Diet quality of vegetarian diets compared with nonvegetarian diets: a systematic review

When conflicts get heated, so does the planet: coupled social-climate dynamics under inequality

Climate dynamics are inextricably linked to processes in social systems that are highly unequal. This suggests a need for coupled social-climate models that capture pervasive real-world asymmetries in the population distribution of the consequences of anthropogenic climate change and climate (in)action. Here, we use evolutionary game theory to develop a social-climate model with group structure to investigate how anthropogenic climate change and population heterogeneity coevolve. We find that greater homophily and resource inequality cause an increase in the global peak temperature anomaly by as much as 0.7°C. Also, climate change can structure human populations by driving opinion polarization. Finally, climate mitigation achieved by reducing the cost of mitigation measures paid by individuals tends to be contingent upon socio-economic conditions, whereas policies that achieve communication between different strata of society show climate mitigation benefits across a broad socio-economic regime. We conclude that advancing climate change mitigation efforts can benefit from a social-climate systems perspective.

Quality of Life of Brazilian Vegetarians Measured by the WHOQOL-BREF: Influence of Type of Diet, Motivation and Sociodemographic Data

This study aimed to evaluate the general quality of life (QoL) of Brazilian vegetarians. A cross-sectional study was conducted with Brazilian vegetarian adults (18 years old and above). Individuals were recruited to participate in a nationwide online survey that comprised the WHOQOL-BREF as well as sociodemographic and characterization questions related to vegetarianism. The WHOQOL-BREF is composed of 24 items which are divided into four domains (domain 1: physical health; domain 2: psychological well-being; domain 3: social relationships; and domain 4: environment), plus two general items which were analyzed separately, totaling 26 items. The answers from the questionnaire were converted into scores with a 0-100 scale range, with separate analyses for each domain. Results were compared among groups based on the different characteristics of the vegetarian population. A total of 4375 individuals completed the survey. General average score results were 74.67 (domain 1), 66.71 (domain 2), 63.66 (domain 3) and 65.76 (domain 4). Vegans showed better scores when compared to the other vegetarians, except in domain four, where the statistical difference was observed only for semi-vegetarians (lower score). Individuals adopting a vegetarian diet for longer (>1 year) showed better results for domains one and two, with no difference for the other domains. Having close people also adopting a vegetarian diet positively influenced the results for all domains. On the other hand, it was not possible to distinguish any clear influence of the motivation for adopting a vegetarian diet on the scores' results. Adopting a vegetarian diet does not have detrimental effects on one's QoL. In fact, the more plant-based the diet, and the longer it was adopted, the better the results were.

Vegetarian Diet: An Overview through the Perspective of Quality of Life Domains

Vegetarianism has gained more visibility in recent years. Despite the well-described effects of a vegetarian diet on health, its influence on the quality of life of the individuals who follow it still needs to be properly investigated. Quality of life relates to a subjective perception of well-being and functionality, and encompasses four main life domains: physical, psychological, social, and environmental. The adoption of a vegetarian diet, despite being a dietary pattern, could potentially influence and be influenced by all of these domains, either positively or negatively. This review aims to present an overview of the background, conceptualization, features, and potential effects of vegetarianism in all quality of life domains. The choice of adopting a vegetarian diet could have positive outcomes, such as better physical health, positive feelings related to the adoption of a morally correct attitude, an increased sense of belonging (to a vegetarian community), and lower environmental impact. Other factors, however, could have a negative impact on the quality of life of those choosing to abstain from meats or other animal products, especially when they go beyond one's control. These include the environment, the social/cultural group in which a person is inserted, gender-based differences, economic aspects, and a limited access to a wide variety of plant-based foods. It is important to understand all the effects of adopting a vegetarian diet-beyond its nutritional aspects. Not only do studies in this area provide more consistent data, but they may also contribute to mitigating all factors that might prevent individuals from adopting a vegetarian diet, or that may have a negative impact on the quality of life of those who already follow it.

