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Abstract
Optogenetic actuators enable highly precise spatiotemporal interrogation of biological processes at levels ranging from the subcellular to cells, circuits and behaving organisms. Although their application in neuroscience has traditionally focused on the control of spiking activity at the somatodendritic level, the scope of optogenetic modulators for direct manipulation of presynaptic functions is growing. Presynaptically localized opsins combined with light stimulation at the terminals allow light-mediated neurotransmitter release, presynaptic inhibition, induction of synaptic plasticity and specific manipulation of individual components of the presynaptic machinery. Here, we describe presynaptic applications of optogenetic tools in the context of the unique cell biology of axonal terminals, discuss their potential shortcomings and outline future directions for this rapidly developing research area.
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52
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Burghard AL, Lee CM, Fabrizio-Stover EM, Oliver DL. Long-Duration Sound-Induced Facilitation Changes Population Activity in the Inferior Colliculus. Front Syst Neurosci 2022; 16:920642. [PMID: 35873097 PMCID: PMC9301083 DOI: 10.3389/fnsys.2022.920642] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/14/2022] [Accepted: 06/03/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
The inferior colliculus (IC) is at the midpoint of the auditory system and integrates virtually all information ascending from the auditory brainstem, organizes it, and transmits the results to the auditory forebrain. Its abundant, excitatory local connections are crucial for this task. This study describes a long duration sound (LDS)-induced potentiation in the IC that changes both subsequent tone-evoked responses and spontaneous activity. Afterdischarges, changes of spontaneous spiking following an LDS, were seen previously in single neurons. Here, we used multi-channel probes to record activity before and after a single, tetanic sound and describe the changes in a population of IC neurons. Following a 60 s narrowband-noise stimulation, a subset of recording channels (∼16%) showed afterdischarges. A facilitated response spike rate to tone pips following an LDS was also observed in ∼16% of channels. Both channels with an afterdischarge and channels with facilitated tone responses had higher firing rates in response to LDS, and the magnitude of the afterdischarges increased with increased responses to the LDS. This is the first study examining the effect of LDS stimulation on tone-evoked responses. This observed facilitation in vivo has similarities to post-tetanic potentiation in vitro as both manner of induction (strong stimulation for several seconds) as well as time-course of the facilitation (second to minute range) are comparable. Channels with and without facilitation appear to be intermixed and distributed widely in the central nucleus of IC, and this suggests a heretofore unknown property of some IC neurons or their circuits. Consequently, this sound-evoked facilitation may enhance the sound-evoked output of these neurons, while, simultaneously, most other IC neurons have reduced or unchanged output in response to the same stimulus.
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53
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Sandamirskaya Y, Kaboli M, Conradt J, Celikel T. Neuromorphic computing hardware and neural architectures for robotics. Sci Robot 2022; 7:eabl8419. [PMID: 35767646 DOI: 10.1126/scirobotics.abl8419] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/02/2022]
Abstract
Neuromorphic hardware enables fast and power-efficient neural network-based artificial intelligence that is well suited to solving robotic tasks. Neuromorphic algorithms can be further developed following neural computing principles and neural network architectures inspired by biological neural systems. In this Viewpoint, we provide an overview of recent insights from neuroscience that could enhance signal processing in artificial neural networks on chip and unlock innovative applications in robotics and autonomous intelligent systems. These insights uncover computing principles, primitives, and algorithms on different levels of abstraction and call for more research into the basis of neural computation and neuronally inspired computing hardware.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Mohsen Kaboli
- BMW Group, Department of Research, New Technologies and Innovation, Munich, Germany.,Donders Institute for Brain, Cognition, and Behavior, Radboud University, Nijmegen, Netherlands
| | - Jorg Conradt
- Kungliga Tekniska Högskolan (KTH), School of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science, Stockholm, Sweden
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54
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Kusick GF, Ogunmowo TH, Watanabe S. Transient docking of synaptic vesicles: Implications and mechanisms. Curr Opin Neurobiol 2022; 74:102535. [PMID: 35398664 PMCID: PMC9167714 DOI: 10.1016/j.conb.2022.102535] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/14/2022] [Revised: 02/19/2022] [Accepted: 03/06/2022] [Indexed: 02/03/2023]
Abstract
As synaptic vesicles fuse, they must continually be replaced with new docked, fusion-competent vesicles to sustain neurotransmission. It has long been appreciated that vesicles are recruited to docking sites in an activity-dependent manner. However, once entering the sites, vesicles were thought to be stably docked, awaiting calcium signals. Based on recent data from electrophysiology, electron microscopy, biochemistry, and computer simulations, a picture emerges in which vesicles can rapidly and reversibly transit between docking and undocking during activity. This "transient docking" can account for many aspects of synaptic physiology. In this review, we cover recent evidence for transient docking, physiological processes at the synapse that it may support, and progress on the underlying mechanisms. We also discuss an open question: what determines for how long and whether vesicles stay docked, or eventually undock?
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Affiliation(s)
- Grant F Kusick
- Department of Cell Biology, Johns Hopkins University, School of Medicine, 725 N Wolfe St., Baltimore, MD 21287, USA; Biochemistry, Cellular and Molecular Biology Graduate Program, Johns Hopkins University, School of Medicine, 1830 E. Monument St., Baltimore, MD 21287, USA. https://twitter.com/@ultrafastgrant
| | - Tyler H Ogunmowo
- Department of Cell Biology, Johns Hopkins University, School of Medicine, 725 N Wolfe St., Baltimore, MD 21287, USA; Biochemistry, Cellular and Molecular Biology Graduate Program, Johns Hopkins University, School of Medicine, 1830 E. Monument St., Baltimore, MD 21287, USA. https://twitter.com/@unculturedTy
| | - Shigeki Watanabe
- Department of Cell Biology, Johns Hopkins University, School of Medicine, 725 N Wolfe St., Baltimore, MD 21287, USA; Solomon H. Snyder Department of Neuroscience, Johns Hopkins University, School of Medicine, 725 N Wolfe St., Baltimore, MD 21287, USA.
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55
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Fieblinger T, Li C, Espa E, Cenci MA. Non-Apoptotic Caspase-3 Activation Mediates Early Synaptic Dysfunction of Indirect Pathway Neurons in the Parkinsonian Striatum. Int J Mol Sci 2022; 23:ijms23105470. [PMID: 35628278 PMCID: PMC9141690 DOI: 10.3390/ijms23105470] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/22/2022] [Revised: 05/09/2022] [Accepted: 05/12/2022] [Indexed: 11/27/2022] Open
Abstract
Non-apoptotic caspase-3 activation is critically involved in dendritic spine loss and synaptic dysfunction in Alzheimer’s disease. It is, however, not known whether caspase-3 plays similar roles in other pathologies. Using a mouse model of clinically manifest Parkinson’s disease, we provide the first evidence that caspase-3 is transiently activated in the striatum shortly after the degeneration of nigrostriatal dopaminergic projections. This caspase-3 activation concurs with a rapid loss of dendritic spines and deficits in synaptic long-term depression (LTD) in striatal projection neurons forming the indirect pathway. Interestingly, systemic treatment with a caspase inhibitor prevents both the spine pruning and the deficit of indirect pathway LTD without interfering with the ongoing dopaminergic degeneration. Taken together, our data identify transient and non-apoptotic caspase activation as a critical event in the early plastic changes of indirect pathway neurons following dopamine denervation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tim Fieblinger
- Basal Ganglia Pathophysiology Unit, Department of Experimental Medical Science, Lund University, 223 62 Lund, Sweden; (C.L.); (E.E.)
- University Medical Center Hamburg-Eppendorf, Institute for Synaptic Physiology, 20251 Hamburg, Germany
- Correspondence: (T.F.); (M.A.C.)
| | - Chang Li
- Basal Ganglia Pathophysiology Unit, Department of Experimental Medical Science, Lund University, 223 62 Lund, Sweden; (C.L.); (E.E.)
| | - Elena Espa
- Basal Ganglia Pathophysiology Unit, Department of Experimental Medical Science, Lund University, 223 62 Lund, Sweden; (C.L.); (E.E.)
| | - M. Angela Cenci
- Basal Ganglia Pathophysiology Unit, Department of Experimental Medical Science, Lund University, 223 62 Lund, Sweden; (C.L.); (E.E.)
- Correspondence: (T.F.); (M.A.C.)
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56
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Abstract
Major recent advances and previous data have led to a plausible model of how key proteins mediate neurotransmitter release. In this model, the soluble N-ethylmaleimide-sensitive factor (NSF) attachment protein (SNAP) receptor (SNARE) proteins syntaxin-1, SNAP-25, and synaptobrevin form tight complexes that bring the membranes together and are crucial for membrane fusion. NSF and SNAPs disassemble SNARE complexes and ensure that fusion occurs through an exquisitely regulated pathway that starts with Munc18-1 bound to a closed conformation of syntaxin-1. Munc18-1 also binds to synaptobrevin, forming a template to assemble the SNARE complex when Munc13-1 opens syntaxin-1 while bridging the vesicle and plasma membranes. Synaptotagmin-1 and complexin bind to partially assembled SNARE complexes, likely stabilizing them and preventing fusion until Ca2+ binding to synaptotagmin-1 causes dissociation from the SNARE complex and induces interactions with phospholipids that help trigger release. Although fundamental questions remain about the mechanism of membrane fusion, these advances provide a framework to investigate the mechanisms underlying presynaptic plasticity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Josep Rizo
- Departments of Biophysics, Biochemistry, and Pharmacology, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, Texas, USA;
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57
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Sarwat SG, Kersting B, Moraitis T, Jonnalagadda VP, Sebastian A. Phase-change memtransistive synapses for mixed-plasticity neural computations. NATURE NANOTECHNOLOGY 2022; 17:507-513. [PMID: 35347271 DOI: 10.1038/s41565-022-01095-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/23/2021] [Accepted: 01/12/2022] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
In the mammalian nervous system, various synaptic plasticity rules act, either individually or synergistically, over wide-ranging timescales to enable learning and memory formation. Hence, in neuromorphic computing platforms, there is a significant need for artificial synapses that can faithfully express such multi-timescale plasticity mechanisms. Although some plasticity rules have been emulated with elaborate complementary metal oxide semiconductor and memristive circuitry, device-level hardware realizations of long-term and short-term plasticity with tunable dynamics are lacking. Here we introduce a phase-change memtransistive synapse that leverages both the non-volatility of the phase configurations and the volatility of field-effect modulation for implementing tunable plasticities. We show that these mixed-plasticity synapses can enable plasticity rules such as short-term spike-timing-dependent plasticity that helps with the modelling of dynamic environments. Further, we demonstrate the efficacy of the memtransistive synapses in realizing accelerators for Hopfield neural networks for solving combinatorial optimization problems.
