51
|
Henarejos-Escudero P, Guadarrama-Flores B, García-Carmona F, Gandía-Herrero F. Digestive glands extraction and precise pigment analysis support the exclusion of the carnivorous plant Dionaea muscipula Ellis from the Caryophyllales order. PLANT SCIENCE : AN INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF EXPERIMENTAL PLANT BIOLOGY 2018; 274:342-348. [PMID: 30080622 DOI: 10.1016/j.plantsci.2018.06.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/12/2018] [Revised: 06/14/2018] [Accepted: 06/15/2018] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
In the order Caryophyllales, plants synthesize betalains instead of anthocyanins, with only two exceptions, the Caryophyllaceae and Molluginaceae. Dionaea muscipula Ellis was included in the Caryophyllales order but recent research based on genetic studies proposed the consideration of the Droseraceae family into the Nepenthales order. In this work we face the dilemma of the phylogenetic classification of Dionaea from a phytochemical point of view. Dionaea's pigments were analyzed by using techniques of structural analysis. Extracts from the leaves, mature stem and flowers of different specimens of Dionaea were analyzed, to find possible differences in the types of pigments or in their proportion in different parts of the plant. These extracts were analyzed by spectrophotometry, HPLC co-elution and ESI-MS/MS. In addition, digestive glands were extracted from the snap trap with minor sample manipulation and by reducing the non-pigmented plant tissue. Considering only the digestive glands instead of whole snap traps, the analyses allowed to quantitate and elucidate the structure of the compounds responsible for the red coloration: delphinidin-3-O-glucoside (myrtillin), cyanidin-3-O-glucoside (kuromanin) and a third compound, the aglycone cyanidin, detected in the species for the first time. The unambiguous results of the present work support the exclusion of Dionaea from the Caryophyllales.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Paula Henarejos-Escudero
- Departamento de Bioquímica y Biología Molecular A, Unidad Docente de Biología, Facultad de Veterinaria, Regional Campus of International Excellence "Campus Mare Nostrum″, Universidad de Murcia, 30100, Murcia, Spain
| | - Berenice Guadarrama-Flores
- Departamento de Bioquímica y Biología Molecular A, Unidad Docente de Biología, Facultad de Veterinaria, Regional Campus of International Excellence "Campus Mare Nostrum″, Universidad de Murcia, 30100, Murcia, Spain
| | - Francisco García-Carmona
- Departamento de Bioquímica y Biología Molecular A, Unidad Docente de Biología, Facultad de Veterinaria, Regional Campus of International Excellence "Campus Mare Nostrum″, Universidad de Murcia, 30100, Murcia, Spain
| | - Fernando Gandía-Herrero
- Departamento de Bioquímica y Biología Molecular A, Unidad Docente de Biología, Facultad de Veterinaria, Regional Campus of International Excellence "Campus Mare Nostrum″, Universidad de Murcia, 30100, Murcia, Spain.
| |
Collapse
|
52
|
Wang L, Tao D, Dong S, Li S, Tian Y. Contributions of lunate cells and wax crystals to the surface anisotropy of Nepenthes slippery zone. ROYAL SOCIETY OPEN SCIENCE 2018; 5:180766. [PMID: 30839679 PMCID: PMC6170553 DOI: 10.1098/rsos.180766] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/25/2018] [Accepted: 08/03/2018] [Indexed: 05/27/2023]
Abstract
Nepenthes slippery zone presents surface anisotropy depending on its specialized structures. Herein, via macro-micro-nano scaled experiments, we analysed the contributions of lunate cells and wax crystals to this anisotropy. Macroscopic climbing of insects showed large displacements (triple body length within 3 s) and high velocities (6.16-20.47 mm s-1) in the inverted-fixed (towards digestive zone) slippery zone, but failed to climb forward in the normal-fixed (towards peristome) one. Friction force of insect claws sliding across inverted-fixed lunate cells was about 2.4 times of that sliding across the normal-fixed ones, whereas showed unobvious differences (1.06-1.11 times) between the inverted- and normal-fixed wax crystals. Innovative results from atomic force microscope scanning and microstructure examination demonstrated the upper layer of wax crystals causes the cantilever tip to generate rather small differences in friction data (1.92-2.72%), and the beneath layer provides slightly higher differences (4.96-7.91%). The study confirms the anisotropic configuration of lunate cells produces most of the anisotropy, whereas both surface topography and structural features of the wax crystals generate a slight contribution. These results are helpful for understanding the surface anisotropy of Nepenthes slippery zone, and guide the design of bioinspired surface with anisotropic properties.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Lixin Wang
- School of Mechanical Engineering, Hebei University of Science and Technology, Shijiazhuang 050018, People's Republic of China
| | - Dashuai Tao
- State Key Laboratory of Tribology, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, People's Republic of China
| | - Shiyun Dong
- National Key Laboratory for Remanufacturing, Academy of Armored Forces Engineering, Beijing 100072, People's Republic of China
| | - Shanshan Li
- School of Mechanical Engineering, Hebei University of Science and Technology, Shijiazhuang 050018, People's Republic of China
| | - Yu Tian
- State Key Laboratory of Tribology, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, People's Republic of China
| |
Collapse
|
53
|
Biswal DK, Debnath M, Konhar R, Yanthan S, Tandon P. Phylogeny and Biogeography of Carnivorous Plant Family Nepenthaceae With Reference to the Indian Pitcher Plant Nepenthes Khasiana Reveals an Indian Subcontinent Origin of Nepenthes Colonization in South East Asia During the Miocene Epoch. Front Ecol Evol 2018. [DOI: 10.3389/fevo.2018.00108] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
|
54
|
Lau MK, Baiser B, Northrop A, Gotelli NJ, Ellison AM. Regime shifts and hysteresis in the pitcher-plant microecosystem. Ecol Modell 2018. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ecolmodel.2018.04.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/17/2022]
|
55
|
Ravee R, Mohd Salleh F‘I, Goh HH. Discovery of digestive enzymes in carnivorous plants with focus on proteases. PeerJ 2018; 6:e4914. [PMID: 29888132 PMCID: PMC5993016 DOI: 10.7717/peerj.4914] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/13/2018] [Accepted: 05/16/2018] [Indexed: 01/30/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Carnivorous plants have been fascinating researchers with their unique characters and bioinspired applications. These include medicinal trait of some carnivorous plants with potentials for pharmaceutical industry. METHODS This review will cover recent progress based on current studies on digestive enzymes secreted by different genera of carnivorous plants: Drosera (sundews), Dionaea (Venus flytrap), Nepenthes (tropical pitcher plants), Sarracenia (North American pitcher plants), Cephalotus (Australian pitcher plants), Genlisea (corkscrew plants), and Utricularia (bladderworts). RESULTS Since the discovery of secreted protease nepenthesin in Nepenthes pitcher, digestive enzymes from carnivorous plants have been the focus of many studies. Recent genomics approaches have accelerated digestive enzyme discovery. Furthermore, the advancement in recombinant technology and protein purification helped in the identification and characterisation of enzymes in carnivorous plants. DISCUSSION These different aspects will be described and discussed in this review with focus on the role of secreted plant proteases and their potential industrial applications.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Rishiesvari Ravee
- Institute of Systems Biology (INBIOSIS), Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, Bangi, Selangor, Malaysia
| | - Faris ‘Imadi Mohd Salleh
- Institute of Systems Biology (INBIOSIS), Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, Bangi, Selangor, Malaysia
| | - Hoe-Han Goh
- Institute of Systems Biology (INBIOSIS), Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, Bangi, Selangor, Malaysia
| |
Collapse
|
56
|
Lehtinen S. Understanding the Venus flytrap through mathematical modelling. J Theor Biol 2018; 444:1-10. [PMID: 29421212 DOI: 10.1016/j.jtbi.2018.02.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/05/2017] [Revised: 01/29/2018] [Accepted: 02/03/2018] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Among carnivorous plants, the Venus flytrap is of particular interest for the rapid movement of its snap-traps and hypothesised prey selection, where small prey are allowed to escape from the traps. In this paper, we provide the first mathematical cost-benefit model for carnivory in the Venus flytrap. Specifically, we analyse the dynamics of prey capture; the costs and benefits of capturing and digesting its prey; and optimisation of trap size and prey selection. We fit the model to available data, making predictions regarding trap behaviour. In particular, we predict that non-prey sources, such as raindrops or wind, cause a large proportion of trap closures; only few trap closures result in a meal; most of the captured prey are allowed to escape; the closure mechanism of a trap is triggered about once every two days; and a trap has to wait more than a month for a meal. We also find that prey capture of traps of the Venus flytrap follows the Beddington-DeAngelis functional response. These predictions indicate that the Venus flytrap is highly selective in its prey capture.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Sami Lehtinen
- Department of Mathematics and Statistics, FI-00014 University of Helsinki, Finland.
| |
Collapse
|
57
|
Nogueira FCS, Farias ARB, Teixeira FM, Domont GB, Campos FAP. Common Features Between the Proteomes of Floral and Extrafloral Nectar From the Castor Plant ( Ricinus Communis) and the Proteomes of Exudates From Carnivorous Plants. FRONTIERS IN PLANT SCIENCE 2018; 9:549. [PMID: 29755492 PMCID: PMC5934526 DOI: 10.3389/fpls.2018.00549] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/05/2018] [Accepted: 04/09/2018] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
Label-free quantitative proteome analysis of extrafloral (EFN) and floral nectar (FN) from castor (Ricinus communis) plants resulted in the identification of 72 and 37 proteins, respectively. Thirty proteins were differentially accumulated between EFN and FN, and 24 of these were more abundant in the EFN. In addition to proteins involved in maintaining the nectar pathogen free such as chitinases and glucan 1,3-beta-glucosidase, both proteomes share an array of peptidases, lipases, carbohydrases, and nucleases. A total of 39 of the identified proteins, comprising different classes of hydrolases, were found to have biochemical matching partners in the exudates of at least five genera of carnivorous plants, indicating the EFN and FN possess a potential to digest biological material from microbial, animal or plant origin equivalent to the exudates of carnivorous plants.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Fábio C. S. Nogueira
- Proteomics Unit, PPGBq, Department of Biochemistry, Institute of Chemistry, Federal University of Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
- Laboratory of Proteomics, LADETEC, Institute of Chemistry, Federal University of Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | - Andreza R. B. Farias
- Department of Agricultural Sciences, Federal University of Ceará, Fortaleza, Brazil
| | - Fabiano M. Teixeira
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Federal University of Ceará, Fortaleza, Brazil
| | - Gilberto B. Domont
- Proteomics Unit, PPGBq, Department of Biochemistry, Institute of Chemistry, Federal University of Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | - Francisco A. P. Campos
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Federal University of Ceará, Fortaleza, Brazil
| |
Collapse
|
58
|
Youngsteadt E, Irwin RE, Fowler A, Bertone MA, Giacomini SJ, Kunz M, Suiter D, Sorenson CE. Venus Flytrap Rarely Traps Its Pollinators. Am Nat 2018; 191:539-546. [DOI: 10.1086/696124] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/03/2022]
|
59
|
Hedrich R, Neher E. Venus Flytrap: How an Excitable, Carnivorous Plant Works. TRENDS IN PLANT SCIENCE 2018; 23:220-234. [PMID: 29336976 DOI: 10.1016/j.tplants.2017.12.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 57] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/03/2017] [Revised: 12/13/2017] [Accepted: 12/14/2017] [Indexed: 05/02/2023]
Abstract
The carnivorous plant Dionaea possesses very sensitive mechanoreceptors. Upon contact with prey an action potential is triggered which, via an electrical network - comparable to the nervous system of vertebrates - rapidly closes its bivalved trap. The 'hunting cycle' comprises a constitutively activated mechanism for the rapid capture of prey, followed by a well-orchestrated sequence of activation of genes responsible for tight trap closure, digestion of the prey, and uptake of nutrients. Decisions on the step-by-step activation are based on 'counting' the number of stimulations of sensory organs. These remarkable animal-like skills in the carnivore are achieved not by taking over genes from its prey but by modifying and rearranging the functions of genes that are ubiquitous in plants.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Rainer Hedrich
- Institute for Molecular Plant Physiology and Biophysics, Julius-von-Sachs Platz 2, 97082 Würzburg, Germany.