Dietary Quality in Vegetarian and Omnivorous Female Students in Germany: A Retrospective Study

Vegetarian diets have gained in popularity, especially among highly educated women, and are considered beneficial to health. Comparative studies assessing the diet of vegetarians against omnivores are rather limited and often provide ambivalent results. Therefore, this study examined the nutrient intake and nutritional quality of vegetarian and omnivorous diets in a group of 61 female students in Germany. Habitual dietary intake was evaluated using a validated graphical online food frequency questionnaire (FFQ). Differences in nutrient intakes were analyzed by Mann-Whitney-U-Tests. Odds Ratios (OR) were calculated for vegetarians exceeding dietary reference values (DRV) compared to omnivores. The overall nutritional quality was assessed using the Healthy-Eating-Index-2015 (HEI-2015). In omnivores, intakes of total energy from saturated fatty acids (SFA), monounsaturated fatty acids (MUFA), long-chain omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (LC-n3-PUFA), cholesterol, sucrose, lactose, retinol, and cobalamin were significantly higher than in vegetarians. Significantly lower intakes were observed for fiber, magnesium, and beta-carotene. Significant OR were detected for total fat (OR = 0.29), SFA (OR = 0.04), beta-carotene (OR = 4.55), and cobalamin (OR = 0.32). HEI-2015 scores were higher for vegetarians than for omnivores (79 points versus 74 points) and significant differences were recorded for the HEI-2015 components dairy, seafood & plant proteins, fatty acids, added sugars, and saturated fatty acids.

Prevalence and nutrient composition of menu offerings targeted to customers with dietary restrictions at US fast casual and full-service restaurants

OBJECTIVE

To examine the prevalence and nutrient composition of menu offerings targeted to customers with dietary restrictions at US fast casual and full-service chain restaurants.

DESIGN

We used 2018 data from MenuStat, a database of nutrient information for menu items at large US chain restaurants. Five alternative diets were examined: gluten-free, low-calorie, low-carbohydrate, low-fat and vegetarian. Diet offerings were identified by searching MenuStat item descriptions and reviewing online menus. For each diet, we reported counts and proportions. We used bootstrapped multilevel models to examine differences in predicted mean kilojoules, saturated fat, Na and sugars between diet and non-diet menu items.

SETTING

Forty-five US fast casual and full-service chain restaurants in 2018 (including 6419 items in initial analytic sample across small plates, salads and main dishes).

PARTICIPANTS

None.

RESULTS

The most prevalent diets were gluten-free (n 631, 9·8 % of menu items), low-calorie (n 306, 4·8 %) and vegetarian (n 230, 3·6 %). Compared with non-diet counterparts, low-calorie main dishes had significantly lower levels of all nutrients examined and vegetarian main dishes had significantly lower levels of all nutrients except saturated fat. Gluten-free small plates had significantly fewer kilojoules, grams of saturated fat and milligrams of Na compared with non-diet small plates.

CONCLUSIONS

A small proportion of fast casual and full-service restaurant menus are targeted towards customers with dietary restrictions. Compared with non-diet items, those classified as gluten-free, low-calorie or vegetarian generally have healthier nutrient profiles, but overall nutrient values are still too high for most menu items, regardless of dietary label.

Limitations with the Digestible Indispensable Amino Acid Score (DIAAS) with Special Attention to Plant-Based Diets: a Review

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

This review describes several limitations of the Digestible Indispensable Amino Acid Score (DIAAS) with a focus on its application to plant-based dietary patterns.

RECENT FINDINGS

Evaluating protein quality in terms of digestibility is paramount to support and optimize the health and well-being of human populations in situations where food insecurity and protein energy malnutrition are widespread. The Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) of the United Nations has endorsed the DIAAS to replace the previously recommended Protein Digestibility Corrected Amino Acid Score (PDCAAS) for protein quality assessment. While multiple strengths characterize the DIAAS, substantial limitations remain, many of which are accentuated in the context of a plant-based dietary pattern. Some of these limitations include a failure to translate differences in nitrogen-to-protein conversion factors between plant- and animal-based foods, limited representation of commonly consumed plant-based foods within the scoring framework, inadequate recognition of the increased digestibility of commonly consumed heat-treated and processed plant-based foods, its formulation centered on fast-growing animal models rather than humans, and a focus on individual isolated foods vs the food matrix. The DIAAS is also increasingly being used out of context where its application could produce erroneous results such as exercise settings. When investigating protein quality, particularly in a plant-based dietary context, the DIAAS should ideally be avoided.

Weak Evidence Suggests Vegetarian Diets May Be Associated With an Increased Risk of Dental Erosion

ARTICLE TITLE AND BIBLIOGRAPHIC INFORMATION

Vegetarian diet and its possible influence on dental health: A systematic literature review. Community Dent Oral Epidemiol. Smits KPJ, Listl S, Jevdjevic M. 2020; 48(1):7-13.