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58
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Cadenas LT, Cheng H, Weisz CJC. Synaptic plasticity of inhibitory synapses onto medial olivocochlear efferent neurons. J Physiol 2022; 600:2747-2763. [PMID: 35443073 PMCID: PMC9323901 DOI: 10.1113/jp282815] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/07/2022] [Accepted: 04/04/2022] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Abstract The descending auditory system modulates the ascending system at every level. The final descending, or efferent, stage comprises lateral olivocochlear and medial olivocochlear (MOC) neurons. MOC somata in the ventral brainstem project axons to the cochlea to synapse onto outer hair cells (OHC), inhibiting OHC‐mediated cochlear amplification. MOC suppression of OHC function is implicated in cochlear gain control with changing sound intensity, detection of salient stimuli, attention and protection against acoustic trauma. Thus, sound excites MOC neurons to provide negative feedback of the cochlea. Sound also inhibits MOC neurons via medial nucleus of the trapezoid body (MNTB) neurons. However, MNTB–MOC synapses exhibit short‐term depression, suggesting reduced MNTB–MOC inhibition during sustained stimuli. Further, due to high rates of both baseline and sound‐evoked activity in MNTB neurons in vivo, MNTB–MOC synapses may be tonically depressed. To probe this, we characterized short‐term plasticity of MNTB–MOC synapses in mouse brain slices. We mimicked in vivo‐like temperature and extracellular calcium conditions, and in vivo‐like activity patterns of fast synaptic activation rates, sustained activation and prior tonic activity. Synaptic depression was sensitive to extracellular calcium concentration and temperature. During rapid MNTB axon stimulation, postsynaptic currents in MOC neurons summated but with concurrent depression, resulting in smaller, sustained currents, suggesting tonic inhibition of MOC neurons during rapid circuit activity. Low levels of baseline MNTB activity did not significantly reduce responses to subsequent rapid activity that mimics sound stimulation, indicating that, in vivo, MNTB inhibition of MOC neurons persists despite tonic synaptic depression. Key points Inhibitory synapses from the medial nucleus of the trapezoid body (MNTB) onto medial olivocochlear (MOC) neurons exhibit short‐term plasticity that is sensitive to calcium and temperature, with enhanced synaptic depression occurring at higher calcium concentrations and at room temperature. High rates of background synaptic activity that mimic the upper limits of spontaneous MNTB activity cause tonic synaptic depression of MNTB–MOC synapses that limits further synaptic inhibition. High rates of activity at MNTB–MOC synapses cause synaptic summation with concurrent depression to yield a response with an initial large amplitude that decays to a tonic inhibition.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lester Torres Cadenas
- Section on Neuronal Circuitry, National Institute on Deafness and Other Communication Disorders, NIH, Bethesda, MD, 20892, USA
| | - Hui Cheng
- Bioinformatics and Biostatistics Collaboration Core, National Institute on Deafness and Other Communication Disorders, NIH, Bethesda, MD, 20892, USA
| | - Catherine J C Weisz
- Section on Neuronal Circuitry, National Institute on Deafness and Other Communication Disorders, NIH, Bethesda, MD, 20892, USA
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59
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Zaback M, Tiwari E, Krupka AJ, Marchionne F, Negro F, Lemay MA, Thompson CK. Toward Assessing the Functional Connectivity of Spinal Neurons. Front Neural Circuits 2022; 16:839521. [PMID: 35310548 PMCID: PMC8927546 DOI: 10.3389/fncir.2022.839521] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/20/2021] [Accepted: 01/28/2022] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Spinal interneurons play a critical role in motor output. A given interneuron may receive convergent input from several different sensory modalities and descending centers and relay this information to just as many targets. Therefore, there is a critical need to quantify populations of spinal interneurons simultaneously. Here, we quantify the functional connectivity of spinal neurons through the concurrent recording of populations of lumbar interneurons and hindlimb motor units in the in vivo cat model during activation of either the ipsilateral sural nerve or contralateral tibial nerve. Two microelectrode arrays were placed into lamina VII, one at L3 and a second at L6/7, while an electrode array was placed on the surface of the exposed muscle. Stimulation of tibial and sural nerves elicited similar changes in the discharge rate of both interneurons and motor units. However, these same neurons showed highly significant differences in prevalence and magnitude of correlated activity underlying these two forms of afferent drive. Activation of the ipsilateral sural nerve resulted in highly correlated activity, particularly at the caudal array. In contrast, the contralateral tibial nerve resulted in less, but more widespread correlated activity at both arrays. These data suggest that the ipsilateral sural nerve has dense projections onto caudal lumbar spinal neurons, while contralateral tibial nerve has a sparse pattern of projections.
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Affiliation(s)
- Martin Zaback
- Department of Health and Rehabilitation Sciences, College of Public Health, Temple University, Philadelphia, PA, United States,Department of Bioengineering, College of Engineering, Temple University, Philadelphia, PA, United States
| | - Ekta Tiwari
- Department of Bioengineering, College of Engineering, Temple University, Philadelphia, PA, United States,School of Engineering, Brown University, Providence, RI, United States
| | - Alexander J. Krupka
- Department of Bioengineering, College of Engineering, Temple University, Philadelphia, PA, United States,Department of Biology, DeSales University, Center Valley, PA, United States
| | - Francesca Marchionne
- Department of Bioengineering, College of Engineering, Temple University, Philadelphia, PA, United States
| | - Francesco Negro
- Department of Clinical and Experimental Sciences, Universita degli Studi di Brescia, Brescia, Italy
| | - Michel A. Lemay
- Department of Bioengineering, College of Engineering, Temple University, Philadelphia, PA, United States
| | - Christopher K. Thompson
- Department of Health and Rehabilitation Sciences, College of Public Health, Temple University, Philadelphia, PA, United States,Shriner’s Hospital for Children, Philadelphia, PA, United States,*Correspondence: Christopher K. Thompson,
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60
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Janach GMS, Böhm M, Döhne N, Kim HR, Rosário M, Strauss U. Interferon-γ enhances neocortical synaptic inhibition by promoting membrane association and phosphorylation of GABA A receptors in a protein kinase C-dependent manner. Brain Behav Immun 2022; 101:153-164. [PMID: 34998939 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbi.2022.01.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/26/2021] [Revised: 12/11/2021] [Accepted: 01/03/2022] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Interferon-γ (IFN-γ), an important mediator of the antiviral immune response, can also act as a neuromodulator. CNS IFN-γ levels rise acutely in response to infection and therapeutically applied IFN-γ provokes CNS related side effects. Moreover, IFN-γ plays a key role in neurophysiological processes and a variety of chronic neurological and neuropsychiatric conditions. To close the gap between basic research, behavioral implications and clinical applicability, knowledge of the mechanism behind IFN-γ related changes in brain function is crucial. Here, we studied the underlying mechanism of acutely augmented neocortical inhibition by IFN-γ (1.000 IU ml-1) in layer 5 pyramidal neurons of male Wistar rats. We demonstrate postsynaptic mediation of IFN-γ augmented inhibition by pressure application of GABA and analysis of paired pulse ratios. IFN-γ increases membrane presence of GABAAR γ2, as quantified by cell surface biotinylation and functional synaptic GABAAR number, as determined by peak-scaled non-stationary noise analysis. The increase in functional receptor number was comparable to the increase in underlying miniature inhibitory postsynaptic current (mIPSC) amplitudes. Blockage of putative intracellular mediators, namely phosphoinositide 3-kinase and protein kinase C (PKC) by Wortmannin and Calphostin C, respectively, revealed PKC-dependency of the pro-inhibitory IFN-γ effect. This was corroborated by increased serine phosphorylation of P-serine PKC motifs on GABAAR γ2 upon IFN-γ application. GABAAR single channel conductance, intracellular chloride levels and GABAAR driving force are unlikely to contribute to the effect, as shown by single channel recordings and chloride imaging. The effect of IFN-γ on mIPSC amplitudes was similar in female and male rats, suggesting a gender-independent mechanism of action. Collectively, these results indicate a novel mechanism for the regulation of inhibition by IFN-γ, which could impact on neocortical function and therewith behavior.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gabriel M S Janach
- Charité - Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Corporate Member of Freie Universität Berlin and Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, Institute of Cell Biology and Neurobiology, Charitéplatz 1, 10117 Berlin, Germany
| | - Maximilian Böhm
- Charité - Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Corporate Member of Freie Universität Berlin and Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, Institute of Cell Biology and Neurobiology, Charitéplatz 1, 10117 Berlin, Germany
| | - Noah Döhne
- Charité - Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Corporate Member of Freie Universität Berlin and Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, Institute of Cell Biology and Neurobiology, Charitéplatz 1, 10117 Berlin, Germany
| | - Ha-Rang Kim
- Charité - Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Corporate Member of Freie Universität Berlin and Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, Institute of Cell Biology and Neurobiology, Charitéplatz 1, 10117 Berlin, Germany; CNRS, Interdisciplinary Institute for Neuroscience, UMR 5297, University of Bordeaux, Bordeaux, France
| | - Marta Rosário
- Charité - Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Corporate Member of Freie Universität Berlin and Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, Institute of Cell Biology and Neurobiology, Charitéplatz 1, 10117 Berlin, Germany
| | - Ulf Strauss
- Charité - Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Corporate Member of Freie Universität Berlin and Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, Institute of Cell Biology and Neurobiology, Charitéplatz 1, 10117 Berlin, Germany.
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Jo C, Kim J, Kwak JY, Kwon SM, Park JB, Kim J, Park GS, Kim MG, Kim YH, Park SK. Retina-Inspired Color-Cognitive Learning via Chromatically Controllable Mixed Quantum Dot Synaptic Transistor Arrays. ADVANCED MATERIALS (DEERFIELD BEACH, FLA.) 2022; 34:e2108979. [PMID: 35044005 DOI: 10.1002/adma.202108979] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/06/2021] [Revised: 12/31/2021] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
Artificial photonic synapses are emerging as a promising implementation to emulate the human visual cognitive system by consolidating a series of processes for sensing and memorizing visual information into one system. In particular, mimicking retinal functions such as multispectral color perception and controllable nonvolatility is important for realizing artificial visual systems. However, many studies to date have focused on monochromatic-light-based photonic synapses, and thus, the emulation of color discrimination capability remains an important challenge for visual intelligence. Here, an artificial multispectral color recognition system by employing heterojunction photosynaptic transistors consisting of ratio-controllable mixed quantum dot (M-QD) photoabsorbers and metal-oxide semiconducting channels is proposed. The biological photoreceptor inspires M-QD photoabsorbers with a precisely designed red (R), green (G), and blue (B)-QD ratio, enabling full-range visible color recognition with high photo-to-electric conversion efficiency. In addition, adjustable synaptic plasticity by modulating gate bias allows multiple nonvolatile-to-volatile memory conversion, leading to chromatic control in the artificial photonic synapse. To ensure the viability of the developed proof of concept, a 7 × 7 pixelated photonic synapse array capable of performing outstanding color image recognition based on adjustable wavelength-dependent volatility conversion is demonstrated.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chanho Jo
- Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Chung-Ang University, Seoul, 06974, Republic of Korea
| | - Jaehyun Kim
- Department of Chemistry and Materials Research Center, Northwestern University, 2145 Sheridan Road, Evanston, IL, 60208, USA
| | - Jee Young Kwak
- Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Chung-Ang University, Seoul, 06974, Republic of Korea
| | - Sung Min Kwon
- Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Chung-Ang University, Seoul, 06974, Republic of Korea
| | - Joon Bee Park
- Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Chung-Ang University, Seoul, 06974, Republic of Korea
| | - Jeehoon Kim
- School of Advanced Materials Science and Engineering, Sungkyunkwan University, Suwon, 16419, Republic of Korea
| | - Gyeong-Su Park
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering and Research Institute of Advanced Materials, Seoul National University, Seoul, 08826, Republic of Korea
| | - Myung-Gil Kim
- School of Advanced Materials Science and Engineering, Sungkyunkwan University, Suwon, 16419, Republic of Korea
| | - Yong-Hoon Kim
- School of Advanced Materials Science and Engineering, Sungkyunkwan University, Suwon, 16419, Republic of Korea
| | - Sung Kyu Park
- Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Chung-Ang University, Seoul, 06974, Republic of Korea
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Eckel C, Lenz J, Melianas A, Salleo A, Weitz RT. Nanoscopic Electrolyte-Gated Vertical Organic Transistors with Low Operation Voltage and Five Orders of Magnitude Switching Range for Neuromorphic Systems. NANO LETTERS 2022; 22:973-978. [PMID: 35049308 DOI: 10.1021/acs.nanolett.1c03832] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
Electrolyte-gated organic transistors (EGOTs) are promising candidates as a new class of neuromorphic devices in hardware-based artificial neural networks that can outperform their complementary metal oxide semiconductor (CMOS) counterparts regarding processing speed and energy consumption. Several ways in which to implement such networks exist, two prominent methods of which can be implemented by nanoscopic vertical EGOTs, as we show here. First, nanoscopic vertical electrolyte-gated transistors with a donor-acceptor diketopyrrolopyrrole-terthiophene polymer as an active material can be used to reversibly switch the channel conductivity over five orders of magnitude (3.8 nS to 392 μS) and perform switching at low operation voltages down to -1 mV. Second, nanoscopic EGOTs can also mimic fundamental synaptic functions, and we show an interconnection of up to three transistors, highlighting the possibility to emulate biological nerve cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christian Eckel
- AG Physics of Nanosystems, Faculty of Physics, Ludwig-Maximilians-University, 80539 Munich, Germany
- First Institute of Physics, Faculty of Physics, Georg-August-University, 37073 Göttingen, Germany
| | - Jakob Lenz
- AG Physics of Nanosystems, Faculty of Physics, Ludwig-Maximilians-University, 80539 Munich, Germany
| | - Armantas Melianas
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Stanford University, Stanford, California 94305, United States
| | - Alberto Salleo
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Stanford University, Stanford, California 94305, United States
| | - R Thomas Weitz
- AG Physics of Nanosystems, Faculty of Physics, Ludwig-Maximilians-University, 80539 Munich, Germany
- First Institute of Physics, Faculty of Physics, Georg-August-University, 37073 Göttingen, Germany
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63
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Plasticity in Motoneurons Following Spinal Cord Injury in Fructose-induced Diabetic Rats. J Mol Neurosci 2022; 72:888-899. [DOI: 10.1007/s12031-021-01958-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/03/2021] [Accepted: 12/13/2021] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
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64
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Papanikolaou A, Rodrigues FR, Holeniewska J, Phillips KG, Saleem AB, Solomon SG. Plasticity in visual cortex is disrupted in a mouse model of tauopathy. Commun Biol 2022; 5:77. [PMID: 35058544 PMCID: PMC8776781 DOI: 10.1038/s42003-022-03012-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/08/2021] [Accepted: 12/27/2021] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Alzheimer's disease and other dementias are thought to underlie a progressive impairment of neural plasticity. Previous work in mouse models of Alzheimer's disease shows pronounced changes in artificially-induced plasticity in hippocampus, perirhinal and prefrontal cortex. However, it is not known how degeneration disrupts intrinsic forms of brain plasticity. Here we characterised the impact of tauopathy on a simple form of intrinsic plasticity in the visual system, which allowed us to track plasticity at both long (days) and short (minutes) timescales. We studied rTg4510 transgenic mice at early stages of tauopathy (5 months) and a more advanced stage (8 months). We recorded local field potentials in the primary visual cortex while animals were repeatedly exposed to a stimulus over 9 days. We found that both short- and long-term visual plasticity were already disrupted at early stages of tauopathy, and further reduced in older animals, such that it was abolished in mice expressing mutant tau. Additionally, visually evoked behaviours were disrupted in both younger and older mice expressing mutant tau. Our results show that visual cortical plasticity and visually evoked behaviours are disrupted in the rTg4510 model of tauopathy. This simple measure of plasticity may help understand how tauopathy disrupts neural circuits, and offers a translatable platform for detection and tracking of the disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amalia Papanikolaou
- UCL Institute of Behavioural Neuroscience, Department of Experimental Psychology, University College London, London, WC1H 0AP, UK.