| | - Erwin Neher
- Department for Membrane Biophysics, Max Planck Institute for Biophysical Chemistry, 37077 Göttingen, Germany
| |
Collapse
|
60
|
Cook JL, Newton J, Millett J. Environmental differences between sites control the diet and nutrition of the carnivorous plant Drosera rotundifolia. PLANT AND SOIL 2017; 423:41-58. [PMID: 31402798 PMCID: PMC6647551 DOI: 10.1007/s11104-017-3484-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/28/2017] [Accepted: 10/31/2017] [Indexed: 05/06/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND AND AIMS Carnivorous plants are sensitive to small changes in resource availability, but few previous studies have examined how differences in nutrient and prey availability affect investment in and the benefit of carnivory. We studied the impact of site-level differences in resource availability on ecophysiological traits of carnivory for Drosera rotundifolia L. METHODS We measured prey availability, investment in carnivory (leaf stickiness), prey capture and diet of plants growing in two bogs with differences in N deposition and plant available N: Cors Fochno (0.62 g m-2 yr.-1, 353 μg l-1), Whixall Moss (1.37 g m-2 yr.-1, 1505 μg l-1). The total N amount per plant and the contributions of prey/root N to the plants' N budget were calculated using a single isotope natural abundance method. RESULTS Plants at Whixall Moss invested less in carnivory, were less likely to capture prey, and were less reliant on prey-derived N (25.5% compared with 49.4%). Actual prey capture did not differ between sites. Diet composition differed - Cors Fochno plants captured 62% greater proportions of Diptera. CONCLUSIONS Our results show site-level differences in plant diet and nutrition consistent with differences in resource availability. Similarity in actual prey capture may be explained by differences in leaf stickiness and prey abundance.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Joni L. Cook
- Centre for Hydrological and Ecosystem Science, Department of Geography, Loughborough University, Loughborough, LE11 3TU Leicestershire UK
- NERC Life Sciences Mass Spectrometry Facility, Scottish Universities Environmental Research Centre, Rankine Avenue, Scottish Enterprise Technology Park, East Kilbride, G75 0QF UK
- Department of Geography, Loughborough University, Loughborough, Leicestershire LE11 3TU UK
| | - J. Newton
- NERC Life Sciences Mass Spectrometry Facility, Scottish Universities Environmental Research Centre, Rankine Avenue, Scottish Enterprise Technology Park, East Kilbride, G75 0QF UK
| | - J. Millett
- Centre for Hydrological and Ecosystem Science, Department of Geography, Loughborough University, Loughborough, LE11 3TU Leicestershire UK
| |
Collapse
|
61
|
Kruse J, Gao P, Eibelmeier M, Alfarraj S, Rennenberg H. Dynamics of amino acid redistribution in the carnivorous Venus flytrap (Dionaea muscipula) after digestion of 13 C/ 15 N-labelled prey. PLANT BIOLOGY (STUTTGART, GERMANY) 2017; 19:886-895. [PMID: 28727249 DOI: 10.1111/plb.12603] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/12/2017] [Accepted: 07/17/2017] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
Amino acids represent an important component in the diet of the Venus flytrap (Dionaea muscipula), and supply plants with much needed nitrogen resources upon capture of insect prey. Little is known about the significance of prey-derived carbon backbones of amino acids for the success of Dionaea's carnivorous life-style. The present study aimed at characterizing the metabolic fate of 15 N and 13 C in amino acids acquired from double-labeled insect powder. We tracked changes in plant amino acid pools and their δ13 C- and δ15 N-signatures over a period of five weeks after feeding, as affected by contrasting feeding intensity and tissue type (i.e., fed and non-fed traps and attached petioles of Dionaea). Isotope signatures (i.e., δ13 C and δ15 N) of plant amino acid pools were strongly correlated, explaining 60% of observed variation. Residual variation was related to contrasting effects of tissue type, feeding intensity and elapsed time since feeding. Synthesis of nitrogen-rich transport compounds (i.e., amides) during peak time of prey digestion increased 15 N- relative to 13 C- abundances in amino acid pools. After completion of prey digestion, 13 C in amino acid pools was progressively exchanged for newly fixed 12 C. The latter process was most evident for non-fed traps and attached petioles of plants that had received ample insect powder. We argue that prey-derived amino acids contribute to respiratory energy gain and loss of 13 CO2 during conversion into transport compounds (i.e., 2 days after feeding), and that amino-nitrogen helps boost photosynthetic carbon gain later on (i.e., 5 weeks after feeding).
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- J Kruse
- Institut für Forstbotanik und Baumphysiologie, Professur für Baumphysiologie, Universität Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany
| | - P Gao
- Institut für Forstbotanik und Baumphysiologie, Professur für Baumphysiologie, Universität Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany
| | - M Eibelmeier
- Institut für Forstbotanik und Baumphysiologie, Professur für Baumphysiologie, Universität Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany
| | - S Alfarraj
- College of Sciences, King Saud University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia
| | - H Rennenberg
- Institut für Forstbotanik und Baumphysiologie, Professur für Baumphysiologie, Universität Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany
- College of Sciences, King Saud University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia
| |
Collapse
|
62
|
Yilamujiang A, Zhu A, Ligabue-Braun R, Bartram S, Witte CP, Hedrich R, Hasabe M, Schöner CR, Schöner MG, Kerth G, Carlini CR, Mithöfer A. Coprophagous features in carnivorous Nepenthes plants: a task for ureases. Sci Rep 2017; 7:11647. [PMID: 28912541 PMCID: PMC5599630 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-017-11999-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/14/2017] [Accepted: 08/25/2017] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
Most terrestrial carnivorous plants are specialized on insect prey digestion to obtain additional nutrients. Few species of the genus Nepenthes developed mutualistic relationships with mammals for nitrogen supplementation. Whether dietary changes require certain enzymatic composition to utilize new sources of nutrients has rarely been tested. Here, we investigated the role of urease for Nepenthes hemsleyana that gains nitrogen from the bat Kerivoula hardwickii while it roosts inside the pitchers. We hypothesized that N. hemsleyana is able to use urea from the bats’ excrements. In fact, we demonstrate that 15N-enriched urea provided to Nepenthes pitchers is metabolized and its nitrogen is distributed within the plant. As ureases are necessary to degrade urea, these hydrolytic enzymes should be involved. We proved the presence and enzymatic activity of a urease for Nepenthes plant tissues. The corresponding urease cDNA from N. hemsleyana was isolated and functionally expressed. A comprehensive phylogenetic analysis for eukaryotic ureases, including Nepenthes and five other carnivorous plants’ taxa, identified them as canonical ureases and reflects the plant phylogeny. Hence, this study reveals ureases as an emblematic example for an efficient, low-cost but high adaptive plasticity in plants while developing a further specialized lifestyle from carnivory to coprophagy.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Ayufu Yilamujiang
- Department of Bioorganic Chemistry, Max Plank Institute for Chemical Ecology, 07745, Jena, Germany
| | - Anting Zhu
- Institute of Plant Nutrition, Leibniz University Hannover, 30419, Hannover, Germany
| | - Rodrigo Ligabue-Braun
- Center of Biotechnology, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, 91501-970, Porto Alegre, Brazil
| | - Stefan Bartram
- Department of Bioorganic Chemistry, Max Plank Institute for Chemical Ecology, 07745, Jena, Germany
| | - Claus-Peter Witte
- Institute of Plant Nutrition, Leibniz University Hannover, 30419, Hannover, Germany
| | - Rainer Hedrich
- Institute for Molecular Plant Physiology and Biophysics, University of Würzburg, 97082, Würzburg, Germany
| | | | - Caroline R Schöner
- Zoological Institute and Museum, Ernst-Moritz-Arndt-Universität Greifswald, 17489, Greifswald, Germany
| | - Michael G Schöner
- Zoological Institute and Museum, Ernst-Moritz-Arndt-Universität Greifswald, 17489, Greifswald, Germany
| | - Gerald Kerth
- Zoological Institute and Museum, Ernst-Moritz-Arndt-Universität Greifswald, 17489, Greifswald, Germany
| | - Célia R Carlini
- Center of Biotechnology, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, 91501-970, Porto Alegre, Brazil.,Brain Institute (BRAINS-InsCer), Pontifícia Universidade Católica do Rio Grande do Sul, 90610-000, Porto Alegre, Brazil
| | - Axel Mithöfer
- Department of Bioorganic Chemistry, Max Plank Institute for Chemical Ecology, 07745, Jena, Germany.