SOURCE OF FUNDING

No financial support.

TYPE OF STUDY/DESIGN

Systematic review with meta-analysis.

How to protect both health and food system sustainability? A holistic 'global health'-based approach via the 3V rule proposal

OBJECTIVE

To define a generic diet to protect human health and food system sustainability based on three dimensions: animal:plant ratio, degree of food processing and food diversity.

DESIGN/SETTING

The percentages of maximum animal and ultra-processed energy content were evaluated from scientific papers (Web of Science database) and reports from international scientific institutions. Then, a weekly French standard diet, including these percentages and food diversity (≥42 different foods), was designed to calculate adequacy to nutritional needs.

RESULTS

Based on traditional and scientifically based healthy diets, and on foresight scenarios for sustainable diets at horizon 2050, a median daily animal energy content intake of 15 % was found to be protective towards both human health and environment. Based on epidemiological studies associating ultra-processed energy consumption with increased overweight/obesity risk, a precautionary threshold of approximately 15 % ultra-processed energy content was observed. The French diet allows addressing all nutritional needs and other nutritional indicators such as maximum salt and simple sugar consumption, α-linolenic acid:linoleic acid ratio and essential amino acids. This diet was named the '3V rule' for Végétal (plant), Vrai (real) and Varié (varied, if possible organic, local and seasonal). This generic diet can be adapted according to regional traditions and environmental characteristics. Excluding only one dimension of it would threaten both health and food system sustainability.

CONCLUSIONS

Tending towards a 3V-based diet, while respecting local constraints, should allow preserving human health, environment (greenhouse gas emissions, pollution, deforestation, etc.), small farmers, animal welfare and biodiversity, culinary traditions and socioeconomics (including an alleviation of public health cost).

Nutritional Quality of Vegetarian and Non-Vegetarian Dishes at School: Are Nutrient Profiling Systems Sufficiently Informative?

In France, school canteens must offer a vegetarian meal at least once per week. The objective was to evaluate the nutritional quality of school main dishes. A database of main dishes served in primary schools was first split into non-vegetarian (n = 669) and vegetarian (n = 315) categories. The latter has been divided into three sub-categories: vegetarian dishes containing cheese, vegetarian dishes containing eggs and/or dairy products but no cheese and vegetarian dishes without any eggs, cheese or other dairy products (vegan). Categories and sub-categories were compared based on nutrient adequacy ratios for "protective" nutrients (proteins, fibres, vitamins, minerals, essential fatty acids), the contents of nutrients to be limited (saturated fatty acids (SFA), sodium, free sugars) and on two nutrient profiling systems (SAIN,LIM and Nutri-Score). The vegetarian category and the non-vegetarian category displayed "adequate" levels (≥5% adequacy for 100 kcal) on average for almost all "protective" nutrients. The three sub-categories of vegetarian dishes displayed good SAIN,LIM and Nutri-Score profiles on average, although key nutrients were lacking (vitamin B12, vitamin D and DHA) or were present in insufficient amounts (vitamin B2 and calcium) in the vegan sub-category. The sub-category containing eggs and/or dairy products other than cheese was a good compromise, as it provided protective nutrients associated with eggs and fresh dairy products, while the sub-category containing cheese provided higher levels of SFA. Nutrient profile algorithms are insufficiently informative to assess the nutritional quality of school dishes.

Restrained Eating and Vegan, Vegetarian and Omnivore Dietary Intakes

There are a significant number of studies on cognitive restraint among individuals with varying dietary patterns. Although most research has found that vegetarians report higher levels of cognitive restraint compared to non-vegetarians, many studies have contributed inconsistent results. The aim of the current study, therefore, was to assess any differences between groups with varying dietary patterns on cognitive restraint and other disordered eating pattern. The second objective was to examine determinants of cognitive restraint in individuals adhering to a vegan diet, a vegetarian diet and an omnivore diet. Two-hundred and fifty-four participants with varying dietary patterns completed the Three-Factor Eating Questionnaire, the Perseverative Thinking Questionnaire and the Eating Habits Questionnaire. Our results indicated that both vegetarian and vegan groups showed a significantly lower cognitive restraint, lower emotional eating and lower uncontrolled eating than those who followed an omnivorous diet. In addition, these both groups following a plant-based diet have shown more cognitions, behaviours and feelings related to an extreme focus on healthy eating (orthorexia nervosa) than group following an omnivorous diet. There were no significant differences between the groups in perseverative thinking. Core characteristics of repetitive negative thinking was a significant predictor of cognitive restraint in vegans. Feeling positively about healthy eating predicted cognitive restraint among vegetarians. Problems associated with healthy eating and feeling positively about healthy eating predicted cognitive restraint among individuals following an omnivorous diet. Knowledge of predictors of cognitive restraint may serve as a psychological intervention goal or psychoeducation goal among individuals with varying dietary patterns.