| | - Fabio R Rodrigues
- UCL Institute of Behavioural Neuroscience, Department of Experimental Psychology, University College London, London, WC1H 0AP, UK
| | - Joanna Holeniewska
- UCL Institute of Behavioural Neuroscience, Department of Experimental Psychology, University College London, London, WC1H 0AP, UK
| | - Keith G Phillips
- Eli Lilly, Research and Development, Erl Wood, Surrey, GU20 6PH, UK
| | - Aman B Saleem
- UCL Institute of Behavioural Neuroscience, Department of Experimental Psychology, University College London, London, WC1H 0AP, UK
| | - Samuel G Solomon
- UCL Institute of Behavioural Neuroscience, Department of Experimental Psychology, University College London, London, WC1H 0AP, UK
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Wichmann C, Kuner T. Heterogeneity of glutamatergic synapses: cellular mechanisms and network consequences. Physiol Rev 2022; 102:269-318. [PMID: 34727002 DOI: 10.1152/physrev.00039.2020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Chemical synapses are commonly known as a structurally and functionally highly diverse class of cell-cell contacts specialized to mediate communication between neurons. They represent the smallest "computational" unit of the brain and are typically divided into excitatory and inhibitory as well as modulatory categories. These categories are subdivided into diverse types, each representing a different structure-function repertoire that in turn are thought to endow neuronal networks with distinct computational properties. The diversity of structure and function found among a given category of synapses is referred to as heterogeneity. The main building blocks for this heterogeneity are synaptic vesicles, the active zone, the synaptic cleft, the postsynaptic density, and glial processes associated with the synapse. Each of these five structural modules entails a distinct repertoire of functions, and their combination specifies the range of functional heterogeneity at mammalian excitatory synapses, which are the focus of this review. We describe synapse heterogeneity that is manifested on different levels of complexity ranging from the cellular morphology of the pre- and postsynaptic cells toward the expression of different protein isoforms at individual release sites. We attempt to define the range of structural building blocks that are used to vary the basic functional repertoire of excitatory synaptic contacts and discuss sources and general mechanisms of synapse heterogeneity. Finally, we explore the possible impact of synapse heterogeneity on neuronal network function.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carolin Wichmann
- Molecular Architecture of Synapses Group, Institute for Auditory Neuroscience, InnerEarLab and Institute for Biostructural Imaging of Neurodegeneration, University Medical Center Göttingen, Göttingen, Germany
| | - Thomas Kuner
- Department of Functional Neuroanatomy, Institute for Anatomy and Cell Biology, Heidelberg, Germany
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66
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Abstract
Rapid and precise neuronal communication is enabled through a highly synchronous release of signaling molecules neurotransmitters within just milliseconds of the action potential. Yet neurotransmitter release lacks a theoretical framework that is both phenomenologically accurate and mechanistically realistic. Here, we present an analytic theory of the action-potential-triggered neurotransmitter release at the chemical synapse. The theory is demonstrated to be in detailed quantitative agreement with existing data on a wide variety of synapses from electrophysiological recordings in vivo and fluorescence experiments in vitro. Despite up to ten orders of magnitude of variation in the release rates among the synapses, the theory reveals that synaptic transmission obeys a simple, universal scaling law, which we confirm through a collapse of the data from strikingly diverse synapses onto a single master curve. This universality is complemented by the capacity of the theory to readily extract, through a fit to the data, the kinetic and energetic parameters that uniquely identify each synapse. The theory provides a means to detect cooperativity among the SNARE complexes that mediate vesicle fusion and reveals such cooperativity in several existing data sets. The theory is further applied to establish connections between molecular constituents of synapses and synaptic function. The theory allows competing hypotheses of short-term plasticity to be tested and identifies the regimes where particular mechanisms of synaptic facilitation dominate or, conversely, fail to account for the existing data for the paired-pulse ratio. The derived trade-off relation between the transmission rate and fidelity shows how transmission failure can be controlled by changing the microscopic properties of the vesicle pool and SNARE complexes. The established condition for the maximal synaptic efficacy reveals that no fine tuning is needed for certain synapses to maintain near-optimal transmission. We discuss the limitations of the theory and propose possible routes to extend it. These results provide a quantitative basis for the notion that the molecular-level properties of synapses are crucial determinants of the computational and information-processing functions in synaptic transmission.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bin Wang
- Department of Physics, University of California, San DiegoLa JollaUnited States
| | - Olga K Dudko
- Department of Physics, University of California, San DiegoLa JollaUnited States
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Hao S, Zhong S, Ji X, Pang KY, Wang N, Li H, Jiang Y, Lim KG, Chong TC, Zhao R, Loke DK. Activating Silent Synapses in Sulfurized Indium Selenide for Neuromorphic Computing. ACS APPLIED MATERIALS & INTERFACES 2021; 13:60209-60215. [PMID: 34878241 DOI: 10.1021/acsami.1c19062] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
The transformation from silent to functional synapses is accompanied by the evolutionary process of human brain development and is essential to hardware implementation of the evolutionary artificial neural network but remains a challenge for mimicking silent to functional synapse activation. Here, we developed a simple approach to successfully realize activation of silent to functional synapses by controlled sulfurization of chemical vapor deposition-grown indium selenide crystals. The underlying mechanism is attributed to the migration of sulfur anions introduced by sulfurization. One of our most important findings is that the functional synaptic behaviors can be modulated by the degree of sulfurization and temperature. In addition, the essential synaptic behaviors including potentiation/depression, paired-pulse facilitation, and spike-rate-dependent plasticity are successfully implemented in the partially sulfurized functional synaptic device. The developed simple approach of introducing sulfur anions in layered selenide opens an effective new avenue to realize activation of silent synapses for application in evolutionary artificial neural networks.
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Affiliation(s)
- Song Hao
- Department of Engineering Product Design, Singapore University of Technology and Design, 8 Somapah Road, 487372 Singapore
- Department of Science, Mathematics and Technology, Singapore University of Technology and Design, 8 Somapah Road, 487372 Singapore
| | - Shuai Zhong
- Department of Precision Instrument, Center for Brain Inspired Computing Research, Beijing Innovation Center for Future Chip, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China
| | - Xinglong Ji
- Department of Precision Instrument, Center for Brain Inspired Computing Research, Beijing Innovation Center for Future Chip, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China
| | - Khin Yin Pang
- Department of Engineering Product Design, Singapore University of Technology and Design, 8 Somapah Road, 487372 Singapore
| | - Nan Wang
- Department of Science, Mathematics and Technology, Singapore University of Technology and Design, 8 Somapah Road, 487372 Singapore
| | - Huimin Li
- Department of Engineering Product Design, Singapore University of Technology and Design, 8 Somapah Road, 487372 Singapore
| | - Yu Jiang
- Department of Engineering Product Design, Singapore University of Technology and Design, 8 Somapah Road, 487372 Singapore
| | - Kian Guan Lim
- Department of Engineering Product Design, Singapore University of Technology and Design, 8 Somapah Road, 487372 Singapore
| | - Tow Chong Chong
- Department of Engineering Product Design, Singapore University of Technology and Design, 8 Somapah Road, 487372 Singapore
| | - Rong Zhao
- Department of Precision Instrument, Center for Brain Inspired Computing Research, Beijing Innovation Center for Future Chip, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China
| | - Desmond K Loke
- Department of Science, Mathematics and Technology, Singapore University of Technology and Design, 8 Somapah Road, 487372 Singapore
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68
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Lee TJ, Yun KR, Kim SK, Kim JH, Jin J, Sim KB, Lee DH, Hwang GW, Seong TY. Realization of an Artificial Visual Nervous System using an Integrated Optoelectronic Device Array. ADVANCED MATERIALS (DEERFIELD BEACH, FLA.) 2021; 33:e2105485. [PMID: 34636092 DOI: 10.1002/adma.202105485] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/15/2021] [Revised: 08/31/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
Human behavior (e.g., the response to any incoming information) has very complex forms and is based on the response to consecutive external stimuli entering varied sensory receptors. Sensory adaptation is an elementary form of the sensory nervous system known to filter out irrelevant information for efficient information transfer from consecutive stimuli. As bioinspired neuromorphic electronic system is developed, the functionality of organs shall be emulated at a higher level than the cell. Because it is important for electronic devices to possess sensory adaptation in spiking neural networks, the authors demonstrate a dynamic, real-time, photoadaptation process to optical irradiation when repeated light stimuli are presented to the artificial photoreceptor. The filtered electrical signal generated by the light and the adapting signal produces a specific range of postsynaptic states through the neurotransistor, demonstrating changes in the response according to the environment, as normally perceived by the human brain. This successfully demonstrates plausible biological sensory adaptation. Further, the ability of this circuit design to accommodate changes in the intensity of bright or dark light by adjusting the sensitivity of the artificial photoreceptor is demonstrated. Thus, the proposed artificial photoreceptor circuits have the potential to advance neuromorphic device technology by providing sensory adaptation capabilities.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tae-Ju Lee
- Department of Nanophotonics, Korea University, 145 Anam-ro, Seongbuk-gu, Seoul, 02841, Republic of Korea
| | - Kwang-Ro Yun
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Korea University, 145 Anam-ro, Seongbuk-gu, Seoul, 02841, Republic of Korea
| | - Su-Kyung Kim
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Korea University, 145 Anam-ro, Seongbuk-gu, Seoul, 02841, Republic of Korea
| | - Jong-Ho Kim
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Korea University, 145 Anam-ro, Seongbuk-gu, Seoul, 02841, Republic of Korea
| | - Junyoung Jin
- Center for Neuromorphic Engineering, Korea Institute of Science and Technology (KIST), 5, Hwarang-ro 14-gil, Seongbuk-gu, Seoul, 02792, Republic of Korea
| | - Kee-Baek Sim
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Korea University, 145 Anam-ro, Seongbuk-gu, Seoul, 02841, Republic of Korea
| | - Da-Hoon Lee
- Department of Nanophotonics, Korea University, 145 Anam-ro, Seongbuk-gu, Seoul, 02841, Republic of Korea
| | - Gyu Weon Hwang
- Center for Neuromorphic Engineering, Korea Institute of Science and Technology (KIST), 5, Hwarang-ro 14-gil, Seongbuk-gu, Seoul, 02792, Republic of Korea
| | - Tae-Yeon Seong
- Department of Nanophotonics, Korea University, 145 Anam-ro, Seongbuk-gu, Seoul, 02841, Republic of Korea
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Korea University, 145 Anam-ro, Seongbuk-gu, Seoul, 02841, Republic of Korea
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69
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Neuroligin-3 Regulates Excitatory Synaptic Transmission and EPSP-Spike Coupling in the Dentate Gyrus In Vivo. Mol Neurobiol 2021; 59:1098-1111. [PMID: 34845591 PMCID: PMC8857112 DOI: 10.1007/s12035-021-02663-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/08/2021] [Accepted: 11/22/2021] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
Neuroligin-3 (Nlgn3), a neuronal adhesion protein implicated in autism spectrum disorder (ASD), is expressed at excitatory and inhibitory postsynapses and hence may regulate neuronal excitation/inhibition balance. To test this hypothesis, we recorded field excitatory postsynaptic potentials (fEPSPs) in the dentate gyrus of Nlgn3 knockout (KO) and wild-type mice. Synaptic transmission evoked by perforant path stimulation was reduced in KO mice, but coupling of the fEPSP to the population spike was increased, suggesting a compensatory change in granule cell excitability. These findings closely resemble those in neuroligin-1 (Nlgn1) KO mice and could be partially explained by the reduction in Nlgn1 levels we observed in hippocampal synaptosomes from Nlgn3 KO mice. However, unlike Nlgn1, Nlgn3 is not necessary for long-term potentiation. We conclude that while Nlgn1 and Nlgn3 have distinct functions, both are required for intact synaptic transmission in the mouse dentate gyrus. Our results indicate that interactions between neuroligins may play an important role in regulating synaptic transmission and that ASD-related neuroligin mutations may also affect the synaptic availability of other neuroligins.
