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Windelborn JA, Lipton P. Lysosomal release of cathepsins causes ischemic damage in the rat hippocampal slice and depends on NMDA-mediated calcium influx, arachidonic acid metabolism, and free radical production. J Neurochem 2008; 106:56-69. [PMID: 18363826 DOI: 10.1111/j.1471-4159.2008.05349.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 71] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
NMDA-mediated calcium entry and reactive oxygen species (ROS) production are well-recognized perpetrators of ischemic neuronal damage. The current studies show that these events lead to the release of the protein hydrolase, cathepsin B, from lysosomes 2 h following 5-min oxygen-glucose deprivation in the rat hippocampal slice. This release reflects a lysosomal membrane permeabilization (LMP) and was measured as the appearance of diffuse immunolabeled cathepsin B in the cytosol of CA1 pyramidal neurons. Necrotic neuronal damage begins after the release of cathepsins and is prevented by inhibitors of either cathepsin B or D indicating that the release of cathepsins is an important mediator of severe damage. There was an increase in superoxide levels, measured by dihydroethidium fluorescence, at the same time as LMP and reducing ROS levels with antioxidants, Trolox or N-tert-butyl-alpha-phenyl nitrone, blocked LMP. Both LMP and ROS production were blocked by an NMDA channel blocker (MK-801) and by inhibitors of mitogen-activated protein kinase kinase (U0126), calcium-dependent/independent phospholipases A2 (methyl arachidonyl fluorophosphonate) but not calcium-independent phospholipases A2 (bromoenol lactone) and cyclooxygenase-2 (NS398). A cell-permeant specific inhibitor of calpain (PD150606) prevented LMP, but not ROS production. It is concluded that LMP results in part from calcium-initiated and extracellular signal-regulated kinase-initiated arachidonic acid metabolism, which produces free radicals; it also requires the action of calpain.
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Affiliation(s)
- James A Windelborn
- Neuroscience Training Program, University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wisconsin 53706, USA
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52
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Yakovlev AA, Gorokhovatsky AY, Onufriev MV, Beletsky IP, Gulyaeva NV. Brain cathepsin B cleaves a caspase substrate. BIOCHEMISTRY (MOSCOW) 2008; 73:332-6. [PMID: 18393770 DOI: 10.1134/s0006297908030140] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
We show that an enzyme exists in rat brain capable of cleaving the caspase-3 specific peptide substrate Ac-DEVD-AMC at low pH. The enzyme shows properties of a cysteine protease and is localized, predominantly, in lysosomes. We have purified this enzyme from rat brain and identified it by MALDI-TOF MS. The enzyme possessing "acidic" DEVDase activity in rat brain appears to be cathepsin B. It remains obscure, whether cathepsin B participates in cleavage of caspase-3 substrates in vivo. We suggest that under certain conditions (e.g. in hypoxia) cathepsin B participates in cleavage of caspase-3 substrates in brain cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- A A Yakovlev
- Institute of Higher Nervous Activity and Neurophysiology, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow, Russia
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53
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The Protective Effect of Dexanabinol (HU-211) on Nitric Oxide and Cysteine Protease-Mediated Neuronal Death in Focal Cerebral Ischemia. Neurochem Res 2008; 33:1683-91. [DOI: 10.1007/s11064-008-9605-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/20/2007] [Accepted: 01/23/2008] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
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54
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Anagli J, Abounit K, Stemmer P, Han Y, Allred L, Weinsheimer S, Movsisyan A, Seyfried D. Effects of cathepsins B and L inhibition on postischemic protein alterations in the brain. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 2008; 366:86-91. [PMID: 18060871 PMCID: PMC3878606 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbrc.2007.11.104] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/14/2007] [Accepted: 11/15/2007] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
The effects of selective inhibition of cathepsins B and L on postischemic protein alterations in the brain were investigated in a rat model of middle cerebral artery occlusion (MCAO). Cathepsin B activity increased predominantly in the subcortical region of the ischemic hemisphere where the levels of collapsing mediator response protein 2, heat shock cognate 70 kDa protein, 60 kDa heat shock protein, protein disulfide isomerase A3 and albumin, were found to be significantly elevated. Postischemic treatment with Cbz-Phe-Ser(OBzl)-CHN(2), cysteine protease inhibitor 1 (CP-1), reduced infarct volume, neurological deficits and cathepsin B activity as well as the amount of heat shock proteins and albumin found in the brain. Our data strongly suggests that the decrease in heat shock protein levels and the significant reduction of serum albumin leakage into the brain following acute treatment with CP-1 is indicative of less secondary ischemic damage, which ultimately, is related to less cerebral tissue loss and improved neurological recovery of the animals.