| |
Collapse
|
63
|
|
64
|
Luciano CS, Newell SJ. Effects of prey, pitcher age, and microbes on acid phosphatase activity in fluid from pitchers of Sarracenia purpurea (Sarraceniaceae). PLoS One 2017; 12:e0181252. [PMID: 28719666 PMCID: PMC5515422 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0181252] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/17/2017] [Accepted: 06/28/2017] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Carnivory in pitcher plants generally involves digestion of prey, by the plant itself, by symbionts, or both. While symbionts appear to be important in the digestion of prey in Sarracenia purpurea, the importance of pitcher-derived enzymes is less well documented. Our goal was to reduce microbial numbers in pitcher fluid in order to measure the acid phosphatase activity attributable to the pitchers themselves. Preliminary experiments indicated that various antibiotics were minimally effective at reducing microbial populations and that antibiotic-resistant microbes were easily cultured from pitcher fluid. Consequently, we measured the abundance of culturable microbes in every sample taken for the measurement of acid phosphatase activity. Pitchers fed with one sterilized ant had higher levels of acid phosphatase activity than unfed pitchers. Older pitchers were more responsive to feeding than young pitchers. Pitchers with high levels of microbes (on Day 5) had higher acid phosphatase activity than pitchers with low levels of microbes. However, fed pitchers were not more likely to have higher microbe levels and microbe levels were not related to pitcher age. When fluid samples from inside the pitcher were compared to appropriate controls incubated outside the pitcher, acid phosphatase activity was higher inside the pitcher. Results from the feeding experiments are consistent with a primary role of microbes in the digestion of prey in pitchers of S. purpurea. However, the relationship between pitcher age and enzyme activity is not a function of microbes in the pitcher fluid and may depend on enzymes produced by the plant. Our methods would not detect microbes embedded on the inner surface of the pitcher; and if they survived the alcohol rinse and antibiotics, we cannot rule out microbes as the source of the relationship between pitcher age and acid phosphatase activity.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Carl S. Luciano
- Department of Biology, Indiana University of Pennsylvania, Indiana, PA, United States of America
- * E-mail:
| | - Sandra J. Newell
- Department of Biology, Indiana University of Pennsylvania, Indiana, PA, United States of America
| |
Collapse
|
65
|
Silva SR, Alvarenga DO, Aranguren Y, Penha HA, Fernandes CC, Pinheiro DG, Oliveira MT, Michael TP, Miranda VFO, Varani AM. The mitochondrial genome of the terrestrial carnivorous plant Utricularia reniformis (Lentibulariaceae): Structure, comparative analysis and evolutionary landmarks. PLoS One 2017; 12:e0180484. [PMID: 28723946 PMCID: PMC5516982 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0180484] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/10/2017] [Accepted: 05/13/2017] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
The carnivorous plants of the family Lentibulariaceae have attained recent attention not only because of their interesting lifestyle, but also because of their dynamic nuclear genome size. Lentibulariaceae genomes span an order of magnitude and include species with the smallest genomes in angiosperms, making them a powerful system to study the mechanisms of genome expansion and contraction. However, little is known about mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) sequences of this family, and the evolutionary forces that shape this organellar genome. Here we report the sequencing and assembly of the complete mtDNA from the endemic terrestrial Brazilian species Utricularia reniformis. The 857,234bp master circle mitochondrial genome encodes 70 transcriptionaly active genes (42 protein-coding, 25 tRNAs and 3 rRNAs), covering up to 7% of the mtDNA. A ltrA-like protein related to splicing and mobility and a LAGLIDADG homing endonuclease have been identified in intronic regions, suggesting particular mechanisms of genome maintenance. RNA-seq analysis identified properties with putative diverse and important roles in genome regulation and evolution: 1) 672kbp (78%) of the mtDNA is covered by full-length reads; 2) most of the 243kbp intergenic regions exhibit transcripts; and 3) at least 69 novel RNA editing sites in the protein-coding genes. Additional genomic features are hypothetical ORFs (48%), chloroplast insertions, including truncated plastid genes that have been lost from the chloroplast DNA (5%), repeats (5%), relics of transposable elements mostly related to LTR retrotransposons (5%), and truncated mitovirus sequences (0.4%). Phylogenetic analysis based on 32 different Lamiales mitochondrial genomes corroborate that Lentibulariaceae is a monophyletic group. In summary, the U. reniformis mtDNA represents the eighth largest plant mtDNA described to date, shedding light on the genomic trends and evolutionary characteristics and phylogenetic history of the family Lentibulariaceae.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Saura R. Silva
- Departamento de Botânica, Instituto de Biociências, Universidade Estadual Paulista (UNESP), Botucatu, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Danillo O. Alvarenga
- Departamento de Tecnologia, Faculdade de Ciências Agrárias e Veterinárias, Universidade Estadual Paulista (Unesp), Jaboticabal, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Yani Aranguren
- Departamento de Biologia Aplicada à Agropecuária, Faculdade de Ciências Agrárias e Veterinárias, Universidade Estadual Paulista (Unesp), Jaboticabal, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Helen A. Penha
- Departamento de Tecnologia, Faculdade de Ciências Agrárias e Veterinárias, Universidade Estadual Paulista (Unesp), Jaboticabal, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Camila C. Fernandes
- Departamento de Tecnologia, Faculdade de Ciências Agrárias e Veterinárias, Universidade Estadual Paulista (Unesp), Jaboticabal, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Daniel G. Pinheiro
- Departamento de Tecnologia, Faculdade de Ciências Agrárias e Veterinárias, Universidade Estadual Paulista (Unesp), Jaboticabal, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Marcos T. Oliveira
- Departamento de Tecnologia, Faculdade de Ciências Agrárias e Veterinárias, Universidade Estadual Paulista (Unesp), Jaboticabal, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Todd P. Michael
- Computational Genomics, Ibis Bioscience, Carlsbad, CA, United States of America
| | - Vitor F. O. Miranda
- Departamento de Biologia Aplicada à Agropecuária, Faculdade de Ciências Agrárias e Veterinárias, Universidade Estadual Paulista (Unesp), Jaboticabal, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Alessandro M. Varani
- Departamento de Tecnologia, Faculdade de Ciências Agrárias e Veterinárias, Universidade Estadual Paulista (Unesp), Jaboticabal, São Paulo, Brazil
| |
Collapse
|
66
|
Yanthan JS, Kehie M, Kumaria S, Tandon P. In vitro regeneration of Drosera burmannii Vahl.: a carnivorous plant of north-east India. 3 Biotech 2017; 7:124. [PMID: 28567635 DOI: 10.1007/s13205-017-0777-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/01/2016] [Accepted: 02/14/2017] [Indexed: 11/26/2022] Open
Abstract
An efficient in vitro regeneration protocol has been developed from shoot tips of Drosera burmannii Vahl., a carnivorous plant of north-east India. Various plant growth regulators were used to study their efficacy in the induction of multiple shoots and roots. Of the various treatments, the maximum number of shoots (28.8 ± 1.5) and roots (9.7 ± 0.6) was observed in one-fourth strength standard medium (MS with 50 mg/l citric acid and 10 mg/l ascorbic acid) supplemented with 4 mg/l 6-benzylaminopurine (BAP) and 4 mg/l α-naphthalene acetic acid (NAA) followed by 26.8 ± 1.4 shoots in one-fourth strength SM fortified with 4 mg/l kinetin (KN) and 4 mg/l NAA. The well-developed plantlets with shoots and roots were potted in small plastic glasses filled with a mixture of sand and farmyard manure (3:1); these plantlets when transferred to a glasshouse for hardening and acclimatization showed 90% survival.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- J Sureni Yanthan
- Plant Biotechnology Laboratory, Centre for Advanced Studies in Botany, North-Eastern Hill University, Shillong, 793022, India
| | - Mechuselie Kehie
- Post Graduate Department of Environmental Science, Patkai Christian College (Autonomous), Chumukedima, Seithekema, Dimapur, 797103, India.
- Sustainable Development Research Centre, Kohima, 797001, Nagaland, India.
| | - Suman Kumaria
- Plant Biotechnology Laboratory, Centre for Advanced Studies in Botany, North-Eastern Hill University, Shillong, 793022, India
| | - Pramod Tandon
- Plant Biotechnology Laboratory, Centre for Advanced Studies in Botany, North-Eastern Hill University, Shillong, 793022, India
| |
Collapse
|
67
|
Insect haptoelectrical stimulation of Venus flytrap triggers exocytosis in gland cells. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2017; 114:4822-4827. [PMID: 28416693 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1701860114] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
The Venus flytrap Dionaea muscipula captures insects and consumes their flesh. Prey contacting touch-sensitive hairs trigger traveling electrical waves. These action potentials (APs) cause rapid closure of the trap and activate secretory functions of glands, which cover its inner surface. Such prey-induced haptoelectric stimulation activates the touch hormone jasmonate (JA) signaling pathway, which initiates secretion of an acidic hydrolase mixture to decompose the victim and acquire the animal nutrients. Although postulated since Darwin's pioneering studies, these secretory events have not been recorded so far. Using advanced analytical and imaging techniques, such as vibrating ion-selective electrodes, carbon fiber amperometry, and magnetic resonance imaging, we monitored stimulus-coupled glandular secretion into the flytrap. Trigger-hair bending or direct application of JA caused a quantal release of oxidizable material from gland cells monitored as distinct amperometric spikes. Spikes reminiscent of exocytotic events in secretory animal cells progressively increased in frequency, reaching steady state 1 d after stimulation. Our data indicate that trigger-hair mechanical stimulation evokes APs. Gland cells translate APs into touch-inducible JA signaling that promotes the formation of secretory vesicles. Early vesicles loaded with H+ and Cl- fuse with the plasma membrane, hyperacidifying the "green stomach"-like digestive organ, whereas subsequent ones carry hydrolases and nutrient transporters, together with a glutathione redox moiety, which is likely to act as the major detected compound in amperometry. Hence, when glands perceive the haptoelectrical stimulation, secretory vesicles are tailored to be released in a sequence that optimizes digestion of the captured animal.