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Camacho M, Quade B, Trimbuch T, Xu J, Sari L, Rizo J, Rosenmund C. Control of neurotransmitter release by two distinct membrane-binding faces of the Munc13-1 C 1C 2B region. eLife 2021; 10:e72030. [PMID: 34779770 PMCID: PMC8648301 DOI: 10.7554/elife.72030] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/07/2021] [Accepted: 11/14/2021] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Munc13-1 plays a central role in neurotransmitter release through its conserved C-terminal region, which includes a diacyglycerol (DAG)-binding C1 domain, a Ca2+/PIP2-binding C2B domain, a MUN domain and a C2C domain. Munc13-1 was proposed to bridge synaptic vesicles to the plasma membrane through distinct interactions of the C1C2B region with the plasma membrane: (i) one involving a polybasic face that is expected to yield a perpendicular orientation of Munc13-1 and hinder release; and (ii) another involving the DAG-Ca2+-PIP2-binding face that is predicted to result in a slanted orientation and facilitate release. Here, we have tested this model and investigated the role of the C1C2B region in neurotransmitter release. We find that K603E or R769E point mutations in the polybasic face severely impair Ca2+-independent liposome bridging and fusion in in vitro reconstitution assays, and synaptic vesicle priming in primary murine hippocampal cultures. A K720E mutation in the polybasic face and a K706E mutation in the C2B domain Ca2+-binding loops have milder effects in reconstitution assays and do not affect vesicle priming, but enhance or impair Ca2+-evoked release, respectively. The phenotypes caused by combining these mutations are dominated by the K603E and R769E mutations. Our results show that the C1-C2B region of Munc13-1 plays a central role in vesicle priming and support the notion that two distinct faces of this region control neurotransmitter release and short-term presynaptic plasticity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marcial Camacho
- Charité – Universitätsmedizin Berlin, corporate member of Freie Universität Berlin and Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, Institute of NeurophysiologyBerlinGermany
- NeuroCure Cluster of ExcellenceBerlinGermany
| | - Bradley Quade
- Department of Biophysics, University of Texas Southwestern Medical CenterDallasUnited States
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Texas Southwestern Medical CenterDallasUnited States
- Department of Pharmacology, University of Texas Southwestern Medical CenterDallasUnited States
| | - Thorsten Trimbuch
- Charité – Universitätsmedizin Berlin, corporate member of Freie Universität Berlin and Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, Institute of NeurophysiologyBerlinGermany
- NeuroCure Cluster of ExcellenceBerlinGermany
| | - Junjie Xu
- Department of Biophysics, University of Texas Southwestern Medical CenterDallasUnited States
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Texas Southwestern Medical CenterDallasUnited States
- Department of Pharmacology, University of Texas Southwestern Medical CenterDallasUnited States
| | - Levent Sari
- Department of Biophysics, University of Texas Southwestern Medical CenterDallasUnited States
- Cecil H. and Ida Green Comprehensive Center for Molecular, Computational and Systems Biology, University of Texas Southwestern Medical CenterDallasUnited States
- Center for Alzheimer’s and Neurodegenerative Diseases, University of Texas Southwestern Medical CenterDallasUnited States
| | - Josep Rizo
- Department of Biophysics, University of Texas Southwestern Medical CenterDallasUnited States
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Texas Southwestern Medical CenterDallasUnited States
- Department of Pharmacology, University of Texas Southwestern Medical CenterDallasUnited States
| | - Christian Rosenmund
- Charité – Universitätsmedizin Berlin, corporate member of Freie Universität Berlin and Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, Institute of NeurophysiologyBerlinGermany
- NeuroCure Cluster of ExcellenceBerlinGermany
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71
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Synaptic Dynamics Convey Differential Sensitivity to Input Pattern Changes in Two Muscles Innervated by the Same Motor Neurons. eNeuro 2021; 8:ENEURO.0351-21.2021. [PMID: 34764189 PMCID: PMC8609967 DOI: 10.1523/eneuro.0351-21.2021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/26/2021] [Revised: 09/21/2021] [Accepted: 09/30/2021] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Postsynaptic responses depend on input patterns as well as short-term synaptic plasticity, summation, and postsynaptic membrane properties, but the interactions of those dynamics with realistic input patterns are not well understood. We recorded the responses of the two pyloric dilator (PD) muscles, cpv2a and cpv2b, that are innervated by and receive identical periodic bursting input from the same two motor neurons in the lobster Homarus americanus. Cpv2a and cpv2b showed quantitative differences in membrane nonlinearities and synaptic summation. At a short timescale, responses in both muscles were dominated by facilitation, albeit with different frequency and time dependence. Realistic burst stimulations revealed more substantial differences. Across bursts, cpv2a showed transient depression, whereas cpv2b showed transient facilitation. Steady-state responses to bursting input also differed substantially. Neither muscle had a monotonic dependence on frequency, but cpv2b showed particularly pronounced bandpass filtering. Cpv2a was sensitive to changes in both burst frequency and intra-burst spike frequency, whereas, despite its much slower responses, cpv2b was largely insensitive to changes in burst frequency. Cpv2a was sensitive to both burst duration and number of spikes per burst, whereas cpv2b was sensitive only to the former parameter. Neither muscle showed consistent sensitivity to changes in the overall spike interval structure, but cpv2b was surprisingly sensitive to changes in the first intervals in each burst, a parameter known to be regulated by dopamine (DA) modulation of spike propagation of the presynaptic axon. These findings highlight how seemingly minor circuit output changes mediated by neuromodulation could be read out differentially at the two synapses.
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72
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CDH2 mutation affecting N-cadherin function causes attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder in humans and mice. Nat Commun 2021; 12:6187. [PMID: 34702855 PMCID: PMC8548587 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-021-26426-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/13/2020] [Accepted: 09/29/2021] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is a common childhood-onset psychiatric disorder characterized by inattention, impulsivity and hyperactivity. ADHD exhibits substantial heritability, with rare monogenic variants contributing to its pathogenesis. Here we demonstrate familial ADHD caused by a missense mutation in CDH2, which encodes the adhesion protein N-cadherin, known to play a significant role in synaptogenesis; the mutation affects maturation of the protein. In line with the human phenotype, CRISPR/Cas9-mutated knock-in mice harboring the human mutation in the mouse ortholog recapitulated core behavioral features of hyperactivity. Symptoms were modified by methylphenidate, the most commonly prescribed therapeutic for ADHD. The mutated mice exhibited impaired presynaptic vesicle clustering, attenuated evoked transmitter release and decreased spontaneous release. Specific downstream molecular pathways were affected in both the ventral midbrain and prefrontal cortex, with reduced tyrosine hydroxylase expression and dopamine levels. We thus delineate roles for CDH2-related pathways in the pathophysiology of ADHD. Molecular mechanisms of attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) are not fully understood. Here the authors demonstrate a mutation in CDH2, encoding N-cadherin, that is associated with ADHD, and in a mouse model, delineate molecular electrophysiological characteristics associated with this mutation.
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73
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Li WR, Wang YL, Li C, Gao P, Zhang FF, Hu M, Li JC, Zhang S, Li R, Zhang CX. Synaptotagmin-11 inhibits spontaneous neurotransmission through vti1a. J Neurochem 2021; 159:729-741. [PMID: 34599505 DOI: 10.1111/jnc.15523] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/06/2019] [Revised: 11/25/2020] [Accepted: 09/26/2021] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
Recent work has revealed that spontaneous release plays critical roles in the central nervous system, but how it is regulated remains elusive. Here, we report that synaptotagmin-11 (Syt11), a Ca2+ -independent Syt isoform associated with schizophrenia and Parkinson's disease, suppressed spontaneous release. Syt11-knockout hippocampal neurons showed an increased frequency of miniature excitatory post-synaptic currents while over-expression of Syt11 inversely decreased the frequency. Neither knockout nor over-expression of Syt11 affected the average amplitude, suggesting the pre-synaptic regulation of spontaneous neurotransmission by Syt11. Glutathione S-transferase pull-down, co-immunoprecipitation, and affinity-purification experiments demonstrated a direct interaction of Syt11 with vps10p-tail-interactor-1a (vti1a), a non-canonical SNARE protein that maintains spontaneous release. Importantly, knockdown of vti1a reversed the phenotype of Syt11 knockout, identifying vti1a as the main target of Syt11 inhibition. Domain analysis revealed that the C2A domain of Syt11 bound vti1a with high affinity. Consistently, expression of the C2A domain alone rescued the phenotype of elevated spontaneous release in Syt11-knockout neurons similar to the full-length protein. Altogether, our results suggest that Syt11 inhibits vti1a-containing vesicles during spontaneous release.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wan-Ru Li
- Beijing Institute of Brain Disorders, Laboratory of Brain Disorders, Ministry of Science and Technology, Collaborative Innovation Center for Brain Disorders, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China
| | - Ya-Long Wang
- Beijing Institute of Brain Disorders, Laboratory of Brain Disorders, Ministry of Science and Technology, Collaborative Innovation Center for Brain Disorders, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China
| | - Chao Li
- State Key Laboratory of Brain and Cognitive Sciences, Institute of Biophysics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China.,University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Pei Gao
- Beijing Institute of Brain Disorders, Laboratory of Brain Disorders, Ministry of Science and Technology, Collaborative Innovation Center for Brain Disorders, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China
| | - Fei-Fan Zhang
- Beijing Institute of Brain Disorders, Laboratory of Brain Disorders, Ministry of Science and Technology, Collaborative Innovation Center for Brain Disorders, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China
| | - Meiqin Hu
- Department of Molecular, Cellular, and Developmental Biology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan, USA
| | - Jing-Chen Li
- Beijing Institute of Brain Disorders, Laboratory of Brain Disorders, Ministry of Science and Technology, Collaborative Innovation Center for Brain Disorders, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China
| | - Shuli Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Brain and Cognitive Sciences, Institute of Biophysics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China.,University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Rena Li
- Beijing Key Laboratory of Mental Disorders, Beijing Anding Hospital and Beijing Institute of Brain Disorders, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China
| | - Claire Xi Zhang
- Beijing Institute of Brain Disorders, Laboratory of Brain Disorders, Ministry of Science and Technology, Collaborative Innovation Center for Brain Disorders, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China.,Academy of Pharmacy, Xi'an Jiaotong-Liverpool University, Suzhou, China
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74
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Hansen KB, Wollmuth LP, Bowie D, Furukawa H, Menniti FS, Sobolevsky AI, Swanson GT, Swanger SA, Greger IH, Nakagawa T, McBain CJ, Jayaraman V, Low CM, Dell'Acqua ML, Diamond JS, Camp CR, Perszyk RE, Yuan H, Traynelis SF. Structure, Function, and Pharmacology of Glutamate Receptor Ion Channels. Pharmacol Rev 2021; 73:298-487. [PMID: 34753794 PMCID: PMC8626789 DOI: 10.1124/pharmrev.120.000131] [Citation(s) in RCA: 236] [Impact Index Per Article: 78.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Many physiologic effects of l-glutamate, the major excitatory neurotransmitter in the mammalian central nervous system, are mediated via signaling by ionotropic glutamate receptors (iGluRs). These ligand-gated ion channels are critical to brain function and are centrally implicated in numerous psychiatric and neurologic disorders. There are different classes of iGluRs with a variety of receptor subtypes in each class that play distinct roles in neuronal functions. The diversity in iGluR subtypes, with their unique functional properties and physiologic roles, has motivated a large number of studies. Our understanding of receptor subtypes has advanced considerably since the first iGluR subunit gene was cloned in 1989, and the research focus has expanded to encompass facets of biology that have been recently discovered and to exploit experimental paradigms made possible by technological advances. Here, we review insights from more than 3 decades of iGluR studies with an emphasis on the progress that has occurred in the past decade. We cover structure, function, pharmacology, roles in neurophysiology, and therapeutic implications for all classes of receptors assembled from the subunits encoded by the 18 ionotropic glutamate receptor genes. SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT: Glutamate receptors play important roles in virtually all aspects of brain function and are either involved in mediating some clinical features of neurological disease or represent a therapeutic target for treatment. Therefore, understanding the structure, function, and pharmacology of this class of receptors will advance our understanding of many aspects of brain function at molecular, cellular, and system levels and provide new opportunities to treat patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kasper B Hansen
- Center for Structural and Functional Neuroscience, Center for Biomolecular Structure and Dynamics, Division of Biological Sciences, University of Montana, Missoula, MT (K.B.H.); Department of Neurobiology and Behavior, Center for Nervous System Disorders, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, NY (L.P.W.); Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics, McGill University, Montréal, Québec, Canada (D.B.); WM Keck Structural Biology Laboratory, Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory, Cold Spring Harbor, NY (H.F.); MindImmune Therapeutics, Inc., The George & Anne Ryan Institute for Neuroscience, University of Rhode Island, Kingston, RI (F.S.M.); Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biophysics, Columbia University, New York, NY (A.I.S.); Department of Pharmacology, Northwestern University Feinberg School of Medicine, Chicago, IL (G.T.S.); Fralin Biomedical Research Institute at Virginia Tech Carilion, Virginia Tech, Roanoke, VA and Department of Biomedical Sciences and Pathobiology, Virginia-Maryland College of Veterinary Medicine, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA (S.A.S.); Neurobiology Division, MRC Laboratory of Molecular Biology, Cambridge, United Kingdom (I.H.G.); Department of Molecular Physiology and Biophysics, Center for Structural Biology, Vanderbilt Brain Institute, Vanderbilt University, School of Medicine, Nashville, TN (T.N.); Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (C.J.M.), and Synaptic Physiology Section, NINDS Intramural Research Program, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD (J.S.D.); Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Texas Health Science Center, Houston, TX (V.J.); Department of Pharmacology, Department of Anaesthesia, Healthy Longevity Translational Research Program, Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine, National University of Singapore, Singapore (C.-M.L.); Department of Pharmacology, University of Colorado School of Medicine, Aurora, CO (M.L.D.); and Department of Pharmacology and Chemical Biology, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA (C.R.C., R.E.P., H.Y., S.F.T.)
