lack many known pectinase families compared with saprotrophic Mucoromycota and are depauperate for SM but have similar numbers of predicted chitinases as mycoparasitic.

Diversity, duplication, and genomic organization of homeobox genes in Lepidoptera

Homeobox genes encode transcription factors with essential roles in patterning and cell fate in developing animal embryos. Many homeobox genes, including Hox and NK genes, are arranged in gene clusters, a feature likely related to transcriptional control. Sparse taxon sampling and fragmentary genome assemblies mean that little is known about the dynamics of homeobox gene evolution across Lepidoptera or about how changes in homeobox gene number and organization relate to diversity in this large order of insects. Here we analyze an extensive data set of high-quality genomes to characterize the number and organization of all homeobox genes in 123 species of Lepidoptera from 23 taxonomic families. We find most Lepidoptera have around 100 homeobox loci, including an unusual Hox gene cluster in which the lab gene is repositioned and the ro gene is next to pb A topologically associating domain spans much of the gene cluster, suggesting deep regulatory conservation of the Hox cluster arrangement in this insect order. Most Lepidoptera have four Shx genes, divergent zen-derived loci, but these loci underwent dramatic duplication in several lineages, with some moths having over 165 homeobox loci in the Hox gene cluster; this expansion is associated with local LINE element density. In contrast, the NK gene cluster content is more stable, although there are differences in organization compared with other insects, as well as major rearrangements within butterflies. Our analysis represents the first description of homeobox gene content across the order Lepidoptera, exemplifying the potential of newly generated genome assemblies for understanding genome and gene family evolution.

Filtering artifactual signal increases support for Xenacoelomorpha and Ambulacraria sister relationship in the animal tree of life

Conflicting studies place a group of bilaterian invertebrates containing xenoturbellids and acoelomorphs, the Xenacoelomorpha, as either the primary emerging bilaterian phylum^1,2,3,4,5,6 or within Deuterostomia, sister to Ambulacraria.^7,8,9,10,11 Although their placement as sister to the rest of Bilateria supports relatively simple morphology in the ancestral bilaterian, their alternative placement within Deuterostomia suggests a morphologically complex ancestral bilaterian along with extensive loss of major phenotypic traits in the Xenacoelomorpha. Recent studies have questioned whether Deuterostomia should be considered monophyletic at all.^10,12,13 Hidden paralogy and poor phylogenetic signal present a major challenge for reconstructing species phylogenies.^{14,15,16,17,18} Here, we assess whether these issues have contributed to the conflict over the placement of Xenacoelomorpha. We reanalyzed published datasets, enriching for orthogroups whose gene trees support well-resolved clans elsewhere in the animal tree.¹⁶ We find that most genes in previously published datasets violate incontestable clans, suggesting that hidden paralogy and low phylogenetic signal affect the ability to reconstruct branching patterns at deep nodes in the animal tree. We demonstrate that removing orthogroups that cannot recapitulate incontestable relationships alters the final topology that is inferred, while simultaneously improving the fit of the model to the data. We discover increased, but ultimately not conclusive, support for the existence of Xenambulacraria in our set of filtered orthogroups. At a time when we are progressing toward sequencing all life on the planet, we argue that long-standing contentious issues in the tree of life will be resolved using smaller amounts of better quality data that can be modeled adequately.¹⁹.

FunOrder 2.0 - a method for the fully automated curation of co-evolved genes in fungal biosynthetic gene clusters

Coevolution is an important biological process that shapes interacting proteins - may it be physically interacting proteins or consecutive enzymes in a metabolic pathway, such as the biosynthetic pathways for secondary metabolites. Previously, we developed FunOrder, a semi-automated method for the detection of co-evolved genes, and demonstrated that FunOrder can be used to identify essential genes in biosynthetic gene clusters from different ascomycetes. A major drawback of this original method was the need for a manual assessment, which may create a user bias and prevents a high-throughput application. Here we present a fully automated version of this method termed FunOrder 2.0. In the improved version, we use several mathematical indices to determine the optimal number of clusters in the FunOrder output, and a subsequent k-means clustering based on the first three principal components of a principal component analysis of the FunOrder output to automatically detect co-evolved genes. Further, we replaced the BLAST tool with the DIAMOND tool as a prerequisite for using larger proteome databases. Potentially, FunOrder 2.0 may be used for the assessment of complete genomes, which has not been attempted yet. However, the introduced changes slightly decreased the sensitivity of this method, which is outweighed by enhanced overall speed and specificity.