Collapse
|
68
|
Paniw M, Gil-Cabeza E, Ojeda F. Plant carnivory beyond bogs: reliance on prey feeding in Drosophyllum lusitanicum (Drosophyllaceae) in dry Mediterranean heathland habitats. ANNALS OF BOTANY 2017; 119:1035-1041. [PMID: 28065921 PMCID: PMC5604584 DOI: 10.1093/aob/mcw247] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/04/2016] [Accepted: 10/26/2016] [Indexed: 05/22/2023]
Abstract
Background and Aims In a cost-benefit framework, plant carnivory is hypothesized to be an adaptation to nutrient-poor soils in sunny, wetland habitats. However, apparent exceptions to this cost-benefit model exist, although they have been rarely studied. One of these exceptions is the carnivorous subshrub Drosophyllum lusitanicum , which thrives in Mediterranean heathlands on dry sandstone soils and has relatively well-developed, xeromorphic roots. Here, the roles of leaf (carnivory) and root (soil) nutrient uptake in growth promotion of this particular species were assessed. Methods In a greenhouse experiment, plants were fed with laboratory-reared fruit flies ( Drosophila virilis ) and received two concentrations of soil nutrients in a factorial design. Above-ground plant growth and final above- and below-ground dry biomass after 13 weeks were recorded. Nutrient uptake via roots was also evaluated, using stable nitrogen isotope analysis. Key Results Insect feeding resulted in significantly higher growth and above- and below-ground biomass compared with soil fertilization. No additional benefits of fertilization were discernable when plants were insect-fed, indicating that roots were not efficient in nutrient absorption. Conclusions The first evidence of strong reliance on insect prey feeding in a dry-soil carnivorous plant with well-developed roots is provided, suggesting that carnivory per se does not preclude persistence in dry habitats. Instead, the combination of carnivory and xeromorphic root features allows Drosophyllum to thrive on non-waterlogged soils. New evidence is added to recent research emphasizing the role of root systems of carnivorous plants in explaining their distribution, partly challenging the cost-benefit hypothesis.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- M. Paniw
- Departamento de Biología, CASEM, Universidad de Cádiz, Campus Río San Pedro, E-11510 Puerto Real, Spain
| | | | | |
Collapse
|
69
|
Davenport JM, Riley AW. Complex inter-Kingdom interactions: carnivorous plants affect growth of an aquatic vertebrate. J Anim Ecol 2017; 86:484-489. [PMID: 28191630 DOI: 10.1111/1365-2656.12652] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/07/2016] [Accepted: 12/26/2016] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Coexistence of organisms in nature is more likely when phenotypic similarities of individuals are reduced. Despite the lack of similarity, distantly related taxa still compete intensely for shared resources. No larger difference between organisms that share a common prey could exist than between carnivorous plants and animals. However, few studies have considered inter-Kingdom competition among carnivorous plants and animals. In order to evaluate interactions between a carnivorous plant (greater bladderwort, Utricularia vulgaris) and a vertebrate (bluegill, Lepomis macrochirus) on a shared prey (zooplankton), we conducted a mesocosm experiment. We deployed two levels of bladderwort presence (functional and crushed) and measured bluegill responses (survival and growth). Zooplankton abundance was reduced the greatest in bluegill and functional bladderwort treatments. Bluegill survival did not differ among treatments, but growth was greatest with crushed bladderwort. Thus, bluegill growth was facilitated by reducing interference competition in the presence of crushed bladderwort. The facilitating effect was dampened, however, when functional bladderwort removed a shared prey. To our knowledge, this is one of the first studies to experimentally demonstrate interactions between a carnivorous plant and a fish. Our data suggest that carnivorous plants may actively promote or reduce animal co-occurrence from some ecosystems via facilitation or competition.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jon M Davenport
- Department of Biology, Southeast Missouri State University, Cape Girardeau, MO, 63701, USA
| | - Alex W Riley
- Department of Biology, Southeast Missouri State University, Cape Girardeau, MO, 63701, USA
| |
Collapse
|
70
|
Fukushima K, Fang X, Alvarez-Ponce D, Cai H, Carretero-Paulet L, Chen C, Chang TH, Farr KM, Fujita T, Hiwatashi Y, Hoshi Y, Imai T, Kasahara M, Librado P, Mao L, Mori H, Nishiyama T, Nozawa M, Pálfalvi G, Pollard ST, Rozas J, Sánchez-Gracia A, Sankoff D, Shibata TF, Shigenobu S, Sumikawa N, Uzawa T, Xie M, Zheng C, Pollock DD, Albert VA, Li S, Hasebe M. Genome of the pitcher plant Cephalotus reveals genetic changes associated with carnivory. Nat Ecol Evol 2017; 1:59. [DOI: 10.1038/s41559-016-0059] [Citation(s) in RCA: 71] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/12/2016] [Accepted: 12/16/2016] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
|
71
|
Selosse MA, Charpin M, Not F. Mixotrophy everywhere on land and in water: thegrand écarthypothesis. Ecol Lett 2016; 20:246-263. [DOI: 10.1111/ele.12714] [Citation(s) in RCA: 100] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/11/2016] [Revised: 08/22/2016] [Accepted: 11/13/2016] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Marc-André Selosse
- Institut de Systématique, Évolution; Biodiversité (ISYEB - UMR 7205 - CNRS; MNHN; UPMC; EPHE); Muséum national d'Histoire naturelle; Sorbonne Universités; 57 rue Cuvier CP50 75005 Paris France
- Department of Plant Taxonomy and Nature Conservation; University of Gdansk; Wita Stwosza 59 80-308 Gdansk Poland
| | - Marie Charpin
- Université Blaise Pascal; Clermont-Ferrand; CNRS Laboratoire micro-organismes: Génome et Environnement; UMR 6023 1 Impasse Amélie Murat 63178 Aubière France
| | - Fabrice Not
- Sorbonne Universités; UPMC Université Paris 06; CNRS; Laboratoire Adaptation et Diversité en Milieu Marin UMR7144; Station Biologique de Roscoff; 29680 Roscoff France
| |
Collapse
|
72
|
Assessing genetic diversity for the USA endemic carnivorous plant Pinguicula ionantha R.K. Godfrey (Lentibulariaceae). CONSERV GENET 2016. [DOI: 10.1007/s10592-016-0891-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
|
73
|
Butts CT, Bierma JC, Martin RW. Novel proteases from the genome of the carnivorous plant Drosera capensis: Structural prediction and comparative analysis. Proteins 2016; 84:1517-33. [PMID: 27353064 DOI: 10.1002/prot.25095] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/30/2015] [Revised: 05/16/2016] [Accepted: 06/13/2016] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
In his 1875 monograph on insectivorous plants, Darwin described the feeding reactions of Drosera flypaper traps and predicted that their secretions contained a "ferment" similar to mammalian pepsin, an aspartic protease. Here we report a high-quality draft genome sequence for the cape sundew, Drosera capensis, the first genome of a carnivorous plant from order Caryophyllales, which also includes the Venus flytrap (Dionaea) and the tropical pitcher plants (Nepenthes). This species was selected in part for its hardiness and ease of cultivation, making it an excellent model organism for further investigations of plant carnivory. Analysis of predicted protein sequences yields genes encoding proteases homologous to those found in other plants, some of which display sequence and structural features that suggest novel functionalities. Because the sequence similarity to proteins of known structure is in most cases too low for traditional homology modeling, 3D structures of representative proteases are predicted using comparative modeling with all-atom refinement. Although the overall folds and active residues for these proteins are conserved, we find structural and sequence differences consistent with a diversity of substrate recognition patterns. Finally, we predict differences in substrate specificities using in silico experiments, providing targets for structure/function studies of novel enzymes with biological and technological significance. Proteins 2016; 84:1517-1533. © 2016 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Carter T Butts
- Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science, UC Irvine, Irvine, California, 92697. .,Department of Statistics, UC Irvine, Irvine, California, 92697. .,Department of Sociology, UC Irvine, Irvine, California, 92697.
| | - Jan C Bierma
- Department of Molecular Biology and Biochemistry, UC Irvine, Irvine, California, 92697
| | - Rachel W Martin
- Department of Molecular Biology and Biochemistry, UC Irvine, Irvine, California, 92697. .,Department of Chemistry, UC Irvine, Irvine, California, 92697.
| |
Collapse
|
74
|
Pavlovič A, Krausko M, Adamec L. A carnivorous sundew plant prefers protein over chitin as a source of nitrogen from its traps. PLANT PHYSIOLOGY AND BIOCHEMISTRY : PPB 2016; 104:11-16. [PMID: 26998942 DOI: 10.1016/j.plaphy.2016.03.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/19/2016] [Revised: 03/04/2016] [Accepted: 03/04/2016] [Indexed: 06/05/2023]
Abstract
Carnivorous plants have evolved in nutrient-poor wetland habitats. They capture arthropod prey, which is an additional source of plant growth limiting nutrients. One of them is nitrogen, which occurs in the form of chitin and proteins in prey carcasses. In this study, the nutritional value of chitin and protein and their digestion traits in the carnivorous sundew Drosera capensis L. were estimated using stable nitrogen isotope abundance. Plants fed on chitin derived 49% of the leaf nitrogen from chitin, while those fed on the protein bovine serum albumin (BSA) derived 70% of its leaf nitrogen from this. Moreover, leaf nitrogen content doubled in protein-fed in comparison to chitin-fed plants indicating that the proteins were digested more effectively in comparison to chitin and resulted in significantly higher chlorophyll contents. The surplus chlorophyll and absorbed nitrogen from the protein digestion were incorporated into photosynthetic proteins - the light harvesting antennae of photosystem II. The incorporation of insect nitrogen into the plant photosynthetic apparatus may explain the increased rate of photosynthesis and plant growth after feeding. This general response in many genera of carnivorous plants has been reported in many previous studies.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Andrej Pavlovič
- Department of Biophysics, Centre of the Region Haná for Biotechnological and Agricultural Research, Faculty of Science, Palacký University, Šlechtitelů 27, CZ-783 71, Olomouc, Czech Republic; Department of Plant Physiology, Faculty of Natural Sciences, Comenius University in Bratislava, Ilkovičova 6, Mlynská dolina, SK-842 15, Bratislava, Slovakia.