| | - Lonnie P Wollmuth
- Center for Structural and Functional Neuroscience, Center for Biomolecular Structure and Dynamics, Division of Biological Sciences, University of Montana, Missoula, MT (K.B.H.); Department of Neurobiology and Behavior, Center for Nervous System Disorders, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, NY (L.P.W.); Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics, McGill University, Montréal, Québec, Canada (D.B.); WM Keck Structural Biology Laboratory, Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory, Cold Spring Harbor, NY (H.F.); MindImmune Therapeutics, Inc., The George & Anne Ryan Institute for Neuroscience, University of Rhode Island, Kingston, RI (F.S.M.); Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biophysics, Columbia University, New York, NY (A.I.S.); Department of Pharmacology, Northwestern University Feinberg School of Medicine, Chicago, IL (G.T.S.); Fralin Biomedical Research Institute at Virginia Tech Carilion, Virginia Tech, Roanoke, VA and Department of Biomedical Sciences and Pathobiology, Virginia-Maryland College of Veterinary Medicine, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA (S.A.S.); Neurobiology Division, MRC Laboratory of Molecular Biology, Cambridge, United Kingdom (I.H.G.); Department of Molecular Physiology and Biophysics, Center for Structural Biology, Vanderbilt Brain Institute, Vanderbilt University, School of Medicine, Nashville, TN (T.N.); Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (C.J.M.), and Synaptic Physiology Section, NINDS Intramural Research Program, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD (J.S.D.); Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Texas Health Science Center, Houston, TX (V.J.); Department of Pharmacology, Department of Anaesthesia, Healthy Longevity Translational Research Program, Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine, National University of Singapore, Singapore (C.-M.L.); Department of Pharmacology, University of Colorado School of Medicine, Aurora, CO (M.L.D.); and Department of Pharmacology and Chemical Biology, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA (C.R.C., R.E.P., H.Y., S.F.T.)
| | - Derek Bowie
- Center for Structural and Functional Neuroscience, Center for Biomolecular Structure and Dynamics, Division of Biological Sciences, University of Montana, Missoula, MT (K.B.H.); Department of Neurobiology and Behavior, Center for Nervous System Disorders, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, NY (L.P.W.); Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics, McGill University, Montréal, Québec, Canada (D.B.); WM Keck Structural Biology Laboratory, Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory, Cold Spring Harbor, NY (H.F.); MindImmune Therapeutics, Inc., The George & Anne Ryan Institute for Neuroscience, University of Rhode Island, Kingston, RI (F.S.M.); Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biophysics, Columbia University, New York, NY (A.I.S.); Department of Pharmacology, Northwestern University Feinberg School of Medicine, Chicago, IL (G.T.S.); Fralin Biomedical Research Institute at Virginia Tech Carilion, Virginia Tech, Roanoke, VA and Department of Biomedical Sciences and Pathobiology, Virginia-Maryland College of Veterinary Medicine, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA (S.A.S.); Neurobiology Division, MRC Laboratory of Molecular Biology, Cambridge, United Kingdom (I.H.G.); Department of Molecular Physiology and Biophysics, Center for Structural Biology, Vanderbilt Brain Institute, Vanderbilt University, School of Medicine, Nashville, TN (T.N.); Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (C.J.M.), and Synaptic Physiology Section, NINDS Intramural Research Program, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD (J.S.D.); Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Texas Health Science Center, Houston, TX (V.J.); Department of Pharmacology, Department of Anaesthesia, Healthy Longevity Translational Research Program, Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine, National University of Singapore, Singapore (C.-M.L.); Department of Pharmacology, University of Colorado School of Medicine, Aurora, CO (M.L.D.); and Department of Pharmacology and Chemical Biology, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA (C.R.C., R.E.P., H.Y., S.F.T.)
| | - Hiro Furukawa
- Center for Structural and Functional Neuroscience, Center for Biomolecular Structure and Dynamics, Division of Biological Sciences, University of Montana, Missoula, MT (K.B.H.); Department of Neurobiology and Behavior, Center for Nervous System Disorders, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, NY (L.P.W.); Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics, McGill University, Montréal, Québec, Canada (D.B.); WM Keck Structural Biology Laboratory, Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory, Cold Spring Harbor, NY (H.F.); MindImmune Therapeutics, Inc., The George & Anne Ryan Institute for Neuroscience, University of Rhode Island, Kingston, RI (F.S.M.); Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biophysics, Columbia University, New York, NY (A.I.S.); Department of Pharmacology, Northwestern University Feinberg School of Medicine, Chicago, IL (G.T.S.); Fralin Biomedical Research Institute at Virginia Tech Carilion, Virginia Tech, Roanoke, VA and Department of Biomedical Sciences and Pathobiology, Virginia-Maryland College of Veterinary Medicine, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA (S.A.S.); Neurobiology Division, MRC Laboratory of Molecular Biology, Cambridge, United Kingdom (I.H.G.); Department of Molecular Physiology and Biophysics, Center for Structural Biology, Vanderbilt Brain Institute, Vanderbilt University, School of Medicine, Nashville, TN (T.N.); Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (C.J.M.), and Synaptic Physiology Section, NINDS Intramural Research Program, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD (J.S.D.); Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Texas Health Science Center, Houston, TX (V.J.); Department of Pharmacology, Department of Anaesthesia, Healthy Longevity Translational Research Program, Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine, National University of Singapore, Singapore (C.-M.L.); Department of Pharmacology, University of Colorado School of Medicine, Aurora, CO (M.L.D.); and Department of Pharmacology and Chemical Biology, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA (C.R.C., R.E.P., H.Y., S.F.T.)
| | - Frank S Menniti
- Center for Structural and Functional Neuroscience, Center for Biomolecular Structure and Dynamics, Division of Biological Sciences, University of Montana, Missoula, MT (K.B.H.); Department of Neurobiology and Behavior, Center for Nervous System Disorders, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, NY (L.P.W.); Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics, McGill University, Montréal, Québec, Canada (D.B.); WM Keck Structural Biology Laboratory, Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory, Cold Spring Harbor, NY (H.F.); MindImmune Therapeutics, Inc., The George & Anne Ryan Institute for Neuroscience, University of Rhode Island, Kingston, RI (F.S.M.); Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biophysics, Columbia University, New York, NY (A.I.S.); Department of Pharmacology, Northwestern University Feinberg School of Medicine, Chicago, IL (G.T.S.); Fralin Biomedical Research Institute at Virginia Tech Carilion, Virginia Tech, Roanoke, VA and Department of Biomedical Sciences and Pathobiology, Virginia-Maryland College of Veterinary Medicine, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA (S.A.S.); Neurobiology Division, MRC Laboratory of Molecular Biology, Cambridge, United Kingdom (I.H.G.); Department of Molecular Physiology and Biophysics, Center for Structural Biology, Vanderbilt Brain Institute, Vanderbilt University, School of Medicine, Nashville, TN (T.N.); Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (C.J.M.), and Synaptic Physiology Section, NINDS Intramural Research Program, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD (J.S.D.); Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Texas Health Science Center, Houston, TX (V.J.); Department of Pharmacology, Department of Anaesthesia, Healthy Longevity Translational Research Program, Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine, National University of Singapore, Singapore (C.-M.L.); Department of Pharmacology, University of Colorado School of Medicine, Aurora, CO (M.L.D.); and Department of Pharmacology and Chemical Biology, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA (C.R.C., R.E.P., H.Y., S.F.T.)
| | - Alexander I Sobolevsky
- Center for Structural and Functional Neuroscience, Center for Biomolecular Structure and Dynamics, Division of Biological Sciences, University of Montana, Missoula, MT (K.B.H.); Department of Neurobiology and Behavior, Center for Nervous System Disorders, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, NY (L.P.W.); Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics, McGill University, Montréal, Québec, Canada (D.B.); WM Keck Structural Biology Laboratory, Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory, Cold Spring Harbor, NY (H.F.); MindImmune Therapeutics, Inc., The George & Anne Ryan Institute for Neuroscience, University of Rhode Island, Kingston, RI (F.S.M.); Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biophysics, Columbia University, New York, NY (A.I.S.); Department of Pharmacology, Northwestern University Feinberg School of Medicine, Chicago, IL (G.T.S.); Fralin Biomedical Research Institute at Virginia Tech Carilion, Virginia Tech, Roanoke, VA and Department of Biomedical Sciences and Pathobiology, Virginia-Maryland College of Veterinary Medicine, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA (S.A.S.); Neurobiology Division, MRC Laboratory of Molecular Biology, Cambridge, United Kingdom (I.H.G.); Department of Molecular Physiology and Biophysics, Center for Structural Biology, Vanderbilt Brain Institute, Vanderbilt University, School of Medicine, Nashville, TN (T.N.); Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (C.J.M.), and Synaptic Physiology Section, NINDS Intramural Research Program, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD (J.S.D.); Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Texas Health Science Center, Houston, TX (V.J.); Department of Pharmacology, Department of Anaesthesia, Healthy Longevity Translational Research Program, Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine, National University of Singapore, Singapore (C.-M.L.); Department of Pharmacology, University of Colorado School of Medicine, Aurora, CO (M.L.D.); and Department of Pharmacology and Chemical Biology, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA (C.R.C., R.E.P., H.Y., S.F.T.)