OrthoSNAP: A tree splitting and pruning algorithm for retrieving single-copy orthologs from gene family trees

Molecular evolution studies, such as phylogenomic studies and genome-wide surveys of selection, often rely on gene families of single-copy orthologs (SC-OGs). Large gene families with multiple homologs in 1 or more species-a phenomenon observed among several important families of genes such as transporters and transcription factors-are often ignored because identifying and retrieving SC-OGs nested within them is challenging. To address this issue and increase the number of markers used in molecular evolution studies, we developed OrthoSNAP, a software that uses a phylogenetic framework to simultaneously split gene families into SC-OGs and prune species-specific inparalogs. We term SC-OGs identified by OrthoSNAP as SNAP-OGs because they are identified using a splitting and pruning procedure analogous to snapping branches on a tree. From 415,129 orthologous groups of genes inferred across 7 eukaryotic phylogenomic datasets, we identified 9,821 SC-OGs; using OrthoSNAP on the remaining 405,308 orthologous groups of genes, we identified an additional 10,704 SNAP-OGs. Comparison of SNAP-OGs and SC-OGs revealed that their phylogenetic information content was similar, even in complex datasets that contain a whole-genome duplication, complex patterns of duplication and loss, transcriptome data where each gene typically has multiple transcripts, and contentious branches in the tree of life. OrthoSNAP is useful for increasing the number of markers used in molecular evolution data matrices, a critical step for robustly inferring and exploring the tree of life.

Examination of Genome-Wide Ortholog Variation in Clinical and Environmental Isolates of the Fungal Pathogen Aspergillus fumigatus

Aspergillus fumigatus is both an environmental saprobe and an opportunistic human fungal pathogen. Knowledge of genomic variation across A. fumigatus isolates is essential for understanding the evolution of pathogenicity, virulence, and resistance to antifungal drugs. Here, we investigated 206 A. fumigatus isolates (133 clinical and 73 environmental isolates), aiming to identify genes with variable presence across isolates and test whether this variation was related to the clinical or environmental origin of isolates. The PanOrtho genome of A. fumigatus consists of 13,085 ortholog groups, of which 7,773 (59.4%) are shared by all isolates (core groups) and 5,312 (40.6%) vary in their gene presence across isolates (accessory groups plus singletons). Despite differences in the distribution of orthologs across all isolates, no significant differences were observed among clinical versus environmental isolates when phylogeny was accounted for. Orthologs that differ in their distribution across isolates tend to occur at low frequency and/or be restricted to specific isolates; thus, the degree of genomic conservation between orthologs of A. fumigatus is high. These results suggest that differences in the distribution of orthologs within A. fumigatus cannot be associated with the clinical or environmental origin of isolates. IMPORTANCE Aspergillus fumigatus is a cosmopolitan species of fungus responsible for thousands of cases of invasive disease annually. Clinical and environmental isolates of A. fumigatus exhibit extensive phenotypic differences, including differences related to virulence and antifungal drug resistance. A comprehensive survey of the genomic diversity present in A. fumigatus and its relationship to the clinical or environmental origin of isolates can contribute to the prediction of the mechanisms of evolution and infection of the species. Our results suggest that there is no significant variation in ortholog distribution between clinical and environmental isolates when accounting for evolutionary history. The work supports the hypothesis that environmental and clinical isolates of A. fumigatus do not differ in their gene contents.