| | - Miroslav Krausko
- Department of Plant Physiology, Faculty of Natural Sciences, Comenius University in Bratislava, Ilkovičova 6, Mlynská dolina, SK-842 15, Bratislava, Slovakia
| | - Lubomír Adamec
- Institute of Botany of the Czech Academy of Sciences, Section of Plant Ecology, Dukelská 135, CZ-379 82, Třeboň, Czech Republic
| |
Collapse
|
75
|
Butts CT, Zhang X, Kelly JE, Roskamp KW, Unhelkar MH, Freites JA, Tahir S, Martin RW. Sequence comparison, molecular modeling, and network analysis predict structural diversity in cysteine proteases from the Cape sundew, Drosera capensis. Comput Struct Biotechnol J 2016; 14:271-82. [PMID: 27471585 PMCID: PMC4949590 DOI: 10.1016/j.csbj.2016.05.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/22/2016] [Revised: 05/11/2016] [Accepted: 05/17/2016] [Indexed: 01/02/2023] Open
Abstract
Carnivorous plants represent a so far underexploited reservoir of novel proteases with potentially useful activities. Here we investigate 44 cysteine proteases from the Cape sundew, Drosera capensis, predicted from genomic DNA sequences. D. capensis has a large number of cysteine protease genes; analysis of their sequences reveals homologs of known plant proteases, some of which are predicted to have novel properties. Many functionally significant sequence and structural features are observed, including targeting signals and occluding loops. Several of the proteases contain a new type of granulin domain. Although active site residues are conserved, the sequence identity of these proteases to known proteins is moderate to low; therefore, comparative modeling with all-atom refinement and subsequent atomistic MD-simulation is used to predict their 3D structures. The structure prediction data, as well as analysis of protein structure networks, suggest multifarious variations on the papain-like cysteine protease structural theme. This in silico methodology provides a general framework for investigating a large pool of sequences that are potentially useful for biotechnology applications, enabling informed choices about which proteins to investigate in the laboratory. 44 new cysteine proteases from the carnivorous plant Drosera capensis are described. Structure prediction and molecular dynamics simulation predict overall folds similar to papain. Functionally significant sequence and structural features are observed, including targeting signals and occluding loops. Several of the proteases contain a new type of granulin domain. Protein structure networks reveal global differences in interactions among chemical groups.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Carter T Butts
- Department of Sociology, UC Irvine, USA; Department of Sociology, UC Irvine, USA; Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science, UC Irvine, USA
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | - Rachel W Martin
- Department of Chemistry, UC Irvine, USA; Department of Molecular Biology & Biochemistry, UC Irvine, Irvine, CA, 92697 USA
| |
Collapse
|
76
|
Bemm F, Becker D, Larisch C, Kreuzer I, Escalante-Perez M, Schulze WX, Ankenbrand M, Van de Weyer AL, Krol E, Al-Rasheid KA, Mithöfer A, Weber AP, Schultz J, Hedrich R. Venus flytrap carnivorous lifestyle builds on herbivore defense strategies. Genome Res 2016; 26:812-25. [PMID: 27197216 PMCID: PMC4889972 DOI: 10.1101/gr.202200.115] [Citation(s) in RCA: 66] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/20/2015] [Accepted: 04/07/2016] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
Although the concept of botanical carnivory has been known since Darwin's time, the molecular mechanisms that allow animal feeding remain unknown, primarily due to a complete lack of genomic information. Here, we show that the transcriptomic landscape of the Dionaea trap is dramatically shifted toward signal transduction and nutrient transport upon insect feeding, with touch hormone signaling and protein secretion prevailing. At the same time, a massive induction of general defense responses is accompanied by the repression of cell death-related genes/processes. We hypothesize that the carnivory syndrome of Dionaea evolved by exaptation of ancient defense pathways, replacing cell death with nutrient acquisition.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Felix Bemm
- Center for Computational and Theoretical Biology, Campus Hubland Nord; Department of Bioinformatics, Biocenter, Am Hubland, University of Würzburg, D-97218 Würzburg, Germany
| | - Dirk Becker
- Institute for Molecular Plant Physiology and Biophysics, Biocenter, University of Würzburg, 97082 Würzburg, Germany
| | - Christina Larisch
- Institute for Molecular Plant Physiology and Biophysics, Biocenter, University of Würzburg, 97082 Würzburg, Germany
| | - Ines Kreuzer
- Institute for Molecular Plant Physiology and Biophysics, Biocenter, University of Würzburg, 97082 Würzburg, Germany
| | - Maria Escalante-Perez
- Institute for Molecular Plant Physiology and Biophysics, Biocenter, University of Würzburg, 97082 Würzburg, Germany
| | - Waltraud X Schulze
- Department of Plant Systems Biology, University of Hohenheim, 70593 Stuttgart, Germany
| | - Markus Ankenbrand
- Center for Computational and Theoretical Biology, Campus Hubland Nord; Department of Bioinformatics, Biocenter, Am Hubland, University of Würzburg, D-97218 Würzburg, Germany; Department of Animal Ecology and Tropical Biology, Biocenter, Am Hubland, 97074 Würzburg, Germany
| | - Anna-Lena Van de Weyer
- Center for Computational and Theoretical Biology, Campus Hubland Nord; Department of Bioinformatics, Biocenter, Am Hubland, University of Würzburg, D-97218 Würzburg, Germany
| | - Elzbieta Krol
- Institute for Molecular Plant Physiology and Biophysics, Biocenter, University of Würzburg, 97082 Würzburg, Germany
| | - Khaled A Al-Rasheid
- Institute for Molecular Plant Physiology and Biophysics, Biocenter, University of Würzburg, 97082 Würzburg, Germany; Zoology Department, College of Science, King Saud University, Riyadh 11451, Saudi Arabia
| | - Axel Mithöfer
- Bioorganic Chemistry Department, Max-Planck-Institute for Chemical Ecology, 07745 Jena, Germany
| | - Andreas P Weber
- Institute of Plant Biochemistry, Cluster of Excellence on Plant Sciences (CEPLAS), Heinrich-Heine-University, 40225 Düsseldorf, Germany
| | - Jörg Schultz
- Center for Computational and Theoretical Biology, Campus Hubland Nord; Department of Bioinformatics, Biocenter, Am Hubland, University of Würzburg, D-97218 Würzburg, Germany
| | - Rainer Hedrich
- Institute for Molecular Plant Physiology and Biophysics, Biocenter, University of Würzburg, 97082 Würzburg, Germany
| |
Collapse
|
77
|
Fleischmann A, Rivadavia F, Gonella PM, Pérez-Bañón C, Mengual X, Rojo S. Where Is My Food? Brazilian Flower Fly Steals Prey from Carnivorous Sundews in a Newly Discovered Plant-Animal Interaction. PLoS One 2016; 11:e0153900. [PMID: 27144980 PMCID: PMC4856264 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0153900] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/01/2016] [Accepted: 04/05/2016] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
A new interaction between insects and carnivorous plants is reported from Brazil. Larvae of the predatory flower fly Toxomerus basalis (Diptera: Syrphidae: Syrphinae) have been found scavenging on the sticky leaves of several carnivorous sundew species (Drosera, Droseraceae) in Minas Gerais and São Paulo states, SE Brazil. This syrphid apparently spends its whole larval stage feeding on prey trapped by Drosera leaves. The nature of this plant-animal relationship is discussed, as well as the Drosera species involved, and locations where T. basalis was observed. 180 years after the discovery of this flower fly species, its biology now has been revealed. This is (1) the first record of kleptoparasitism in the Syrphidae, (2) a new larval feeding mode for this family, and (3) the first report of a dipteran that shows a kleptoparasitic relationship with a carnivorous plant with adhesive flypaper traps. The first descriptions of the third instar larva and puparium of T. basalis based on Scanning Electron Microscope analysis are provided.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Andreas Fleischmann
- Botanische Staatssammlung München, Munich, Germany
- GeoBio-Center LMU, Center of Geobiology and Biodiversity Research, Ludwig-Maximilians-University, Munich, Germany
| | | | - Paulo M. Gonella
- Laboratório de Sistemática Vegetal, Instituto de Biociências, Universidade de São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Celeste Pérez-Bañón
- Departamento de Ciencias Naturales y Recursos Naturales / Instituto CIBIO, Universidad de Alicante, Alicante, Spain
| | - Ximo Mengual
- Zoologisches Forschungsmuseum Alexander Koenig, Leibniz-Institut für Biodiversität der Tiere, Bonn, Germany
| | - Santos Rojo
- Departamento de Ciencias Naturales y Recursos Naturales / Instituto CIBIO, Universidad de Alicante, Alicante, Spain
| |
Collapse
|
78
|
Salces-Castellano A, Paniw M, Casimiro-Soriguer R, Ojeda F. Attract them anyway: benefits of large, showy flowers in a highly autogamous, carnivorous plant species. AOB PLANTS 2016; 8:plw017. [PMID: 26977052 PMCID: PMC4832431 DOI: 10.1093/aobpla/plw017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/25/2015] [Accepted: 03/03/2016] [Indexed: 05/06/2023]
Abstract
Reproductive biology of carnivorous plants has largely been studied on species that rely on insects as pollinators and prey, creating potential conflicts. Autogamous pollination, although present in some carnivorous species, has received less attention. In angiosperms, autogamous self-fertilization is expected to lead to a reduction in flower size, thereby reducing resource allocation to structures that attract pollinators. A notable exception is the carnivorous pyrophyteDrosophyllum lusitanicum(Drosophyllaceae), which has been described as an autogamous selfing species but produces large, yellow flowers. Using a flower removal and a pollination experiment, we assessed, respectively, whether large flowers in this species may serve as an attracting device to prey insects or whether previously reported high selfing rates for this species in peripheral populations may be lower in more central, less isolated populations. We found no differences between flower-removed plants and intact, flowering plants in numbers of prey insects trapped. We also found no indication of reduced potential for autogamous reproduction, in terms of either seed set or seed size. However, our results showed significant increases in seed set of bagged, hand-pollinated flowers and unbagged flowers exposed to insect visitation compared with bagged, non-manipulated flowers that could only self-pollinate autonomously. Considering that the key life-history strategy of this pyrophytic species is to maintain a viable seed bank, any increase in seed set through insect pollinator activity would increase plant fitness. This in turn would explain the maintenance of large, conspicuous flowers in a highly autogamous, carnivorous plant.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- A Salces-Castellano
- Departamento de Biología and IVAGRO, Universidad de Cádiz, Campus Río San Pedro, E-11510 Puerto Real, Spain Present address: IPNA-CSIC, C/Astrofísico Francisco Sánchez 3, 38206-La Laguna, Tenerife, Canary Islands, Spain
| | - M Paniw
- Departamento de Biología and IVAGRO, Universidad de Cádiz, Campus Río San Pedro, E-11510 Puerto Real, Spain
| | - R Casimiro-Soriguer
- Departamento de Biología and IVAGRO, Universidad de Cádiz, Campus Río San Pedro, E-11510 Puerto Real, Spain
| | - F Ojeda
- Departamento de Biología and IVAGRO, Universidad de Cádiz, Campus Río San Pedro, E-11510 Puerto Real, Spain
| |
Collapse
|
79
|
Wang L, Zhou Q. Surface hydrophobicity of slippery zones in the pitchers of two Nepenthes species and a hybrid. Sci Rep 2016; 6:19907. [PMID: 26813707 PMCID: PMC4728604 DOI: 10.1038/srep19907] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/23/2015] [Accepted: 12/21/2015] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