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Affiliation(s)
- John Anagli
- Department of Pathology, Henry Ford Hospital, Detroit, MI 48202
- Proteomics Core Facility, Henry Ford Hospital, Detroit, MI 48202
| | - Kadija Abounit
- Department of Pathology, Henry Ford Hospital, Detroit, MI 48202
| | - Paul Stemmer
- Protein Interactions & Proteomics Facility Core, Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, Wayne State University, Detroit, MI 48202
| | - Yuxia Han
- Department of Neurosurgery, Henry Ford Hospital, Detroit, MI 48202
| | - Lisa Allred
- Department of Pathology, Henry Ford Hospital, Detroit, MI 48202
| | | | - Ashkhen Movsisyan
- Department of Pathology, Henry Ford Hospital, Detroit, MI 48202
- Proteomics Core Facility, Henry Ford Hospital, Detroit, MI 48202
| | - Donald Seyfried
- Department of Neurosurgery, Henry Ford Hospital, Detroit, MI 48202
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55
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Nakka VP, Gusain A, Mehta SL, Raghubir R. Molecular mechanisms of apoptosis in cerebral ischemia: multiple neuroprotective opportunities. Mol Neurobiol 2008; 37:7-38. [PMID: 18066503 DOI: 10.1007/s12035-007-8013-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 210] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/01/2007] [Accepted: 11/05/2007] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Cerebral ischemia/reperfusion (I/R) injury triggers multiple and distinct but overlapping cell signaling pathways, which may lead to cell survival or cell damage. There is overwhelming evidence to suggest that besides necrosis, apoptosis do contributes significantly to the cell death subsequent to I/R injury. Both extrinsic and intrinsic apoptotic pathways play a vital role, and upon initiation, these pathways recruit downstream apoptotic molecules to execute cell death. Caspases and Bcl-2 family members appear to be crucial in regulating multiple apoptotic cell death pathways initiated during I/R. Similarly, inhibitor of apoptosis family of proteins (IAPs), mitogen-activated protein kinases, and newly identified apoptogenic molecules, like second mitochondrial-activated factor/direct IAP-binding protein with low pI (Smac/Diablo), omi/high-temperature requirement serine protease A2 (Omi/HtrA2), X-linked mammalian inhibitor of apoptosis protein-associated factor 1, and apoptosis-inducing factor, have emerged as potent regulators of cellular apoptotic/antiapoptotic machinery. All instances of cell survival/death mechanisms triggered during I/R are multifaceted and interlinked, which ultimately decide the fate of brain cells. Moreover, apoptotic cross-talk between major subcellular organelles suggests that therapeutic strategies should be optimally directed at multiple targets/mechanisms for better therapeutic outcome. Based on the current knowledge, this review briefly focuses I/R injury-induced multiple mechanisms of apoptosis, involving key apoptotic regulators and their emerging roles in orchestrating cell death programme. In addition, we have also highlighted the role of autophagy in modulating cell survival/death during cerebral ischemia. Furthermore, an attempt has been made to provide an encouraging outlook on emerging therapeutic approaches for cerebral ischemia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Venkata Prasuja Nakka
- Division of Pharmacology, Central Drug Research Institute, Chatter Manzil Palace, POB-173, Lucknow, 226001, India
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56
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Weng YC, Kriz J. Differential neuroprotective effects of a minocycline-based drug cocktail in transient and permanent focal cerebral ischemia. Exp Neurol 2007; 204:433-42. [PMID: 17234187 DOI: 10.1016/j.expneurol.2006.12.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/28/2006] [Revised: 12/01/2006] [Accepted: 12/06/2006] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