Extensive non-coding sequence divergence between the major human pathogen Aspergillus fumigatus and its relatives

Invasive aspergillosis is a deadly fungal disease; more than 400,000 patients are infected worldwide each year and the mortality rate can be as high as 50-95%. Of the ~450 species in the genus Aspergillus only a few are known to be clinically relevant, with the major pathogen Aspergillus fumigatus being responsible for ~50% of all invasive mold infections. Genomic comparisons between A. fumigatus and other Aspergillus species have historically focused on protein-coding regions. However, most A. fumigatus genes, including those that modulate its virulence, are also present in other pathogenic and non-pathogenic closely related species. Our hypothesis is that differential gene regulation - mediated through the non-coding regions upstream of genes' first codon - contributes to A. fumigatus pathogenicity. To begin testing this, we compared non-coding regions upstream of the first codon of single-copy orthologous genes from the two A. fumigatus reference strains Af293 and A1163 and eight closely related Aspergillus section Fumigati species. We found that these non-coding regions showed extensive sequence variation and lack of homology across species. By examining the evolutionary rates of both protein-coding and non-coding regions in a subset of orthologous genes with highly conserved non-coding regions across the phylogeny, we identified 418 genes, including 25 genes known to modulate A. fumigatus virulence, whose non-coding regions exhibit a different rate of evolution in A. fumigatus. Examination of sequence alignments of these non-coding regions revealed numerous instances of insertions, deletions, and other types of mutations of at least a few nucleotides in A. fumigatus compared to its close relatives. These results show that closely related Aspergillus species that vary greatly in their pathogenicity exhibit extensive non-coding sequence variation and identify numerous changes in non-coding regions of A. fumigatus genes known to contribute to virulence.

BioKIT: a versatile toolkit for processing and analyzing diverse types of sequence data

Bioinformatic analysis-such as genome assembly quality assessment, alignment summary statistics, relative synonymous codon usage, file format conversion, and processing and analysis-is integrated into diverse disciplines in the biological sciences. Several command-line pieces of software have been developed to conduct some of these individual analyses, but unified toolkits that conduct all these analyses are lacking. To address this gap, we introduce BioKIT, a versatile command line toolkit that has, upon publication, 42 functions, several of which were community-sourced, that conduct routine and novel processing and analysis of genome assemblies, multiple sequence alignments, coding sequences, sequencing data, and more. To demonstrate the utility of BioKIT, we conducted a comprehensive examination of relative synonymous codon usage across 171 fungal genomes that use alternative genetic codes, showed that the novel metric of gene-wise relative synonymous codon usage can accurately estimate gene-wise codon optimization, evaluated the quality and characteristics of 901 eukaryotic genome assemblies, and calculated alignment summary statistics for 10 phylogenomic data matrices. BioKIT will be helpful in facilitating and streamlining sequence analysis workflows. BioKIT is freely available under the MIT license from GitHub (https://github.com/JLSteenwyk/BioKIT), PyPi (https://pypi.org/project/jlsteenwyk-biokit/), and the Anaconda Cloud (https://anaconda.org/jlsteenwyk/jlsteenwyk-biokit). Documentation, user tutorials, and instructions for requesting new features are available online (https://jlsteenwyk.com/BioKIT).

An orthologous gene coevolution network provides insight into eukaryotic cellular and genomic structure and function

The evolutionary rates of functionally related genes often covary. We present a gene coevolution network inferred from examining nearly 3 million orthologous gene pairs from 332 budding yeast species spanning ~400 million years of evolution. Network modules provide insight into cellular and genomic structure and function. Examination of the phenotypic impact of network perturbation using deletion mutant data from the baker's yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae, which were obtained from previously published studies, suggests that fitness in diverse environments is affected by orthologous gene neighborhood and connectivity. Mapping the network onto the chromosomes of S. cerevisiae and Candida albicans revealed that coevolving orthologous genes are not physically clustered in either species; rather, they are often located on different chromosomes or far apart on the same chromosome. The coevolution network captures the hierarchy of cellular structure and function, provides a roadmap for genotype-to-phenotype discovery, and portrays the genome as a linked ensemble of genes.