To investigate the hydrophobicity of slippery zones, static contact angle measurement and microstructure observation of slippery surfaces from two Nepenthes species and a hybrid were conducted. Marginally different static contact angles were observed, as the smallest (133.83°) and greatest (143.63°) values were recorded for the N. alata and N. miranda respectively, and the median value (140.40°) was presented for the N. khasiana. The slippery zones under investigation exhibited rather similar surface morphologies, but different structural dimensions. These findings probably suggest that the geometrical dimensions of surface architecture exert primary effects on differences in the hydrophobicity of the slippery zone. Based on the Wenzel and Cassie-Baxter equations, models were proposed to analyze the manner in which geometrical dimensions affect the hydrophobicity of the slippery surfaces. The results of our analysis demonstrated that the different structural dimensions of lunate cells and wax platelets make the slippery zones present different real area of the rough surface and thereby generate somewhat distinguishable hydrophobicity. The results support a supplementary interpretation of surface hydrophobicity in plant leaves, and provide a theoretical foundation for developing bioinspired materials with hydrophobic properties and self-cleaning abilities.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Lixin Wang
- School of Mechanical Engineering, Hebei University of Science and Technology, Shijiazhuang 050018, China
| | - Qiang Zhou
- College of Engineering, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100083, China
| |
Collapse
|
80
|
Satler JD, Zellmer AJ, Carstens BC. Biogeographic barriers drive co-diversification within associated eukaryotes of the Sarracenia alata pitcher plant system. PeerJ 2016; 4:e1576. [PMID: 26788436 PMCID: PMC4715430 DOI: 10.7717/peerj.1576] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/03/2015] [Accepted: 12/16/2015] [Indexed: 12/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Understanding if the members of an ecological community have co-diversified is a central concern of evolutionary biology, as co-diversification suggests prolonged association and possible coevolution. By sampling associated species from an ecosystem, researchers can better understand how abiotic and biotic factors influence diversification in a region. In particular, studies of co-distributed species that interact ecologically can allow us to disentangle the effect of how historical processes have helped shape community level structure and interactions. Here we investigate the Sarracenia alata pitcher plant system, an ecological community where many species from disparate taxonomic groups live inside the fluid-filled pitcher leaves. Direct sequencing of the eukaryotes present in the pitcher plant fluid enables us to better understand how a host plant can shape and contribute to the genetic structure of its associated inquilines, and to ask whether genetic variation in the taxa are structured in a similar manner to the host plant. We used 454 amplicon-based metagenomics to demonstrate that the pattern of genetic diversity in many, but not all, of the eukaryotic community is similar to that of S. alata, providing evidence that associated eukaryotes share an evolutionary history with the host pitcher plant. Our work provides further evidence that a host plant can influence the evolution of its associated commensals.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jordan D Satler
- Department of Evolution, Ecology and Organismal Biology, The Ohio State University , Columbus, OH , United States
| | - Amanda J Zellmer
- Department of Biology, Occidental College , Los Angeles, CA , United States
| | - Bryan C Carstens
- Department of Evolution, Ecology and Organismal Biology, The Ohio State University , Columbus, OH , United States
| |
Collapse
|
81
|
Risør MW, Thomsen LR, Sanggaard KW, Nielsen TA, Thøgersen IB, Lukassen MV, Rossen L, Garcia-Ferrer I, Guevara T, Scavenius C, Meinjohanns E, Gomis-Rüth FX, Enghild JJ. Enzymatic and Structural Characterization of the Major Endopeptidase in the Venus Flytrap Digestion Fluid. J Biol Chem 2015; 291:2271-87. [PMID: 26627834 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m115.672550] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/17/2015] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
Carnivorous plants primarily use aspartic proteases during digestion of captured prey. In contrast, the major endopeptidases in the digestive fluid of the Venus flytrap (Dionaea muscipula) are cysteine proteases (dionain-1 to -4). Here, we present the crystal structure of mature dionain-1 in covalent complex with inhibitor E-64 at 1.5 Å resolution. The enzyme exhibits an overall protein fold reminiscent of other plant cysteine proteases. The inactive glycosylated pro-form undergoes autoprocessing and self-activation, optimally at the physiologically relevant pH value of 3.6, at which the protective effect of the pro-domain is lost. The mature enzyme was able to efficiently degrade a Drosophila fly protein extract at pH 4 showing high activity against the abundant Lys- and Arg-rich protein, myosin. The substrate specificity of dionain-1 was largely similar to that of papain with a preference for hydrophobic and aliphatic residues in subsite S2 and for positively charged residues in S1. A tentative structure of the pro-domain was obtained by homology modeling and suggested that a pro-peptide Lys residue intrudes into the S2 pocket, which is more spacious than in papain. This study provides the first analysis of a cysteine protease from the digestive fluid of a carnivorous plant and confirms the close relationship between carnivorous action and plant defense mechanisms.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Michael W Risør
- From the Department of Molecular Biology and Genetics, Aarhus University, DK-8000 Aarhus, Denmark, the Interdisciplinary Nanoscience Center (iNANO), DK-8000 Aarhus, Denmark
| | - Line R Thomsen
- From the Department of Molecular Biology and Genetics, Aarhus University, DK-8000 Aarhus, Denmark, the Interdisciplinary Nanoscience Center (iNANO), DK-8000 Aarhus, Denmark
| | - Kristian W Sanggaard
- From the Department of Molecular Biology and Genetics, Aarhus University, DK-8000 Aarhus, Denmark, the Interdisciplinary Nanoscience Center (iNANO), DK-8000 Aarhus, Denmark
| | - Tania A Nielsen
- the Interdisciplinary Nanoscience Center (iNANO), DK-8000 Aarhus, Denmark
| | - Ida B Thøgersen
- From the Department of Molecular Biology and Genetics, Aarhus University, DK-8000 Aarhus, Denmark
| | - Marie V Lukassen
- From the Department of Molecular Biology and Genetics, Aarhus University, DK-8000 Aarhus, Denmark
| | - Litten Rossen
- From the Department of Molecular Biology and Genetics, Aarhus University, DK-8000 Aarhus, Denmark
| | - Irene Garcia-Ferrer
- the Proteolysis Laboratory, Department of Structural Biology ("María de Maeztu" Unit of Excellence), Molecular Biology Institute of Barcelona, Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas, Barcelona Science Park, c/Baldiri Reixac 15-21, 08028 Barcelona, Catalonia, Spain, and
| | - Tibisay Guevara
- the Proteolysis Laboratory, Department of Structural Biology ("María de Maeztu" Unit of Excellence), Molecular Biology Institute of Barcelona, Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas, Barcelona Science Park, c/Baldiri Reixac 15-21, 08028 Barcelona, Catalonia, Spain, and
| | - Carsten Scavenius
- From the Department of Molecular Biology and Genetics, Aarhus University, DK-8000 Aarhus, Denmark
| | | | - F Xavier Gomis-Rüth
- the Proteolysis Laboratory, Department of Structural Biology ("María de Maeztu" Unit of Excellence), Molecular Biology Institute of Barcelona, Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas, Barcelona Science Park, c/Baldiri Reixac 15-21, 08028 Barcelona, Catalonia, Spain, and
| | - Jan J Enghild
- From the Department of Molecular Biology and Genetics, Aarhus University, DK-8000 Aarhus, Denmark, the Interdisciplinary Nanoscience Center (iNANO), DK-8000 Aarhus, Denmark,
| |
Collapse
|
82
|
LoPresti EF, Pearse IS, Charles GK. The siren song of a sticky plant: Columbines provision mutualist arthropods by attracting and killing passerby insects. Ecology 2015; 96:2862-9. [DOI: 10.1890/15-0342.1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
|
83
|
Guo Q, Dai E, Han X, Xie S, Chao E, Chen Z. Fast nastic motion of plants and bioinspired structures. J R Soc Interface 2015; 12:0598. [PMID: 26354828 PMCID: PMC4614472 DOI: 10.1098/rsif.2015.0598] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/05/2015] [Accepted: 08/19/2015] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Abstract
The capability to sense and respond to external mechanical stimuli at various timescales is essential to many physiological aspects in plants, including self-protection, intake of nutrients and reproduction. Remarkably, some plants have evolved the ability to react to mechanical stimuli within a few seconds despite a lack of muscles and nerves. The fast movements of plants in response to mechanical stimuli have long captured the curiosity of scientists and engineers, but the mechanisms behind these rapid thigmonastic movements are still not understood completely. In this article, we provide an overview of such thigmonastic movements in several representative plants, including Dionaea, Utricularia, Aldrovanda, Drosera and Mimosa. In addition, we review a series of studies that present biomimetic structures inspired by fast-moving plants. We hope that this article will shed light on the current status of research on the fast movements of plants and bioinspired structures and also promote interdisciplinary studies on both the fundamental mechanisms of plants' fast movements and biomimetic structures for engineering applications, such as artificial muscles, multi-stable structures and bioinspired robots.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Q Guo
- College of Materials Science and Engineering, Fujian University of Technology, Fuzhou 350108, China Fujian Provincial Key Laboratory of Advanced Materials Processing and Application, Fuzhou 350108, China
| | - E Dai
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Washington University, St Louis, MO 63130, USA
| | - X Han
- Thayer School of Engineering, Dartmouth College, Hanover, NH 03755, USA
| | - S Xie
- Department of Energy, Environmental, and Chemical Engineering, Washington University, St Louis, MO 63130, USA
| | - E Chao
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Washington University, St Louis, MO 63130, USA
| | - Z Chen
- Thayer School of Engineering, Dartmouth College, Hanover, NH 03755, USA
| |
Collapse
|
84
|
Bittleston LS, Baker CCM, Strominger LB, Pringle A, Pierce NE. Metabarcoding as a tool for investigating arthropod diversity inNepenthespitcher plants. AUSTRAL ECOL 2015. [DOI: 10.1111/aec.12271] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Leonora S. Bittleston
- Department of Organismic and Evolutionary Biology and Museum of Comparative Zoology; Harvard University; 26 Oxford Street Cambridge Massachusetts 02138 USA
| | - Christopher C. M. Baker
- Department of Organismic and Evolutionary Biology and Museum of Comparative Zoology; Harvard University; 26 Oxford Street Cambridge Massachusetts 02138 USA
| | - Lila B. Strominger
- Department of Organismic and Evolutionary Biology and Museum of Comparative Zoology; Harvard University; 26 Oxford Street Cambridge Massachusetts 02138 USA
| | - Anne Pringle
- Harvard Forest; Harvard University; Petersham Massachusetts USA
| | - Naomi E. Pierce
- Department of Organismic and Evolutionary Biology and Museum of Comparative Zoology; Harvard University; 26 Oxford Street Cambridge Massachusetts 02138 USA
| |
Collapse
|
85
|
Cao HX, Schmutzer T, Scholz U, Pecinka A, Schubert I, Vu GTH. Metatranscriptome analysis reveals host-microbiome interactions in traps of carnivorous Genlisea species. Front Microbiol 2015; 6:526. [PMID: 26236284 PMCID: PMC4500957 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2015.00526] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/15/2015] [Accepted: 05/12/2015] [Indexed: 01/21/2023] Open
Abstract