| | - Geoffrey T Swanson
- Center for Structural and Functional Neuroscience, Center for Biomolecular Structure and Dynamics, Division of Biological Sciences, University of Montana, Missoula, MT (K.B.H.); Department of Neurobiology and Behavior, Center for Nervous System Disorders, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, NY (L.P.W.); Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics, McGill University, Montréal, Québec, Canada (D.B.); WM Keck Structural Biology Laboratory, Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory, Cold Spring Harbor, NY (H.F.); MindImmune Therapeutics, Inc., The George & Anne Ryan Institute for Neuroscience, University of Rhode Island, Kingston, RI (F.S.M.); Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biophysics, Columbia University, New York, NY (A.I.S.); Department of Pharmacology, Northwestern University Feinberg School of Medicine, Chicago, IL (G.T.S.); Fralin Biomedical Research Institute at Virginia Tech Carilion, Virginia Tech, Roanoke, VA and Department of Biomedical Sciences and Pathobiology, Virginia-Maryland College of Veterinary Medicine, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA (S.A.S.); Neurobiology Division, MRC Laboratory of Molecular Biology, Cambridge, United Kingdom (I.H.G.); Department of Molecular Physiology and Biophysics, Center for Structural Biology, Vanderbilt Brain Institute, Vanderbilt University, School of Medicine, Nashville, TN (T.N.); Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (C.J.M.), and Synaptic Physiology Section, NINDS Intramural Research Program, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD (J.S.D.); Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Texas Health Science Center, Houston, TX (V.J.); Department of Pharmacology, Department of Anaesthesia, Healthy Longevity Translational Research Program, Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine, National University of Singapore, Singapore (C.-M.L.); Department of Pharmacology, University of Colorado School of Medicine, Aurora, CO (M.L.D.); and Department of Pharmacology and Chemical Biology, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA (C.R.C., R.E.P., H.Y., S.F.T.)
| | - Sharon A Swanger
- Center for Structural and Functional Neuroscience, Center for Biomolecular Structure and Dynamics, Division of Biological Sciences, University of Montana, Missoula, MT (K.B.H.); Department of Neurobiology and Behavior, Center for Nervous System Disorders, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, NY (L.P.W.); Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics, McGill University, Montréal, Québec, Canada (D.B.); WM Keck Structural Biology Laboratory, Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory, Cold Spring Harbor, NY (H.F.); MindImmune Therapeutics, Inc., The George & Anne Ryan Institute for Neuroscience, University of Rhode Island, Kingston, RI (F.S.M.); Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biophysics, Columbia University, New York, NY (A.I.S.); Department of Pharmacology, Northwestern University Feinberg School of Medicine, Chicago, IL (G.T.S.); Fralin Biomedical Research Institute at Virginia Tech Carilion, Virginia Tech, Roanoke, VA and Department of Biomedical Sciences and Pathobiology, Virginia-Maryland College of Veterinary Medicine, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA (S.A.S.); Neurobiology Division, MRC Laboratory of Molecular Biology, Cambridge, United Kingdom (I.H.G.); Department of Molecular Physiology and Biophysics, Center for Structural Biology, Vanderbilt Brain Institute, Vanderbilt University, School of Medicine, Nashville, TN (T.N.); Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (C.J.M.), and Synaptic Physiology Section, NINDS Intramural Research Program, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD (J.S.D.); Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Texas Health Science Center, Houston, TX (V.J.); Department of Pharmacology, Department of Anaesthesia, Healthy Longevity Translational Research Program, Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine, National University of Singapore, Singapore (C.-M.L.); Department of Pharmacology, University of Colorado School of Medicine, Aurora, CO (M.L.D.); and Department of Pharmacology and Chemical Biology, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA (C.R.C., R.E.P., H.Y., S.F.T.)
| | - Ingo H Greger
- Center for Structural and Functional Neuroscience, Center for Biomolecular Structure and Dynamics, Division of Biological Sciences, University of Montana, Missoula, MT (K.B.H.); Department of Neurobiology and Behavior, Center for Nervous System Disorders, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, NY (L.P.W.); Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics, McGill University, Montréal, Québec, Canada (D.B.); WM Keck Structural Biology Laboratory, Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory, Cold Spring Harbor, NY (H.F.); MindImmune Therapeutics, Inc., The George & Anne Ryan Institute for Neuroscience, University of Rhode Island, Kingston, RI (F.S.M.); Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biophysics, Columbia University, New York, NY (A.I.S.); Department of Pharmacology, Northwestern University Feinberg School of Medicine, Chicago, IL (G.T.S.); Fralin Biomedical Research Institute at Virginia Tech Carilion, Virginia Tech, Roanoke, VA and Department of Biomedical Sciences and Pathobiology, Virginia-Maryland College of Veterinary Medicine, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA (S.A.S.); Neurobiology Division, MRC Laboratory of Molecular Biology, Cambridge, United Kingdom (I.H.G.); Department of Molecular Physiology and Biophysics, Center for Structural Biology, Vanderbilt Brain Institute, Vanderbilt University, School of Medicine, Nashville, TN (T.N.); Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (C.J.M.), and Synaptic Physiology Section, NINDS Intramural Research Program, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD (J.S.D.); Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Texas Health Science Center, Houston, TX (V.J.); Department of Pharmacology, Department of Anaesthesia, Healthy Longevity Translational Research Program, Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine, National University of Singapore, Singapore (C.-M.L.); Department of Pharmacology, University of Colorado School of Medicine, Aurora, CO (M.L.D.); and Department of Pharmacology and Chemical Biology, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA (C.R.C., R.E.P., H.Y., S.F.T.)
| | - Terunaga Nakagawa
- Center for Structural and Functional Neuroscience, Center for Biomolecular Structure and Dynamics, Division of Biological Sciences, University of Montana, Missoula, MT (K.B.H.); Department of Neurobiology and Behavior, Center for Nervous System Disorders, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, NY (L.P.W.); Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics, McGill University, Montréal, Québec, Canada (D.B.); WM Keck Structural Biology Laboratory, Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory, Cold Spring Harbor, NY (H.F.); MindImmune Therapeutics, Inc., The George & Anne Ryan Institute for Neuroscience, University of Rhode Island, Kingston, RI (F.S.M.); Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biophysics, Columbia University, New York, NY (A.I.S.); Department of Pharmacology, Northwestern University Feinberg School of Medicine, Chicago, IL (G.T.S.); Fralin Biomedical Research Institute at Virginia Tech Carilion, Virginia Tech, Roanoke, VA and Department of Biomedical Sciences and Pathobiology, Virginia-Maryland College of Veterinary Medicine, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA (S.A.S.); Neurobiology Division, MRC Laboratory of Molecular Biology, Cambridge, United Kingdom (I.H.G.); Department of Molecular Physiology and Biophysics, Center for Structural Biology, Vanderbilt Brain Institute, Vanderbilt University, School of Medicine, Nashville, TN (T.N.); Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (C.J.M.), and Synaptic Physiology Section, NINDS Intramural Research Program, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD (J.S.D.); Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Texas Health Science Center, Houston, TX (V.J.); Department of Pharmacology, Department of Anaesthesia, Healthy Longevity Translational Research Program, Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine, National University of Singapore, Singapore (C.-M.L.); Department of Pharmacology, University of Colorado School of Medicine, Aurora, CO (M.L.D.); and Department of Pharmacology and Chemical Biology, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA (C.R.C., R.E.P., H.Y., S.F.T.)
| | - Chris J McBain
- Center for Structural and Functional Neuroscience, Center for Biomolecular Structure and Dynamics, Division of Biological Sciences, University of Montana, Missoula, MT (K.B.H.); Department of Neurobiology and Behavior, Center for Nervous System Disorders, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, NY (L.P.W.); Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics, McGill University, Montréal, Québec, Canada (D.B.); WM Keck Structural Biology Laboratory, Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory, Cold Spring Harbor, NY (H.F.); MindImmune Therapeutics, Inc., The George & Anne Ryan Institute for Neuroscience, University of Rhode Island, Kingston, RI (F.S.M.); Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biophysics, Columbia University, New York, NY (A.I.S.); Department of Pharmacology, Northwestern University Feinberg School of Medicine, Chicago, IL (G.T.S.); Fralin Biomedical Research Institute at Virginia Tech Carilion, Virginia Tech, Roanoke, VA and Department of Biomedical Sciences and Pathobiology, Virginia-Maryland College of Veterinary Medicine, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA (S.A.S.); Neurobiology Division, MRC Laboratory of Molecular Biology, Cambridge, United Kingdom (I.H.G.); Department of Molecular Physiology and Biophysics, Center for Structural Biology, Vanderbilt Brain Institute, Vanderbilt University, School of Medicine, Nashville, TN (T.N.); Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (C.J.M.), and Synaptic Physiology Section, NINDS Intramural Research Program, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD (J.S.D.); Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Texas Health Science Center, Houston, TX (V.J.); Department of Pharmacology, Department of Anaesthesia, Healthy Longevity Translational Research Program, Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine, National University of Singapore, Singapore (C.-M.L.); Department of Pharmacology, University of Colorado School of Medicine, Aurora, CO (M.L.D.); and Department of Pharmacology and Chemical Biology, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA (C.R.C., R.E.P., H.Y., S.F.T.)
| | - Vasanthi Jayaraman
- Center for Structural and Functional Neuroscience, Center for Biomolecular Structure and Dynamics, Division of Biological Sciences, University of Montana, Missoula, MT (K.B.H.); Department of Neurobiology and Behavior, Center for Nervous System Disorders, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, NY (L.P.W.); Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics, McGill University, Montréal, Québec, Canada (D.B.); WM Keck Structural Biology Laboratory, Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory, Cold Spring Harbor, NY (H.F.); MindImmune Therapeutics, Inc., The George & Anne Ryan Institute for Neuroscience, University of Rhode Island, Kingston, RI (F.S.M.); Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biophysics, Columbia University, New York, NY (A.I.S.); Department of Pharmacology, Northwestern University Feinberg School of Medicine, Chicago, IL (G.T.S.); Fralin Biomedical Research Institute at Virginia Tech Carilion, Virginia Tech, Roanoke, VA and Department of Biomedical Sciences and Pathobiology, Virginia-Maryland College of Veterinary Medicine, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA (S.A.S.); Neurobiology Division, MRC Laboratory of Molecular Biology, Cambridge, United Kingdom (I.H.G.); Department of Molecular Physiology and Biophysics, Center for Structural Biology, Vanderbilt Brain Institute, Vanderbilt University, School of Medicine, Nashville, TN (T.N.); Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (C.J.M.), and Synaptic Physiology Section, NINDS Intramural Research Program, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD (J.S.D.); Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Texas Health Science Center, Houston, TX (V.J.); Department of Pharmacology, Department of Anaesthesia, Healthy Longevity Translational Research Program, Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine, National University of Singapore, Singapore (C.-M.L.); Department of Pharmacology, University of Colorado School of Medicine, Aurora, CO (M.L.D.); and Department of Pharmacology and Chemical Biology, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA (C.R.C., R.E.P., H.Y., S.F.T.)
| | - Chian-Ming Low
- Center for Structural and Functional Neuroscience, Center for Biomolecular Structure and Dynamics, Division of Biological Sciences, University of Montana, Missoula, MT (K.B.H.); Department of Neurobiology and Behavior, Center for Nervous System Disorders, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, NY (L.P.W.); Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics, McGill University, Montréal, Québec, Canada (D.B.); WM Keck Structural Biology Laboratory, Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory, Cold Spring Harbor, NY (H.F.); MindImmune Therapeutics, Inc., The George & Anne Ryan Institute for Neuroscience, University of Rhode Island, Kingston, RI (F.S.M.); Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biophysics, Columbia University, New York, NY (A.I.S.); Department of Pharmacology, Northwestern University Feinberg School of Medicine, Chicago, IL (G.T.S.); Fralin Biomedical Research Institute at Virginia Tech Carilion, Virginia Tech, Roanoke, VA and Department of Biomedical Sciences and Pathobiology, Virginia-Maryland College of Veterinary Medicine, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA (S.A.S.); Neurobiology Division, MRC Laboratory of Molecular Biology, Cambridge, United Kingdom (I.H.G.); Department of Molecular Physiology and Biophysics, Center for Structural Biology, Vanderbilt Brain Institute, Vanderbilt University, School of Medicine, Nashville, TN (T.N.); Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (C.J.M.), and Synaptic Physiology Section, NINDS Intramural Research Program, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD (J.S.D.); Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Texas Health Science Center, Houston, TX (V.J.); Department of Pharmacology, Department of Anaesthesia, Healthy Longevity Translational Research Program, Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine, National University of Singapore, Singapore (C.-M.L.); Department of Pharmacology, University of Colorado School of Medicine, Aurora, CO (M.L.D.); and Department of Pharmacology and Chemical Biology, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA (C.R.C., R.E.P., H.Y., S.F.T.)