A Genomic Perspective on the Evolutionary Diversification of Turtles

To examine phylogenetic heterogeneity in turtle evolution, we collected thousands of high-confidence single-copy orthologs from 19 genome assemblies representative of extant turtle diversity and estimated a phylogeny with multispecies coalescent and concatenated partitioned methods. We also collected next-generation sequences from 26 turtle species and assembled millions of biallelic markers to reconstruct phylogenies based on annotated regions from the western painted turtle (Chrysemys picta bellii) genome (coding regions, introns, untranslated regions, intergenic, and others). We then measured gene tree-species tree discordance, as well as gene and site heterogeneity at each node in the inferred trees, and tested for temporal patterns in phylogenomic conflict across turtle evolution. We found strong and consistent support for all bifurcations in the inferred turtle species phylogenies. However, a number of genes, sites, and genomic features supported alternate relationships between turtle taxa. Our results suggest that gene tree-species tree discordance in these datasets is likely driven by population-level processes such as incomplete lineage sorting. We found very little effect of substitutional saturation on species tree topologies, and no clear phylogenetic patterns in codon usage bias and compositional heterogeneity. There was no correlation between gene and site concordance, node age, and DNA substitution rate across most annotated genomic regions. Our study demonstrates that heterogeneity is to be expected even in well resolved clades such as turtles, and that future phylogenomic studies should aim to sample as much of the genome as possible in order to obtain accurate phylogenies for assessing conservation priorities in turtles.

Examination of Gene Loss in the DNA Mismatch Repair Pathway and Its Mutational Consequences in a Fungal Phylum

The DNA mismatch repair (MMR) pathway corrects mismatched bases produced during DNA replication and is highly conserved across the tree of life, reflecting its fundamental importance for genome integrity. Loss of function in one or a few MMR genes can lead to increased mutation rates and microsatellite instability, as seen in some human cancers. Although loss of MMR genes has been documented in the context of human disease and in hypermutant strains of pathogens, examples of entire species and species lineages that have experienced substantial MMR gene loss are lacking. We examined the genomes of 1,107 species in the fungal phylum Ascomycota for the presence of 52 genes known to be involved in the MMR pathway of fungi. We found that the median ascomycete genome contained 49/52 MMR genes. In contrast, four closely related species of obligate plant parasites from the powdery mildew genera Erysiphe and Blumeria, have lost between five and 21 MMR genes, including MLH3, EXO1, and DPB11. The lost genes span MMR functions, include genes that are conserved in all other ascomycetes, and loss of function of any of these genes alone has been previously linked to increased mutation rate. Consistent with the hypothesis that loss of these genes impairs MMR pathway function, we found that powdery mildew genomes with higher levels of MMR gene loss exhibit increased numbers of mononucleotide runs, longer microsatellites, accelerated sequence evolution, elevated mutational bias in the A|T direction, and decreased GC content. These results identify a striking example of macroevolutionary loss of multiple MMR pathway genes in a eukaryotic lineage, even though the mutational outcomes of these losses appear to resemble those associated with detrimental MMR dysfunction in other organisms.

orthofisher: a broadly applicable tool for automated gene identification and retrieval

Identification and retrieval of genes of interest from genomic data are an essential step for many bioinformatic applications. We present orthofisher, a command-line tool for automated identification and retrieval of genes with high sequence similarity to a query profile Hidden Markov Model sequence alignment across a set of proteomes. Performance assessment of orthofisher revealed high accuracy and precision during single-copy orthologous gene identification. orthofisher may be useful for assessing gene annotation quality, identifying single-copy orthologous genes for phylogenomic analyses, estimating gene copy number, and other evolutionary analyses that rely on identification and retrieval of homologous genes from genomic data. orthofisher comes complete with comprehensive documentation (https://jlsteenwyk.com/orthofisher/), is freely available under the MIT license, and is available for download from GitHub (https://github.com/JLSteenwyk/orthofisher), PyPi (https://pypi.org/project/orthofisher/), and the Anaconda Cloud (https://anaconda.org/jlsteenwyk/orthofisher).