In the carnivorous plant genus Genlisea a unique lobster pot trapping mechanism supplements nutrition in nutrient-poor habitats. A wide spectrum of microbes frequently occurs in Genlisea's leaf-derived traps without clear relevance for Genlisea carnivory. We sequenced the metatranscriptomes of subterrestrial traps vs. the aerial chlorophyll-containing leaves of G. nigrocaulis and of G. hispidula. Ribosomal RNA assignment revealed soil-borne microbial diversity in Genlisea traps, with 92 genera of 19 phyla present in more than one sample. Microbes from 16 of these phyla including proteobacteria, green algae, amoebozoa, fungi, ciliates and metazoans, contributed additionally short-lived mRNA to the metatranscriptome. Furthermore, transcripts of 438 members of hydrolases (e.g., proteases, phosphatases, lipases), mainly resembling those of metazoans, ciliates and green algae, were found. Compared to aerial leaves, Genlisea traps displayed a transcriptional up-regulation of endogenous NADH oxidases generating reactive oxygen species as well as of acid phosphatases for prey digestion. A leaf-vs.-trap transcriptome comparison reflects that carnivory provides inorganic P- and different forms of N-compounds (ammonium, nitrate, amino acid, oligopeptides) and implies the need to protect trap cells against oxidative stress. The analysis elucidates a complex food web inside the Genlisea traps, and suggests ecological relationships between this plant genus and its entrapped microbiome.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Hieu X. Cao
- Department of Breeding Research, Leibniz Institute of Plant Genetics and Crop Plant Research (IPK)Gatersleben, Germany
| | - Thomas Schmutzer
- Department of Breeding Research, Leibniz Institute of Plant Genetics and Crop Plant Research (IPK)Gatersleben, Germany
| | - Uwe Scholz
- Department of Breeding Research, Leibniz Institute of Plant Genetics and Crop Plant Research (IPK)Gatersleben, Germany
| | - Ales Pecinka
- Department of Plant Breeding and Genetics, Max Planck Institute for Plant Breeding Research (MPIPZ)Köln, Germany
| | - Ingo Schubert
- Department of Breeding Research, Leibniz Institute of Plant Genetics and Crop Plant Research (IPK)Gatersleben, Germany
- Faculty of Science and Central European Institute of Technology, Masaryk UniversityBrno, Czech Republic
| | - Giang T. H. Vu
- Department of Breeding Research, Leibniz Institute of Plant Genetics and Crop Plant Research (IPK)Gatersleben, Germany
| |
Collapse
|
86
|
Bacterial diversity and composition in the fluid of pitcher plants of the genus Nepenthes. Syst Appl Microbiol 2015; 38:330-9. [DOI: 10.1016/j.syapm.2015.05.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/17/2014] [Revised: 05/18/2015] [Accepted: 05/26/2015] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
|
87
|
Pavlovič A, Saganová M. A novel insight into the cost-benefit model for the evolution of botanical carnivory. ANNALS OF BOTANY 2015; 115:1075-92. [PMID: 25948113 PMCID: PMC4648460 DOI: 10.1093/aob/mcv050] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/02/2015] [Revised: 03/02/2015] [Accepted: 03/20/2015] [Indexed: 05/18/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND The cost-benefit model for the evolution of botanical carnivory provides a conceptual framework for interpreting a wide range of comparative and experimental studies on carnivorous plants. This model assumes that the modified leaves called traps represent a significant cost for the plant, and this cost is outweighed by the benefits from increased nutrient uptake from prey, in terms of enhancing the rate of photosynthesis per unit leaf mass or area (AN) in the microsites inhabited by carnivorous plants. SCOPE This review summarizes results from the classical interpretation of the cost-benefit model for evolution of botanical carnivory and highlights the costs and benefits of active trapping mechanisms, including water pumping, electrical signalling and accumulation of jasmonates. Novel alternative sequestration strategies (utilization of leaf litter and faeces) in carnivorous plants are also discussed in the context of the cost-benefit model. CONCLUSIONS Traps of carnivorous plants have lower AN than leaves, and the leaves have higher AN after feeding. Prey digestion, water pumping and electrical signalling represent a significant carbon cost (as an increased rate of respiration, RD) for carnivorous plants. On the other hand, jasmonate accumulation during the digestive period and reprogramming of gene expression from growth and photosynthesis to prey digestion optimizes enzyme production in comparison with constitutive secretion. This inducibility may have evolved as a cost-saving strategy beneficial for carnivorous plants. The similarities between plant defence mechanisms and botanical carnivory are highlighted.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Andrej Pavlovič
- Department of Biophysics, Centre of the Region Haná for Biotechnological and Agricultural Research, Palacký University, Šlechtitelů 11, CZ-783 71, Olomouc, Czech Republic and Department of Plant Physiology, Faculty of Natural Sciences, Comenius University in Bratislava, Mlynská dolina B2, SK-842 15, Bratislava, Slovakia Department of Biophysics, Centre of the Region Haná for Biotechnological and Agricultural Research, Palacký University, Šlechtitelů 11, CZ-783 71, Olomouc, Czech Republic and Department of Plant Physiology, Faculty of Natural Sciences, Comenius University in Bratislava, Mlynská dolina B2, SK-842 15, Bratislava, Slovakia
| | - Michaela Saganová
- Department of Biophysics, Centre of the Region Haná for Biotechnological and Agricultural Research, Palacký University, Šlechtitelů 11, CZ-783 71, Olomouc, Czech Republic and Department of Plant Physiology, Faculty of Natural Sciences, Comenius University in Bratislava, Mlynská dolina B2, SK-842 15, Bratislava, Slovakia
| |
Collapse
|
88
|
Stephens JD, Godwin RL, Folkerts DR. Distinctions in Pitcher Morphology and Prey Capture of the Okefenokee Variety within the Carnivorous Plant SpeciesSarracenia minor. SOUTHEAST NAT 2015. [DOI: 10.1656/058.014.0208] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
|
89
|
Bertol N, Paniw M, Ojeda F. Effective prey attraction in the rare Drosophyllum lusitanicum, a flypaper-trap carnivorous plant. AMERICAN JOURNAL OF BOTANY 2015; 102:689-94. [PMID: 26022483 DOI: 10.3732/ajb.1400544] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/15/2014] [Accepted: 04/10/2015] [Indexed: 05/22/2023]
Abstract
PREMISE OF THE STUDY Carnivorous plants have unusually modified leaves to trap insects as an adaptation to low-nutrient environments. Disparate mechanisms have been suggested as luring traits to attract prey insects into their deadly leaves, ranging from very elaborate to none at all. Drosophyllum lusitanicum is a rare carnivorous plant with a common flypaper-trap mechanism. Here we tested whether Drosophyllum plants lure prey insects into their leaves or they act just as passive traps. METHODS We compared prey capture between live, potted plants and Drosophyllum-shaped artificial mimics coated with odorless glue. Since this species is insect-pollinated, we also explored the possible existence of a pollinator-prey conflict by quantifying the similarity between the pollination and prey guilds in a natural population. All experiments were done in southern Spain. KEY RESULTS The sticky leaves of Drosophyllum captured significantly more prey than mimics, particularly small dipterans. Prey attraction, likely exerted by scent or visual cues, seems to be unrelated to pollinator attraction by flowers, as inferred from the low similarity between pollinator and prey insect faunas found in this species. CONCLUSIONS Our results illustrate the effectiveness of this carnivorous species at attracting insects to their flypaper-trap leaves.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Nils Bertol
- Departamento de Biología-ceiA3, Universidad de Cádiz, Campus Río San Pedro, E-11510 Puerto Real, Cádiz, Spain
| | - Maria Paniw
- Departamento de Biología-ceiA3, Universidad de Cádiz, Campus Río San Pedro, E-11510 Puerto Real, Cádiz, Spain
| | - Fernando Ojeda
- Departamento de Biología-ceiA3, Universidad de Cádiz, Campus Río San Pedro, E-11510 Puerto Real, Cádiz, Spain
| |
Collapse
|
90
|
Jensen MK, Vogt JK, Bressendorff S, Seguin-Orlando A, Petersen M, Sicheritz-Pontén T, Mundy J. Transcriptome and genome size analysis of the Venus flytrap. PLoS One 2015; 10:e0123887. [PMID: 25886597 PMCID: PMC4401711 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0123887] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/21/2014] [Accepted: 02/23/2015] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
The insectivorous Venus flytrap (Dionaea muscipula) is renowned from Darwin’s studies of plant carnivory and the origins of species. To provide tools to analyze the evolution and functional genomics of D. muscipula, we sequenced a normalized cDNA library synthesized from mRNA isolated from D. muscipula flowers and traps. Using the Oases transcriptome assembler 79,165,657 quality trimmed reads were assembled into 80,806 cDNA contigs, with an average length of 679 bp and an N50 length of 1,051 bp. A total of 17,047 unique proteins were identified, and assigned to Gene Ontology (GO) and classified into functional categories. A total of 15,547 full-length cDNA sequences were identified, from which open reading frames were detected in 10,941. Comparative GO analyses revealed that D. muscipula is highly represented in molecular functions related to catalytic, antioxidant, and electron carrier activities. Also, using a single copy sequence PCR-based method, we estimated that the genome size of D. muscipula is approx. 3 Gb. Our genome size estimate and transcriptome analyses will contribute to future research on this fascinating, monotypic species and its heterotrophic adaptations.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
| | - Josef Korbinian Vogt
- Center for Biological Sequence Analysis, Department of Systems Biology, Technical University of Denmark, Lyngby, Denmark
| | | | | | - Morten Petersen
- Department of Biology, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Thomas Sicheritz-Pontén
- Center for Biological Sequence Analysis, Department of Systems Biology, Technical University of Denmark, Lyngby, Denmark
- * E-mail: (TS); (JM)
| | - John Mundy
- Department of Biology, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
- * E-mail: (TS); (JM)
| |
Collapse
|
91
|
Resolving phylogenetic relationships of the recently radiated carnivorous plant genus Sarracenia using target enrichment. Mol Phylogenet Evol 2015; 85:76-87. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ympev.2015.01.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 67] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/05/2014] [Revised: 01/23/2015] [Accepted: 01/27/2015] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
|
92
|
Jürgens A, Witt T, Sciligo A, El‐Sayed AM. The effect of trap colour and trap‐flower distance on prey and pollinator capture in carnivorous
Drosera
species. Funct Ecol 2015. [DOI: 10.1111/1365-2435.12408] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Andreas Jürgens
- The New Zealand Institute for Plant & Food Research Limited PB 4704 Christchurch New Zealand
- Landcare Research Canterbury Research Centre PO Box 69 Lincoln 7640 New Zealand
- School of Life Sciences University of KwaZulu‐Natal P. Bag X01 Scottsville Pietermaritzburg 3209 South Africa
| | - Taina Witt
- The New Zealand Institute for Plant & Food Research Limited PB 4704 Christchurch New Zealand
- Landcare Research Canterbury Research Centre PO Box 69 Lincoln 7640 New Zealand
| | - Amber Sciligo
- Bio‐Protection Research Centre Lincoln University PO Box 84Canterbury New Zealand
| | - Ashraf M. El‐Sayed
- The New Zealand Institute for Plant & Food Research Limited PB 4704 Christchurch New Zealand
| |
Collapse
|
93
|
Mescher MC, De Moraes CM. Role of plant sensory perception in plant-animal interactions. JOURNAL OF EXPERIMENTAL BOTANY 2015; 66:425-33. [PMID: 25371503 DOI: 10.1093/jxb/eru414] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/24/2023]
Abstract