Low Intakes of Iodine and Selenium Amongst Vegan and Vegetarian Women Highlight a Potential Nutritional Vulnerability

Vegan and vegetarian diets are becoming increasingly popular in the UK. Due to the avoidance of animal products there can be significant differences in nutrient intakes between meat-eaters and vegetarians, and especially vegans. Importantly, research has identified that both vegans and vegetarians may be vulnerable to low intakes of some micronutrients. The aim of this study was to investigate micronutrient intake in omnivorous, vegetarian and vegan women. In total, 62 women (26 omnivores, 16 vegetarians, 20 vegans, mean age 31.6 ± 12.4 y, mean BMI 24.1 ± 1.6 kg/m²) completed 4-day diet diaries. Diet intake data was analyzed using Nutritics and nutrient intake levels were compared with national dietary recommendations (RNIs). Statistical analysis was performed using SPSS, with differences between the groups identified using ANOVA with post-hoc Bonferroni correction. All groups recorded intakes of vitamin D, iron, iodine and selenium below RNI. The vegan group had significantly lower intakes of vitamin D, vitamin B12, calcium, selenium and iodine than vegetarians and omnivores (p < 0.05), with particularly low intakes of selenium (24.7 ± 11.9 μg) and iodine (24.4 ± 12.7 μg). These results suggest that adult women in the UK are at risk of low intakes of several vitamins and minerals, with the exclusion of animal products conferring an additional vulnerability, particularly with respect to selenium and iodine, both of which play important roles in thyroid hormone production. This study highlights iodine and selenium intakes to be a concern amongst women who follow vegan diets, and the necessity of further research to identify if low intake translates to biochemical markers and functional status.

Brazilian Vegetarian Population-Influence of Type of Diet, Motivation and Sociodemographic Variables on Quality of Life Measured by Specific Tool (VEGQOL)

The adoption of a vegetarian diet has been associated with positive health outcomes. However, few studies evaluate the effect of this eating pattern on quality of life. Moreover, no specific instrument for the vegetarian population to measure the quality of life is available worldwide. Therefore, this study aimed to elaborate and validate a specific questionnaire to measure the quality of life in vegetarians. The Specific Vegetarian Quality of Life Questionnaire (VEGQOL) was constructed based on other instruments and studies related to vegetarianism. The content and semantic validation were performed by a group of experts, followed by a pilot study to evaluate the questionnaire acceptability and reproducibility. Discriminant validation was tested using the WHOQOL as the gold standard measure (Pearson correlation ranging from 0.302 of the domain 3 to 0.392 of the domain 2). Afterward, a nationwide survey was conducted using VEGQOL. Content and semantic validation selected 19 of the initial 30 items. VEGQOL presented good reproducibility (Cohen's Kappa coefficient ranging from 0.361 to 0.730 and intraclass correlation coefficient of 0.820) and internal consistency (0.708), both adequate to evaluate the quality of life in vegetarians. The sample size (n = 5014 individuals, error of 3% at a level of significance of 5%) and distribution was representative of the Brazilian vegetarian population. In general, the quality of life of Brazilian vegetarians was considered satisfactory (VEGQOL cut off points 70-80). Among different types of vegetarians, the vegans showed better results with a VEGQOL mean value of 79.2 ± 10.7. Older individuals, the ones who adopted the diet for a longer time (VEGQOL mean value of 75.8 ± 12.7) and the ones who had other vegetarians in their social network (VEGQOL mean value of 74.6 ± 12.2) also had a better quality of life score. Individuals who adopted it for ethical or health reasons had a higher quality of life score. The questionnaire produced in this study is a useful tool for future research in this area. Results were better for vegans and for the ones who adopt the diet for ethical or health reasons.

Brazilian vegetarians diet quality markers and comparison with the general population: A nationwide cross-sectional study

BACKGROUND

Vegetarianism is an increasingly common practice worldwide. Despite good evidence from other countries regarding vegetarians' diet quality, data from the Brazilian population is still scarce.