Considering that several pathways leading to cell death are activated in cerebral ischemia, we tested in mouse models of transient and permanent ischemia a drug cocktail aiming at distinct pharmacological targets during the evolution of ischemic injury. It consists of minocycline--an antibiotic with anti-inflammatory properties, riluzole--a glutamate antagonist, and nimodipine--a blocker of voltage-gated calcium channels. Administered 2 h after transient or permanent MCAO, it significantly decreased the size of infarction, by approximately 65% after transient and approximately 35% after permanent ischemia and markedly improve clinical recovery of mice. In both experimental models a three-drug cocktail achieved significantly more efficient neuroprotection than any of the components tested alone. However, some interesting observation emerged from the single-drug studies. Treatment with minocycline alone was efficient in both experimental models while treatment with glutamate antagonist riluzole conferred neuroprotection only after transient MCAO. Immunohistochemical analysis following three-drug treatment revealed reduced microglia/macrophages and caspase-3 activation as well as preserved GFAP immunoreactivity following transient ischemia. No detectable differences in the levels of Mac-2, GFAP and caspase-3 immunoreactivities were observed 72 h after permanent MCAO. These marked differences in the brain tissue responses to ischemic injury and to treatments suggest that different pathological mechanisms may be operating in transient and permanent ischemia. However, the three-drug cocktail exerted significant neuroprotection in both experimental models thus demonstrating that simultaneous targeting of several pathophysiological pathways involved in the evolution of ischemic injury may represent a rational therapeutic strategy for stroke.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuan Cheng Weng
- Faculty of Medicine, Laval University, Centre de Recherche du CHUL (CHUQ), Department of Anatomy and Physiology, T3-67, 2705, boul. Laurier, Quebec, QC, Canada G1V 4G2
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57
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Wootz H, Weber E, Korhonen L, Lindholm D. Altered distribution and levels of cathepsinD and cystatins in amyotrophic lateral sclerosis transgenic mice: Possible roles in motor neuron survival. Neuroscience 2006; 143:419-30. [PMID: 16973300 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2006.07.048] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/26/2006] [Revised: 07/25/2006] [Accepted: 07/26/2006] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
In amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) there is a selective degeneration of motor neurons leading to muscle paralysis and death. The mechanism underlying cell demise in ALS is not fully understood, but involves the activation of different proteolytic enzymes, including the caspase family of cysteine proteases. We have here studied whether other proteases, such as the cathepsins, residing in lysosomes, and the cathepsin inhibitors, cystatinB and -C are changed in ALS. The expression and protein levels of the cathepsinB, -L and -D all increased in the spinal cord in ALS mice, carrying the mutant copper/zinc superoxide dismutase (SOD1) gene. At the cellular level, cathepsinB and -L were present in ventral motor neurons in controls, but in the ALS mice cathepsinB was also expressed by glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP) positive astrocytes. The distribution of the aspartic protease, cathepsinD also changed in ALS with a loss of the lysosomal staining in motor neurons. Inhibition of caspases by means of X-chromosome-linked inhibitor of apoptosis protein (XIAP) overexpression did not inhibit cleavage of cathepsinD in ALS mice, suggesting a caspase-independent pathway. Expression of cystatinB and -C increased slightly in the ALS spinal cords. Immunostaining showed that in ALS, cystatinC was present in motor neurons and in GFAP positive astrocytes. CystatinB that is a neuroprotective factor decreased in motor neurons in ALS but was expressed by activated microglial cells. The observed changes in the levels and distributions of cathepsinD and cystatinB and-C indicate a role of these proteins in the degeneration of motor neurons in ALS.