The sedentary lifestyle of plants can give the false impression that they are passive participants in interactions with other organisms and the broader environment. In fact, plants have evolved sophisticated perceptual abilities that allow them to monitor and respond to a wide range of changing biotic and abiotic conditions. In this paper, we discuss recent research exploring the diverse ways in which plant sensory abilities mediate interactions between plants and animals, especially insects. Such interactions include the detection and capture of animal prey by carnivorous plants, active plant responses to pollinator visitation, the perception of various cues associated with the immediate presence and feeding of herbivores, and plant responses to (olfactory) cues indicating the threat of future herbivory. We are only beginning to understand the full range of sensory cues that mediate such interactions and to elucidate the mechanisms by which plants perceive, interpret, and respond to them. Nevertheless, it is clear that plants continually gather information about their environments via a range of sensory modalities and actively respond in ways that profoundly influence their interactions with other organisms.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Mark C Mescher
- Department of Environmental Systems Science, ETH Zürich, CH-8092 Zürich, Switzerland
| | - Consuelo M De Moraes
- Department of Environmental Systems Science, ETH Zürich, CH-8092 Zürich, Switzerland
| |
Collapse
|
94
|
Carretero-Paulet L, Chang TH, Librado P, Ibarra-Laclette E, Herrera-Estrella L, Rozas J, Albert VA. Genome-wide analysis of adaptive molecular evolution in the carnivorous plant Utricularia gibba. Genome Biol Evol 2015; 7:444-56. [PMID: 25577200 PMCID: PMC4350169 DOI: 10.1093/gbe/evu288] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 12/19/2014] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
The genome of the bladderwort Utricularia gibba provides an unparalleled opportunity to uncover the adaptive landscape of an aquatic carnivorous plant with unique phenotypic features such as absence of roots, development of water-filled suction bladders, and a highly ramified branching pattern. Despite its tiny size, the U. gibba genome accommodates approximately as many genes as other plant genomes. To examine the relationship between the compactness of its genome and gene turnover, we compared the U. gibba genome with that of four other eudicot species, defining a total of 17,324 gene families (orthogroups). These families were further classified as either 1) lineage-specific expanded/contracted or 2) stable in size. The U. gibba-expanded families are generically related to three main phenotypic features: 1) trap physiology, 2) key plant morphogenetic/developmental pathways, and 3) response to environmental stimuli, including adaptations to life in aquatic environments. Further scans for signatures of protein functional specialization permitted identification of seven candidate genes with amino acid changes putatively fixed by positive Darwinian selection in the U. gibba lineage. The Arabidopsis orthologs of these genes (AXR, UMAMIT41, IGS, TAR2, SOL1, DEG9, and DEG10) are involved in diverse plant biological functions potentially relevant for U. gibba phenotypic diversification, including 1) auxin metabolism and signal transduction, 2) flowering induction and floral meristem transition, 3) root development, and 4) peptidases. Taken together, our results suggest numerous candidate genes and gene families as interesting targets for further experimental confirmation of their functional and adaptive roles in the U. gibba's unique lifestyle and highly specialized body plan.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Lorenzo Carretero-Paulet
- Department of Biological Sciences, University at Buffalo Department of Biological Sciences, University at Buffalo
| | - Tien-Hao Chang
- Department of Biological Sciences, University at Buffalo
| | - Pablo Librado
- Departament de Genètica and Institut de Recerca de la Biodiversitat (IRBio), Universitat de Barcelona, Spain
| | - Enrique Ibarra-Laclette
- Laboratorio Nacional de Genómica para la Biodiversidad-Langebio/Unidad de Genómica Avanzada UGA, Centro de Investigación y Estudios Avanzados del IPN, Irapuato, Guanajuato, México Present address: Red de Estudios Moleculares Avanzados, Instituto de Ecología A.C., Xalapa, Veracruz, México
| | - Luis Herrera-Estrella
- Laboratorio Nacional de Genómica para la Biodiversidad-Langebio/Unidad de Genómica Avanzada UGA, Centro de Investigación y Estudios Avanzados del IPN, Irapuato, Guanajuato, México
| | - Julio Rozas
- Departament de Genètica and Institut de Recerca de la Biodiversitat (IRBio), Universitat de Barcelona, Spain
| | | |
Collapse
|
95
|
|
96
|
Nishimura E, Jumyo S, Arai N, Kanna K, Kume M, Nishikawa JI, Tanase JI, Ohyama T. Structural and functional characteristics of S-like ribonucleases from carnivorous plants. PLANTA 2014; 240:147-59. [PMID: 24771022 DOI: 10.1007/s00425-014-2072-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/20/2014] [Accepted: 03/24/2014] [Indexed: 05/09/2023]
Abstract
Although the S-like ribonucleases (RNases) share sequence homology with the S-RNases involved in the self-incompatibility mechanism in plants, they are not associated with this mechanism. They usually function in stress responses in non-carnivorous plants and in carnivory in carnivorous plants. In this study, we clarified the structures of the S-like RNases of Aldrovanda vesiculosa, Nepenthes bicalcarata and Sarracenia leucophylla, and compared them with those of other plants. At ten positions, amino acid residues are conserved or almost conserved only for carnivorous plants (six in total). In contrast, two positions are specific to non-carnivorous plants. A phylogenetic analysis revealed that the S-like RNases of the carnivorous plants form a group beyond the phylogenetic relationships of the plants. We also prepared and characterized recombinant S-like RNases of Dionaea muscipula, Cephalotus follicularis, A. vesiculosa, N. bicalcarata and S. leucophylla, and RNS1 of Arabidopsis thaliana. The recombinant carnivorous plant enzymes showed optimum activities at about pH 4.0. Generally, poly(C) was digested less efficiently than poly(A), poly(I) and poly(U). The kinetic parameters of the recombinant D. muscipula enzyme (DM-I) and A. thaliana enzyme RNS1 were similar. The k cat/K m of recombinant RNS1 was the highest among the enzymes, followed closely by that of recombinant DM-I. On the other hand, the k cat/K m of the recombinant S. leucophylla enzyme was the lowest, and was ~1/30 of that for recombinant RNS1. The magnitudes of the k cat/K m values or k cat values for carnivorous plant S-like RNases seem to correlate negatively with the dependency on symbionts for prey digestion.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Emi Nishimura
- Major in Integrative Bioscience and Biomedical Engineering, Graduate School of Science and Engineering, Waseda University, 2-2 Wakamatsu-cho, Shinjuku-ku, Tokyo, 162-8480, Japan
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
97
|
Egan PA, van der Kooy F. Phytochemistry of the carnivorous sundew genus Drosera (Droseraceae) - future perspectives and ethnopharmacological relevance. Chem Biodivers 2014; 10:1774-90. [PMID: 24130022 DOI: 10.1002/cbdv.201200359] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/24/2012] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Abstract
Species of the carnivorous genus Drosera L. have long been a source of valuable natural products. The various phytochemicals characteristic of these species, particularly 1,4-naphthoquinones and flavonoids, have contributed to the diverse utilization of sundews in traditional medicine systems worldwide. A growing number of studies have sought to investigate the comparative phytochemistry of Drosera species for improved sources of pharmaceutically important compounds. The outcomes of these studies are here collated, with emergent trends discussed in detail. Important factors which affect production of secondary metabolites in plants are critically examined, such as environmental influences and in vitro culture, and recommendations subsequently presented based on this. Explicitly, the current review aims to i) present an updated, comprehensive listing of the phytochemical constituents of the genus (including quantitative data where available), ii) summarize important factors which may influence the production of phytopharmaceuticals in plants, and iii) recommend guidelines for future research based on the above, including improved standardization and quality control. We have also included a section discussing future perspectives of research on Drosera spp. based on three different research lines i) the potential to produce much needed lead compounds for treatment of tuberculosis, ii) the potential role of anthocyanins in nitrogen transport, and iii) research into 'Natural Deep Eutectic' solvents produced by Drosera spp. in the droplets or 'dew' employed to capture insect prey.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Paul A Egan
- Department of Botany, School of Natural Sciences, Trinity College Dublin, IE-Dublin 2; Trinity Centre for Biodiversity Research, Trinity College Dublin, IE-Dublin 2
| | | |
Collapse
|
98
|
Wang L, Zhou Q. Nepenthes pitchers: surface structure, physical property, anti-attachment function and potential application in mechanical controlling plague locust. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2014. [DOI: 10.1007/s11434-014-0383-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
|
99
|
Clivati D, Cordeiro GD, Płachno BJ, de Miranda VFO. Reproductive biology and pollination of Utricularia reniformis A.St.-Hil. (Lentibulariaceae). PLANT BIOLOGY (STUTTGART, GERMANY) 2014; 16:677-82. [PMID: 24834508 DOI: 10.1111/plb.12091] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/11/2023]
Abstract
Utricularia reniformis is an endemic Brazilian carnivorous plant, most common in high-altitude grasslands. Knowledge of the reproductive biology of U. reniformis is essential for planning conservation strategies, but it is currently poorly understood. Thus, we studied the floral morphology, floral biology, breeding system and pollination of this species. U. reniformis produces and stores nectar in the flower spur, a classic feature of bee-pollinated flowers, and we recorded Xylocopa sp. and Bombus sp. as pollinators. Moreover, although it is self-compatible it is an obligate animal-pollinated species, as the sensitive stigma avoids self-pollination. However, in natural conditions reproductive success is low due to the rarity of visits from pollinators. We suggest that the low reproductive success caused by a deficit of pollinators may affect gene flow, causing loss of genetic diversity in U. reniformis.
Collapse
|
100
|
Foot G, Rice SP, Millett J. Red trap colour of the carnivorous plant Drosera rotundifolia does not serve a prey attraction or camouflage function. Biol Lett 2014; 10:20131024. [PMID: 24740904 DOI: 10.1098/rsbl.2013.1024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
The traps of many carnivorous plants are red in colour. This has been widely hypothesized to serve a prey attraction function; colour has also been hypothesized to function as camouflage, preventing prey avoidance. We tested these two hypotheses in situ for the carnivorous plant Drosera rotundifolia. We conducted three separate studies: (i) prey attraction to artificial traps to isolate the influence of colour; (ii) prey attraction to artificial traps on artificial backgrounds to control the degree of contrast and (iii) observation of prey capture by D. rotundifolia to determine the effects of colour on prey capture. Prey were not attracted to green traps and were deterred from red traps. There was no evidence that camouflaged traps caught more prey. For D. rotundifolia, there was a relationship between trap colour and prey capture. However, trap colour may be confounded with other leaf traits. Thus, we conclude that for D. rotundifolia, red trap colour does not serve a prey attraction or camouflage function.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- G Foot
- School of Life Sciences, The University of Warwick, , Coventry CV4 7AL, UK
| | | | | |
Collapse
|