OBJECTIVE

To characterize the vegetarian Brazilian population and evaluate their diet quality compared to the general Brazilian population.

METHODS

We performed a nationwide cross-sectional study using an online self-administered questionnaire, previously validated for the Brazilian population, to evaluate diet quality markers of vegetarians. The invitation to participate in the survey was spread nationwide, aimed at vegetarian communities. Individuals who considered themselves vegetarians and were at least 18 years old were eligible to participate. The results on regular intake and intake adequacy were compared among vegetarians and between genders using the Pearson's chi-square test. The body mass index (BMI) were analyzed by the Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) followed by Tukey post-hoc test. The Kolmogorov-Smirnov test verified normality. All analyses considered bilateral hypotheses and a significance level of 5% (p <0.05).

RESULTS

Brazilian vegetarians presented better diet quality markers, such as higher regular weekly intake and adequate daily intake of fruits and vegetables, and lower regular intake of soft drinks when compared to the general Brazilian population. Vegetarians also presented a proportionally higher consumption of natural foods and lower consumption of processed foods. Among vegetarians, a higher proportion of vegans showed positive results regarding diet markers analysis, when compared to vegetarians, pesco-vegetarians, and semi-vegetarians.

CONCLUSIONS

Vegetarians showed better results of diet adequacy when compared to the general population in Brazil, and vegans fared better when compared with other vegetarians. Despite the good results found, a large proportion of the participants still did not achieve the fruits and vegetables daily intake, according to the World Health Organization recommendations.

Diet, nutrients and the microbiome

Although there is associative evidence linking fecal microbiome profile to health and disease, many studies have not considered the confounding effects of dietary intake. Consuming food provides fermentable substrate which sustains the microbial ecosystem that resides with most abundance in the colon. Western, Mediterranean and vegetarian dietary patterns have a role in modulating the gut microbiota, as do trending restrictive diets such the paleolithic and ketogenic. Altering the amount or ratio of carbohydrate, protein and fat, particularly at the extremes of intake, impacts the microbiome. Diets high in fermentable carbohydrates support the relative abundance of Bifidobacterium, Prevotella, Ruminococcus, Dorea and Roseburia, among others, capable of degrading polysaccharides, oligosaccharides and sugars. Conversely, very high fat diets increase bile-resistant organisms such as Bilophila and Bacteroides. Food form, whole foods vs. ultra-processed, alters the provision of macronutrient substrate to the colon due to differing digestibility, and thereby may impact the microbiota and its metabolic activity. In addition, phytochemicals in plant-based foods have specific and possibly prebiotic effects on the microbiome. Further, food ingredients such as certain low-calorie sweeteners enhance Bifidobacterium spp. The weight of evidence to date suggests a high level of interindividual variability in the human microbiome vs. clearly defined, dietary-induced profiles. Healthful dietary patterns, emphasizing plant foods high in microbial-available carbohydrate, support favorable microbiome profiles active in saccharolytic fermentation. Future research into diet and microbiome should consider the balance of gut microbial-generated metabolites, an important link between microbiome profile and human health.

The relationship between animal and plant protein intake and overall diet quality in young adults

BACKGROUND & AIMS

Overall diet quality is a key predictor of disease risk and mortality. Diets higher in animal protein have been associated with increased disease risk and all-cause mortality. However, the source of protein consumed will inevitably influence the intake of other macronutrients and micronutrients which can also play a role in the onset of disease. The aim of the present study was to assess the relationship between animal and plant protein intake and overall diet quality in young adult females and males.

METHODS

Dietary intake was assessed via 3-day food log (n = 150; 53% females) and data were analyzed using the Nutrition Data Systems for Research (NDSR).

RESULTS

Females and males consuming <70% of their protein from animal sources had higher scores on a modified Healthy Eating Index (HEI) compared those consuming >70% of their protein from animal sources. Males scored lower than females on the modified HEI regardless of protein source intake variation.

CONCLUSIONS

Our findings suggest that overall diet quality differs with varying protein source consumption and eating <70% of protein from animal sources might lead to a better score on the HEI. Future research investigating protein source and disease risk should examine overall dietary quality as a potential effect modifier.