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Affiliation(s)
- H Wootz
- Department of Neuroscience, Unit of Neurobiology, Uppsala University, Biomedical Centre, Box 587, S-75123 Uppsala, Sweden
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58
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Tsubokawa T, Yamaguchi-Okada M, Calvert JW, Solaroglu I, Shimamura N, Yata K, Zhang JH. Neurovascular and neuronal protection by E64d after focal cerebral ischemia in rats. J Neurosci Res 2006; 84:832-40. [PMID: 16802320 DOI: 10.1002/jnr.20977] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/02/2023]
Abstract
Calpains and cathepsins are two families of proteases that play an important role in ischemic cell death. In this study, we investigated the effect of E64d, a mu-calpain and cathepsin B inhibitor, in the prevention of neuronal and endothelial apoptotic cell death after focal cerebral ischemia in rats. Rats underwent 2 hr of transient focal ischemia from middle cerebral artery occlusion (MCAO) and were sacrificed 24 hr later. E64d (5 mg/ kg intraperitoneally) was administered 30 min before MCAO. Assessment included neurological function, infarction volume, brain water content, blood-brain barrier permeability, histology, and immunohistochemistry. The E64d-treated rats had significant brain protection against ischemic damage. We observed a reduction of infarction volume, brain edema, and improved neurological scores in E64d-treated rats compared with the nontreated control. Furthermore, there was a remarkable reduction in both proteases and caspase-3 activation and apoptotic changes in both neurons and endothelial cells in E64d-treated rats. These results suggest that E64d protects the brain against ischemic/reperfusion injury by attenuating neuronal and endothelial apoptosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tamiji Tsubokawa
- Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, Loma Linda University School of Medicine, California 92354, USA
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59
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Benchoua A, Trioulier Y, Zala D, Gaillard MC, Lefort N, Dufour N, Saudou F, Elalouf JM, Hirsch E, Hantraye P, Déglon N, Brouillet E. Involvement of mitochondrial complex II defects in neuronal death produced by N-terminus fragment of mutated huntingtin. Mol Biol Cell 2006; 17:1652-63. [PMID: 16452635 PMCID: PMC1415305 DOI: 10.1091/mbc.e05-07-0607] [Citation(s) in RCA: 191] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Alterations of mitochondrial function may play a central role in neuronal death in Huntington's disease (HD). However, the molecular mechanisms underlying such functional deficits of mitochondria are not elucidated yet. We herein showed that the expression of two important constituents of mitochondrial complex II, the 30-kDa iron-sulfur (Ip) subunit and the 70-kDa FAD (Fp) subunit, was preferentially decreased in the striatum of HD patients compared with controls. We also examined several mitochondrial proteins in striatal neurons that were infected with lentiviral vectors coding for the N-terminus part of huntingtin (Htt) with either a pathological (Htt171-82Q) or physiological (Htt171-19Q) polyglutamine tract. Compared with Htt171-19Q, expression of Htt171-82Q preferentially decreased the levels of Ip and Fp subunits and affected the dehydrogenase activity of the complex. The Htt171-82Q-induced preferential loss of complex II was not associated with a decrease in mRNA levels, suggesting the involvement of a posttranscriptional mechanism. Importantly, the overexpression of either Ip or Fp subunit restored complex II levels and blocked mitochondrial dysfunction and striatal cell death induced by Htt171-82Q in striatal neurons. The present results strongly suggest that complex II defects in HD may be instrumental in striatal cell death.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexandra Benchoua
- URA CEA-CNRS 2210, Service Hospitalier Frédéric Joliot, MIRCen Program, Département de Recherches Médicales, Direction des Sciences du Vivant, Commissariat à l'Energie Atomique (CEA), 91401 Orsay Cedex, France
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60
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Maiese K, Chong ZZ, Li F. Driving cellular plasticity and survival through the signal transduction pathways of metabotropic glutamate receptors. Curr Neurovasc Res 2005; 2:425-46. [PMID: 16375723 PMCID: PMC2258008 DOI: 10.2174/156720205774962692] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Metabotropic glutamate receptors (mGluRs) share a common molecular morphology with other G protein-linked receptors, but there expression throughout the mammalian nervous system places these receptors as essential mediators not only for the initial development of an organism, but also for the vital determination of a cell's fate during many disorders in the nervous system that include amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, Parkinson's disease, Alzheimer's disease, Huntington's disease, Multiple Sclerosis, epilepsy, trauma, and stroke. Given the ubiquitous distribution of these receptors, the mGluR system impacts upon neuronal, vascular, and glial cell function and is activated by a wide variety of stimuli that includes neurotransmitters, peptides, hormones, growth factors, ions, lipids, and light. Employing signal transduction pathways that can modulate both excitatory and inhibitory responses, the mGluR system drives a spectrum of cellular pathways that involve protein kinases, endonucleases, cellular acidity, energy metabolism, mitochondrial membrane potential, caspases, and specific mitogen-activated protein kinases. Ultimately these pathways can converge to regulate genomic DNA degradation, membrane phosphatidylserine (PS) residue exposure, and inflammatory microglial activation. As we continue to push the envelope for our understanding of this complex and critical family of metabotropic receptors, we should be able to reap enormous benefits for both clinical disease as well as our understanding of basic biology in the nervous system.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kenneth Maiese
- Division of Cellular and Molecular Cerebral Ischemia, Department of Neurology, 8C-1 UHC, Wayne State University School of Medicine, 4201 St. Antoine, Detroit, MI 48201, USA.