Genomic and Phenotypic Analysis of COVID-19-Associated Pulmonary Aspergillosis Isolates of Aspergillus fumigatus

The ongoing global pandemic caused by the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) is responsible for coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19), first described in Wuhan, China. A subset of COVID-19 patients has been reported to have acquired secondary infections by microbial pathogens, such as opportunistic fungal pathogens from the genus Aspergillus. To gain insight into COVID-19-associated pulmonary aspergillosis (CAPA), we analyzed the genomes and characterized the phenotypic profiles of four CAPA isolates of Aspergillus fumigatus obtained from patients treated in the area of North Rhine-Westphalia, Germany. By examining the mutational spectrum of single nucleotide polymorphisms, insertion-deletion polymorphisms, and copy number variants among 206 genes known to modulate A. fumigatus virulence, we found that CAPA isolate genomes do not exhibit significant differences from the genome of the Af293 reference strain. By examining a number of factors, including virulence in an invertebrate moth model, growth in the presence of osmotic, cell wall, and oxidative stressors, secondary metabolite biosynthesis, and the MIC of antifungal drugs, we found that CAPA isolates were generally, but not always, similar to A. fumigatus reference strains Af293 and CEA17. Notably, CAPA isolate D had more putative loss-of-function mutations in genes known to increase virulence when deleted. Moreover, CAPA isolate D was significantly more virulent than the other three CAPA isolates and the A. fumigatus reference strains Af293 and CEA17, but similarly virulent to two other clinical strains of A. fumigatus. These findings expand our understanding of the genomic and phenotypic characteristics of isolates that cause CAPA. IMPORTANCE The global pandemic caused by severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), the etiological agent of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19), has already killed millions of people. COVID-19 patient outcome can be further complicated by secondary infections, such as COVID-19-associated pulmonary aspergillosis (CAPA). CAPA is caused by Aspergillus fungal pathogens, but there is little information about the genomic and phenotypic characteristics of CAPA isolates. We conducted genome sequencing and extensive phenotyping of four CAPA isolates of Aspergillus fumigatus from Germany. We found that CAPA isolates were often, but not always, similar to other reference strains of A. fumigatus across 206 genetic determinants of infection-relevant phenotypes, including virulence. For example, CAPA isolate D was more virulent than other CAPA isolates and reference strains in an invertebrate model of fungal disease, but similarly virulent to two other clinical strains. These results expand our understanding of COVID-19-associated pulmonary aspergillosis.

An evolutionary genomic approach reveals both conserved and species-specific genetic elements related to human disease in closely related Aspergillus fungi

Aspergillosis is an important opportunistic human disease caused by filamentous fungi in the genus Aspergillus. Roughly 70% of infections are caused by Aspergillus fumigatus, with the rest stemming from approximately a dozen other Aspergillus species. Several of these pathogens are closely related to A. fumigatus and belong in the same taxonomic section, section Fumigati. Pathogenic species are frequently most closely related to nonpathogenic ones, suggesting Aspergillus pathogenicity evolved multiple times independently. To understand the repeated evolution of Aspergillus pathogenicity, we performed comparative genomic analyses on 18 strains from 13 species, including 8 species in section Fumigati, which aimed to identify genes, both ones previously connected to virulence as well as ones never before implicated, whose evolution differs between pathogens and nonpathogens. We found that most genes were present in all species, including approximately half of those previously connected to virulence, but a few genes were section- or species-specific. Evolutionary rate analyses identified over 1700 genes whose evolutionary rate differed between pathogens and nonpathogens and dozens of genes whose rates differed between specific pathogens and the rest of the taxa. Functional testing of deletion mutants of 17 transcription factor-encoding genes whose evolution differed between pathogens and nonpathogens identified eight genes that affect either fungal survival in a model of phagocytic killing, host survival in an animal model of fungal disease, or both. These results suggest that the evolution of pathogenicity in Aspergillus involved both conserved and species-specific genetic elements, illustrating how an evolutionary genomic approach informs the study of fungal disease.