| | - Mark L Dell'Acqua
- Center for Structural and Functional Neuroscience, Center for Biomolecular Structure and Dynamics, Division of Biological Sciences, University of Montana, Missoula, MT (K.B.H.); Department of Neurobiology and Behavior, Center for Nervous System Disorders, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, NY (L.P.W.); Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics, McGill University, Montréal, Québec, Canada (D.B.); WM Keck Structural Biology Laboratory, Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory, Cold Spring Harbor, NY (H.F.); MindImmune Therapeutics, Inc., The George & Anne Ryan Institute for Neuroscience, University of Rhode Island, Kingston, RI (F.S.M.); Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biophysics, Columbia University, New York, NY (A.I.S.); Department of Pharmacology, Northwestern University Feinberg School of Medicine, Chicago, IL (G.T.S.); Fralin Biomedical Research Institute at Virginia Tech Carilion, Virginia Tech, Roanoke, VA and Department of Biomedical Sciences and Pathobiology, Virginia-Maryland College of Veterinary Medicine, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA (S.A.S.); Neurobiology Division, MRC Laboratory of Molecular Biology, Cambridge, United Kingdom (I.H.G.); Department of Molecular Physiology and Biophysics, Center for Structural Biology, Vanderbilt Brain Institute, Vanderbilt University, School of Medicine, Nashville, TN (T.N.); Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (C.J.M.), and Synaptic Physiology Section, NINDS Intramural Research Program, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD (J.S.D.); Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Texas Health Science Center, Houston, TX (V.J.); Department of Pharmacology, Department of Anaesthesia, Healthy Longevity Translational Research Program, Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine, National University of Singapore, Singapore (C.-M.L.); Department of Pharmacology, University of Colorado School of Medicine, Aurora, CO (M.L.D.); and Department of Pharmacology and Chemical Biology, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA (C.R.C., R.E.P., H.Y., S.F.T.)
| | - Jeffrey S Diamond
- Center for Structural and Functional Neuroscience, Center for Biomolecular Structure and Dynamics, Division of Biological Sciences, University of Montana, Missoula, MT (K.B.H.); Department of Neurobiology and Behavior, Center for Nervous System Disorders, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, NY (L.P.W.); Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics, McGill University, Montréal, Québec, Canada (D.B.); WM Keck Structural Biology Laboratory, Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory, Cold Spring Harbor, NY (H.F.); MindImmune Therapeutics, Inc., The George & Anne Ryan Institute for Neuroscience, University of Rhode Island, Kingston, RI (F.S.M.); Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biophysics, Columbia University, New York, NY (A.I.S.); Department of Pharmacology, Northwestern University Feinberg School of Medicine, Chicago, IL (G.T.S.); Fralin Biomedical Research Institute at Virginia Tech Carilion, Virginia Tech, Roanoke, VA and Department of Biomedical Sciences and Pathobiology, Virginia-Maryland College of Veterinary Medicine, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA (S.A.S.); Neurobiology Division, MRC Laboratory of Molecular Biology, Cambridge, United Kingdom (I.H.G.); Department of Molecular Physiology and Biophysics, Center for Structural Biology, Vanderbilt Brain Institute, Vanderbilt University, School of Medicine, Nashville, TN (T.N.); Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (C.J.M.), and Synaptic Physiology Section, NINDS Intramural Research Program, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD (J.S.D.); Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Texas Health Science Center, Houston, TX (V.J.); Department of Pharmacology, Department of Anaesthesia, Healthy Longevity Translational Research Program, Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine, National University of Singapore, Singapore (C.-M.L.); Department of Pharmacology, University of Colorado School of Medicine, Aurora, CO (M.L.D.); and Department of Pharmacology and Chemical Biology, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA (C.R.C., R.E.P., H.Y., S.F.T.)
| | - Chad R Camp
- Center for Structural and Functional Neuroscience, Center for Biomolecular Structure and Dynamics, Division of Biological Sciences, University of Montana, Missoula, MT (K.B.H.); Department of Neurobiology and Behavior, Center for Nervous System Disorders, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, NY (L.P.W.); Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics, McGill University, Montréal, Québec, Canada (D.B.); WM Keck Structural Biology Laboratory, Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory, Cold Spring Harbor, NY (H.F.); MindImmune Therapeutics, Inc., The George & Anne Ryan Institute for Neuroscience, University of Rhode Island, Kingston, RI (F.S.M.); Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biophysics, Columbia University, New York, NY (A.I.S.); Department of Pharmacology, Northwestern University Feinberg School of Medicine, Chicago, IL (G.T.S.); Fralin Biomedical Research Institute at Virginia Tech Carilion, Virginia Tech, Roanoke, VA and Department of Biomedical Sciences and Pathobiology, Virginia-Maryland College of Veterinary Medicine, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA (S.A.S.); Neurobiology Division, MRC Laboratory of Molecular Biology, Cambridge, United Kingdom (I.H.G.); Department of Molecular Physiology and Biophysics, Center for Structural Biology, Vanderbilt Brain Institute, Vanderbilt University, School of Medicine, Nashville, TN (T.N.); Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (C.J.M.), and Synaptic Physiology Section, NINDS Intramural Research Program, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD (J.S.D.); Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Texas Health Science Center, Houston, TX (V.J.); Department of Pharmacology, Department of Anaesthesia, Healthy Longevity Translational Research Program, Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine, National University of Singapore, Singapore (C.-M.L.); Department of Pharmacology, University of Colorado School of Medicine, Aurora, CO (M.L.D.); and Department of Pharmacology and Chemical Biology, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA (C.R.C., R.E.P., H.Y., S.F.T.)
| | - Riley E Perszyk
- Center for Structural and Functional Neuroscience, Center for Biomolecular Structure and Dynamics, Division of Biological Sciences, University of Montana, Missoula, MT (K.B.H.); Department of Neurobiology and Behavior, Center for Nervous System Disorders, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, NY (L.P.W.); Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics, McGill University, Montréal, Québec, Canada (D.B.); WM Keck Structural Biology Laboratory, Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory, Cold Spring Harbor, NY (H.F.); MindImmune Therapeutics, Inc., The George & Anne Ryan Institute for Neuroscience, University of Rhode Island, Kingston, RI (F.S.M.); Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biophysics, Columbia University, New York, NY (A.I.S.); Department of Pharmacology, Northwestern University Feinberg School of Medicine, Chicago, IL (G.T.S.); Fralin Biomedical Research Institute at Virginia Tech Carilion, Virginia Tech, Roanoke, VA and Department of Biomedical Sciences and Pathobiology, Virginia-Maryland College of Veterinary Medicine, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA (S.A.S.); Neurobiology Division, MRC Laboratory of Molecular Biology, Cambridge, United Kingdom (I.H.G.); Department of Molecular Physiology and Biophysics, Center for Structural Biology, Vanderbilt Brain Institute, Vanderbilt University, School of Medicine, Nashville, TN (T.N.); Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (C.J.M.), and Synaptic Physiology Section, NINDS Intramural Research Program, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD (J.S.D.); Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Texas Health Science Center, Houston, TX (V.J.); Department of Pharmacology, Department of Anaesthesia, Healthy Longevity Translational Research Program, Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine, National University of Singapore, Singapore (C.-M.L.); Department of Pharmacology, University of Colorado School of Medicine, Aurora, CO (M.L.D.); and Department of Pharmacology and Chemical Biology, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA (C.R.C., R.E.P., H.Y., S.F.T.)
| | - Hongjie Yuan
- Center for Structural and Functional Neuroscience, Center for Biomolecular Structure and Dynamics, Division of Biological Sciences, University of Montana, Missoula, MT (K.B.H.); Department of Neurobiology and Behavior, Center for Nervous System Disorders, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, NY (L.P.W.); Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics, McGill University, Montréal, Québec, Canada (D.B.); WM Keck Structural Biology Laboratory, Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory, Cold Spring Harbor, NY (H.F.); MindImmune Therapeutics, Inc., The George & Anne Ryan Institute for Neuroscience, University of Rhode Island, Kingston, RI (F.S.M.); Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biophysics, Columbia University, New York, NY (A.I.S.); Department of Pharmacology, Northwestern University Feinberg School of Medicine, Chicago, IL (G.T.S.); Fralin Biomedical Research Institute at Virginia Tech Carilion, Virginia Tech, Roanoke, VA and Department of Biomedical Sciences and Pathobiology, Virginia-Maryland College of Veterinary Medicine, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA (S.A.S.); Neurobiology Division, MRC Laboratory of Molecular Biology, Cambridge, United Kingdom (I.H.G.); Department of Molecular Physiology and Biophysics, Center for Structural Biology, Vanderbilt Brain Institute, Vanderbilt University, School of Medicine, Nashville, TN (T.N.); Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (C.J.M.), and Synaptic Physiology Section, NINDS Intramural Research Program, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD (J.S.D.); Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Texas Health Science Center, Houston, TX (V.J.); Department of Pharmacology, Department of Anaesthesia, Healthy Longevity Translational Research Program, Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine, National University of Singapore, Singapore (C.-M.L.); Department of Pharmacology, University of Colorado School of Medicine, Aurora, CO (M.L.D.); and Department of Pharmacology and Chemical Biology, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA (C.R.C., R.E.P., H.Y., S.F.T.)
| | - Stephen F Traynelis
- Center for Structural and Functional Neuroscience, Center for Biomolecular Structure and Dynamics, Division of Biological Sciences, University of Montana, Missoula, MT (K.B.H.); Department of Neurobiology and Behavior, Center for Nervous System Disorders, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, NY (L.P.W.); Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics, McGill University, Montréal, Québec, Canada (D.B.); WM Keck Structural Biology Laboratory, Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory, Cold Spring Harbor, NY (H.F.); MindImmune Therapeutics, Inc., The George & Anne Ryan Institute for Neuroscience, University of Rhode Island, Kingston, RI (F.S.M.); Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biophysics, Columbia University, New York, NY (A.I.S.); Department of Pharmacology, Northwestern University Feinberg School of Medicine, Chicago, IL (G.T.S.); Fralin Biomedical Research Institute at Virginia Tech Carilion, Virginia Tech, Roanoke, VA and Department of Biomedical Sciences and Pathobiology, Virginia-Maryland College of Veterinary Medicine, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA (S.A.S.); Neurobiology Division, MRC Laboratory of Molecular Biology, Cambridge, United Kingdom (I.H.G.); Department of Molecular Physiology and Biophysics, Center for Structural Biology, Vanderbilt Brain Institute, Vanderbilt University, School of Medicine, Nashville, TN (T.N.); Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (C.J.M.), and Synaptic Physiology Section, NINDS Intramural Research Program, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD (J.S.D.); Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Texas Health Science Center, Houston, TX (V.J.); Department of Pharmacology, Department of Anaesthesia, Healthy Longevity Translational Research Program, Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine, National University of Singapore, Singapore (C.-M.L.); Department of Pharmacology, University of Colorado School of Medicine, Aurora, CO (M.L.D.); and Department of Pharmacology and Chemical Biology, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA (C.R.C., R.E.P., H.Y., S.F.T.)