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61
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Abstract
Caspase activation has been frequently viewed as synonymous with apoptotic cell death; however, caspases can also contribute to processes that do not culminate in cell demise. Moreover, inhibition of caspases can have cytoprotective effects. In a number of different models, caspase inhibition does not maintain cellular viability and instead shifts the morphology of death from apoptosis to nonapoptotic pathways. Here, we explore the contribution of caspases to cell death, either as upstream signals or as downstream effectors contributing to apoptotic morphology, as well as alternative strategies for cell death inhibition. Such alternative strategies may either target catabolic hydrolases or be aimed at preventing mitochondrial membrane permeabilization and its upstream triggers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Guido Kroemer
- Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, UMR8125, Institut Gustave Roussy, 39 rue Camille-Desmoulins, F-94805 Villejuif, France.
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62
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Chong ZZ, Li F, Maiese K. Oxidative stress in the brain: novel cellular targets that govern survival during neurodegenerative disease. Prog Neurobiol 2005; 75:207-46. [PMID: 15882775 DOI: 10.1016/j.pneurobio.2005.02.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 409] [Impact Index Per Article: 21.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/29/2004] [Revised: 02/16/2005] [Accepted: 02/16/2005] [Indexed: 01/28/2023]
Abstract
Despite our present knowledge of some of the cellular pathways that modulate central nervous system injury, complete therapeutic prevention or reversal of acute or chronic neuronal injury has not been achieved. The cellular mechanisms that precipitate these diseases are more involved than initially believed. As a result, identification of novel therapeutic targets for the treatment of cellular injury would be extremely beneficial to reduce or eliminate disability from nervous system disorders. Current studies have begun to focus on pathways of oxidative stress that involve a variety of cellular pathways. Here we discuss novel pathways that involve the generation of reactive oxygen species and oxidative stress, apoptotic injury that leads to nuclear degradation in both neuronal and vascular populations, and the early loss of cellular membrane asymmetry that mitigates inflammation and vascular occlusion. Current work has identified exciting pathways, such as the Wnt pathway and the serine-threonine kinase Akt, as central modulators that oversee cellular apoptosis and their downstream substrates that include Forkhead transcription factors, glycogen synthase kinase-3beta, mitochondrial dysfunction, Bad, and Bcl-x(L). Other closely integrated pathways control microglial activation, release of inflammatory cytokines, and caspase and calpain activation. New therapeutic avenues that are just open to exploration, such as with brain temperature regulation, nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide modulation, metabotropic glutamate system modulation, and erythropoietin targeted expression, may provide both attractive and viable alternatives to treat a variety of disorders that include stroke, Alzheimer's disease, and traumatic brain injury.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhao Zhong Chong
- Division of Cellular and Molecular Cerebral Ischemia, Wayne State University School of Medicine, Detroit, MI 48201, USA
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63
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Artal-Sanz M, Tavernarakis N. Proteolytic mechanisms in necrotic cell death and neurodegeneration. FEBS Lett 2005; 579:3287-96. [PMID: 15943973 DOI: 10.1016/j.febslet.2005.03.052] [Citation(s) in RCA: 91] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 03/23/2005] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Programmed neuronal cell death is required during development to achieve the accurate wiring of the nervous system. However, genetic or accidental factors can lead to the premature, non-programmed death of neurons during adult life. Inappropriate death of cells in the nervous system is the cause of multiple neurodegenerative disorders. Pathological neuronal death can occur by apoptosis, by necrosis or by a combination of both. Necrotic cell death underlies the pathology of devastating neurological diseases such as neurodegenerative disorders, stroke or trauma. However, little is known about the molecular mechanisms that bring about necrotic cell death. Proteases play crucial roles in neuron degeneration by exerting both regulatory and catabolic functions. Elevated intracellular calcium is the most ubiquitous feature of neuronal death with the concomitant activation of cysteine calcium-dependent proteases, calpains. Calpains and lysosomal, catabolic aspartyl proteases, play key roles in the necrotic death of neurons. In this review, we survey the recent literature on the role of cysteine and aspartyl proteases in necrosis and neurodegeneration, aiming to delineate common proteolytic mechanisms mediating cellular destruction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marta Artal-Sanz
- Institute of Molecular Biology and Biotechnology, Foundation for Research and Technology, Vassilika Vouton, P.O. Box 1527, Heraklion 71110, Crete, Greece
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