First glimpse on attitudes of highly educated consumers towards cell-based meat and related issues in Brazil

Our aim was to study Brazilian consumer attitudes towards cell-based meat and related issues. From 408 respondents from Curitiba and 218 from Joinville, the majority was women with higher level of education; 65.2% and 70.2% frequently consumed meat and 50.7% and 50.9% would not stop eating meat; 81.6% and 82.6% had little or no knowledge about cell-based meat. After watching an explanatory video, 41.9% and 34.4% stated they would eat cell-based meat without restrictions; 24.5% and 23.9% stated they would try depending on conditionals. Overall, 63.6% declared they would eat cell-based meat; among vegetarians and vegans, 24% and 8% stated they would eat cell-based meat, with additional 25.0% and 27.0% stating "it depends"; thus, the major public for cell-based meat seems to be meat eaters. Animal welfare was the principal reason for considering not eating meat and a major benefit of cell-based meat. In conclusion, the majority of respondents would not stop eating meat; additionally, they would eat cell-based meat.

Plant- and animal-protein diets in relation to sociodemographic drivers, quality, and cost: findings from the Seattle Obesity Study

BACKGROUND

Promoting plant-based proteins is at the forefront of many initiatives in public health nutrition.

OBJECTIVES

The aim of this study was to characterize the sociodemographic drivers of plant-based protein diet consumption, and to study these in relation to diet quality and cost.

METHODS

The Seattle Obesity Study series (SOS I and II) yielded the study sample (n = 1636). Sociodemographic data were obtained by survey self-report. Diet quality and cost came from the Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center Food-Frequency Questionnaire linked to retail food prices. The Healthy Eating Index 2010 (HEI-2010) and mean adequacy ratio (MAR) served as measures of diet quality. Linear regressions with robust standard errors examined associations.

RESULTS

Total proteins contributed 16.8% of daily dietary energy. The breakdown by animal and plant proteins was 10.9% and 5.9%, respectively. The sociodemographic factors associated with plant-protein consumption were a positive attitude towards healthy eating and higher education but not income. Plant-protein diets were characterized by severalfold increases in nuts and seeds, soy and legumes, but much less meat, poultry, dairy, solid fats, and added sugars. Higher quartiles of plant-based diets were associated with significantly higher HEI-2010 (β: 13.0 from quartile 1 to quartile 4; 95% CI: 11.8, 14.3) and higher MAR (β: 6.0; 95% CI: 3.5, 8.5) with minimal impact on diet costs (β: 0.35; 95% CI: 0.04, 0.67). In contrast, higher quartiles of animal-protein diets were associated with higher diet costs (β: 1.07; 95% CI: 0.77, 1.36) but lower HEI-2010 (β: -3.2; 95% CI: -4.5, -1.9). Each additional 3% of energy from plant proteins was associated with an 8.4-unit increase in HEI-2010 (95% CI: 7.6, 9.1) and with a 4.1-unit increase in MAR (95% CI: 2.7, 5.5) with a minimal increase in diet cost (β: 0.28; 95% CI: 0.06, 0.50).

CONCLUSION

Plant-based protein diets may be a cost-effective way to improve diet quality at all levels of income. Future research needs to evaluate the quality of plant-based protein in relation to amino acids and health.

Comparison of Major Protein-Source Foods and Other Food Groups in Meat-Eaters and Non-Meat-Eaters in the EPIC-Oxford Cohort

Differences in health outcomes between meat-eaters and non-meat-eaters might relate to differences in dietary intakes between these diet groups. We assessed intakes of major protein-source foods and other food groups in six groups of meat-eaters and non-meat-eaters participating in the European Prospective Investigation into Cancer and Nutrition (EPIC)-Oxford study. The data were from 30,239 participants who answered questions regarding their consumption of meat, fish, dairy or eggs and completed a food frequency questionnaire (FFQ) in 2010. Participants were categorized as regular meat-eaters, low meat-eaters, poultry-eaters, fish-eaters, vegetarians and vegans. FFQ foods were categorized into 45 food groups and analysis of variance was used to test for differences between age-adjusted mean intakes of each food group by diet group. Regular meat-eaters, vegetarians and vegans, respectively, consumed about a third, quarter and a fifth of their total energy intake from high protein-source foods. Compared with regular meat-eaters, low and non-meat-eaters consumed higher amounts of high-protein meat alternatives (soy, legumes, pulses, nuts, seeds) and other plant-based foods (whole grains, vegetables, fruits) and lower amounts of refined grains, fried foods, alcohol and sugar-sweetened beverages. These findings provide insight into potential nutritional explanations for differences in health outcomes between diet groups.