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75
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Jiang ZJ, Li W, Yao LH, Saed B, Rao Y, Grewe BS, McGinley A, Varga K, Alford S, Hu YS, Gong LW. TRPM7 is critical for short-term synaptic depression by regulating synaptic vesicle endocytosis. eLife 2021; 10:e66709. [PMID: 34569930 PMCID: PMC8516418 DOI: 10.7554/elife.66709] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/20/2021] [Accepted: 09/10/2021] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Transient receptor potential melastatin 7 (TRPM7) contributes to a variety of physiological and pathological processes in many tissues and cells. With a widespread distribution in the nervous system, TRPM7 is involved in animal behaviors and neuronal death induced by ischemia. However, the physiological role of TRPM7 in central nervous system (CNS) neuron remains unclear. Here, we identify endocytic defects in neuroendocrine cells and neurons from TRPM7 knockout (KO) mice, indicating a role of TRPM7 in synaptic vesicle endocytosis. Our experiments further pinpoint the importance of TRPM7 as an ion channel in synaptic vesicle endocytosis. Ca2+ imaging detects a defect in presynaptic Ca2+ dynamics in TRPM7 KO neuron, suggesting an importance of Ca2+ influx via TRPM7 in synaptic vesicle endocytosis. Moreover, the short-term depression is enhanced in both excitatory and inhibitory synaptic transmissions from TRPM7 KO mice. Taken together, our data suggests that Ca2+ influx via TRPM7 may be critical for short-term plasticity of synaptic strength by regulating synaptic vesicle endocytosis in neurons.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhong-Jiao Jiang
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Illinois at ChicagoChicagoUnited States
| | - Wenping Li
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Illinois at ChicagoChicagoUnited States
| | - Li-Hua Yao
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Illinois at ChicagoChicagoUnited States
- School of Life Science, Jiangxi Science & Technology Normal UniversityNanchangChina
| | - Badeia Saed
- Department of Chemistry, University of Illinois at ChicagoChicagoUnited States
| | - Yan Rao
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Illinois at ChicagoChicagoUnited States
| | - Brian S Grewe
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Illinois at ChicagoChicagoUnited States
| | - Andrea McGinley
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Illinois at ChicagoChicagoUnited States
| | - Kelly Varga
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Illinois at ChicagoChicagoUnited States
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of North Texas at DallasDallasUnited States
| | - Simon Alford
- Department of Anatomy and Cell Biology, University of Illinois at ChicagoChicagoUnited States
| | - Ying S Hu
- Department of Chemistry, University of Illinois at ChicagoChicagoUnited States
| | - Liang-Wei Gong
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Illinois at ChicagoChicagoUnited States
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76
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Vevea JD, Kusick GF, Courtney KC, Chen E, Watanabe S, Chapman ER. Synaptotagmin 7 is targeted to the axonal plasma membrane through γ-secretase processing to promote synaptic vesicle docking in mouse hippocampal neurons. eLife 2021; 10:e67261. [PMID: 34543184 PMCID: PMC8452306 DOI: 10.7554/elife.67261] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/05/2021] [Accepted: 08/27/2021] [Indexed: 12/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Synaptotagmin 7 (SYT7) has emerged as a key regulator of presynaptic function, but its localization and precise role in the synaptic vesicle cycle remain the subject of debate. Here, we used iGluSnFR to optically interrogate glutamate release, at the single-bouton level, in SYT7KO-dissociated mouse hippocampal neurons. We analyzed asynchronous release, paired-pulse facilitation, and synaptic vesicle replenishment and found that SYT7 contributes to each of these processes to different degrees. 'Zap-and-freeze' electron microscopy revealed that a loss of SYT7 diminishes docking of synaptic vesicles after a stimulus and inhibits the recovery of depleted synaptic vesicles after a stimulus train. SYT7 supports these functions from the axonal plasma membrane, where its localization and stability require both γ-secretase-mediated cleavage and palmitoylation. In summary, SYT7 is a peripheral membrane protein that controls multiple modes of synaptic vesicle (SV) exocytosis and plasticity, in part, through enhancing activity-dependent docking of SVs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jason D Vevea
- Department of Neuroscience, University of Wisconsin-MadisonMadisonUnited States
- Howard Hughes Medical InstituteMadisonUnited States
| | - Grant F Kusick
- Department of Cell Biology, Johns Hopkins University, School of MedicineBaltimoreUnited States
- Biochemistry, Cellular and Molecular Biology Graduate Program, Johns Hopkins University, School of MedicineBaltimoreUnited States
| | - Kevin C Courtney
- Department of Neuroscience, University of Wisconsin-MadisonMadisonUnited States
- Howard Hughes Medical InstituteMadisonUnited States
| | - Erin Chen
- Department of Cell Biology, Johns Hopkins University, School of MedicineBaltimoreUnited States
| | - Shigeki Watanabe
- Department of Cell Biology, Johns Hopkins University, School of MedicineBaltimoreUnited States
- Solomon H. Snyder Department of Neuroscience, Johns Hopkins University, School of MedicineBaltimoreUnited States
| | - Edwin R Chapman
- Department of Neuroscience, University of Wisconsin-MadisonMadisonUnited States
- Howard Hughes Medical InstituteMadisonUnited States
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77
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Sinha M, Narayanan R. Active Dendrites and Local Field Potentials: Biophysical Mechanisms and Computational Explorations. Neuroscience 2021; 489:111-142. [PMID: 34506834 PMCID: PMC7612676 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2021.08.035] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/27/2021] [Revised: 08/30/2021] [Accepted: 08/31/2021] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
Abstract
Neurons and glial cells are endowed with membranes that express a rich repertoire of ion channels, transporters, and receptors. The constant flux of ions across the neuronal and glial membranes results in voltage fluctuations that can be recorded from the extracellular matrix. The high frequency components of this voltage signal contain information about the spiking activity, reflecting the output from the neurons surrounding the recording location. The low frequency components of the signal, referred to as the local field potential (LFP), have been traditionally thought to provide information about the synaptic inputs that impinge on the large dendritic trees of various neurons. In this review, we discuss recent computational and experimental studies pointing to a critical role of several active dendritic mechanisms that can influence the genesis and the location-dependent spectro-temporal dynamics of LFPs, spanning different brain regions. We strongly emphasize the need to account for the several fast and slow dendritic events and associated active mechanisms - including gradients in their expression profiles, inter- and intra-cellular spatio-temporal interactions spanning neurons and glia, heterogeneities and degeneracy across scales, neuromodulatory influences, and activitydependent plasticity - towards gaining important insights about the origins of LFP under different behavioral states in health and disease. We provide simple but essential guidelines on how to model LFPs taking into account these dendritic mechanisms, with detailed methodology on how to account for various heterogeneities and electrophysiological properties of neurons and synapses while studying LFPs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Manisha Sinha
- Cellular Neurophysiology Laboratory, Molecular Biophysics Unit, Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore, Karnataka 560012, India
| | - Rishikesh Narayanan
- Cellular Neurophysiology Laboratory, Molecular Biophysics Unit, Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore, Karnataka 560012, India.
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78
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Vitry F, Papaiordanidou M, Martin A. Mechanisms modulating spinal excitability after nerve stimulation inducing extra torque. J Appl Physiol (1985) 2021; 131:1162-1175. [PMID: 34264132 DOI: 10.1152/japplphysiol.00005.2021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
The study included three experiments aiming to examine the mechanisms responsible for spinal excitability modulation, as assessed by the H-reflex, following stimulation trains delivered at two different frequencies (20 and 100 Hz) inducing extra torque (ET). A first experiment (n = 15) was conducted to evaluate changes in presynaptic inhibition acting on Ia afferents induced by these electrical stimulation trains, assessed by conditioning the soleus H-reflex (tibial nerve stimulation) with stimulation of the common peroneal nerve (D1 inhibition) and of the femoral nerve (heteronymous Ia facilitation, HF). A second experiment (n = 12) permitted to investigate homosynaptic postactivation depression (HPAD) changes after the stimulation trains. A third experiment (n = 14) analyzed changes in motoneuron intrinsic properties after the stimulation trains, by electrically stimulating the descending corticospinal tract at the thoracic level, evoking thoracic motor-evoked potentials (TMEP). Main results showed that in all experiments, spinal excitability decreased after the 20-Hz train (P < 0.05), whereas this parameter significantly increased after the 100-Hz stimulation (P < 0.05). D1 and HF were not significantly modified after either stimulation. HPAD was significantly decreased only after the 20-Hz train, whereas TMEP was significantly increased only after the 100-Hz train (P < 0.05). It is concluded that the decreased spinal excitability observed after the 20-Hz train cannot be attributed to D1 presynaptic inhibition but rather to increased HPAD of the Ia afferents terminals, whereas the increase of this parameter obtained after the 100-Hz train can be assigned to changes in intrinsic motoneuron properties allowing to maintain Ia-α-motoneurons transmission efficacy.NEW & NOTEWORTHY Using different electrophysiological techniques, results show that the downregulation of spinal excitability observed after the 20-Hz train could be ascribed to homosynaptic postactivation depression of the Ia afferents terminals, whereas changes in intrinsic motoneuron properties could explain the increased spinal excitability observed after the 100-Hz train. A novel methodology for assessing soleus D1 presynaptic inhibition and heteronymous Ia facilitation, accounting for eventual modulations of test reflex amplitude throughout the session, was developed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Florian Vitry
- INSERM UMR1093-CAPS, Université Bourgogne Franche-Comté, UFR des Sciences du Sport, F-21000, Dijon, France
| | - Maria Papaiordanidou
- INSERM UMR1093-CAPS, Université Bourgogne Franche-Comté, UFR des Sciences du Sport, F-21000, Dijon, France
| | - Alain Martin
- INSERM UMR1093-CAPS, Université Bourgogne Franche-Comté, UFR des Sciences du Sport, F-21000, Dijon, France
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79
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Xue R, Meng H, Yin J, Xia J, Hu Z, Liu H. The Role of Calmodulin vs. Synaptotagmin in Exocytosis. Front Mol Neurosci 2021; 14:691363. [PMID: 34421537 PMCID: PMC8375295 DOI: 10.3389/fnmol.2021.691363] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/06/2021] [Accepted: 07/19/2021] [Indexed: 12/04/2022] Open
Abstract
Exocytosis is a Ca2+-regulated process that requires the participation of Ca2+ sensors. In the 1980s, two classes of Ca2+-binding proteins were proposed as putative Ca2+ sensors: EF-hand protein calmodulin, and the C2 domain protein synaptotagmin. In the next few decades, numerous studies determined that in the final stage of membrane fusion triggered by a micromolar boost in the level of Ca2+, the low affinity Ca2+-binding protein synaptotagmin, especially synaptotagmin 1 and 2, acts as the primary Ca2+ sensor, whereas calmodulin is unlikely to be functional due to its high Ca2+ affinity. However, in the meantime emerging evidence has revealed that calmodulin is involved in the earlier exocytotic steps prior to fusion, such as vesicle trafficking, docking and priming by acting as a high affinity Ca2+ sensor activated at submicromolar level of Ca2+. Calmodulin directly interacts with multiple regulatory proteins involved in the regulation of exocytosis, including VAMP, myosin V, Munc13, synapsin, GAP43 and Rab3, and switches on key kinases, such as type II Ca2+/calmodulin-dependent protein kinase, to phosphorylate a series of exocytosis regulators, including syntaxin, synapsin, RIM and Ca2+ channels. Moreover, calmodulin interacts with synaptotagmin through either direct binding or indirect phosphorylation. In summary, calmodulin and synaptotagmin are Ca2+ sensors that play complementary roles throughout the process of exocytosis. In this review, we discuss the complementary roles that calmodulin and synaptotagmin play as Ca2+ sensors during exocytosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Renhao Xue
- Shanghai Key Laboratory of Maternal Fetal Medicine, Clinical and Translational Research Center of Shanghai First Maternity & Infant Hospital, School of Life Sciences and Technology, Tongji University, Shanghai, China
| | - Hao Meng
- Guangzhou Laboratory, Guangzhou, China.,Bioland Laboratory, Guangzhou Regenerative Medicine and Health Guangdong Laboratory, Guangzhou, China
| | - Jiaxiang Yin
- Guangzhou Laboratory, Guangzhou, China.,Bioland Laboratory, Guangzhou Regenerative Medicine and Health Guangdong Laboratory, Guangzhou, China
| | - Jingyao Xia
- Clem Jones Centre for Ageing Dementia Research (CJCADR), Queensland Brain Institute, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD, Australia
| | - Zhitao Hu
- Clem Jones Centre for Ageing Dementia Research (CJCADR), Queensland Brain Institute, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD, Australia
| | - Huisheng Liu
- Guangzhou Laboratory, Guangzhou, China.,Bioland Laboratory, Guangzhou Regenerative Medicine and Health Guangdong Laboratory, Guangzhou, China
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80
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K v1.1 channels mediate network excitability and feed-forward inhibition in local amygdala circuits. Sci Rep 2021; 11:15180. [PMID: 34312446 PMCID: PMC8313690 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-021-94633-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/27/2021] [Accepted: 07/14/2021] [Indexed: 01/15/2023] Open
Abstract
Kv1.1 containing potassium channels play crucial roles towards dampening neuronal excitability. Mice lacking Kv1.1 subunits (Kcna1−/−) display recurrent spontaneous seizures and often exhibit sudden unexpected death. Seizures in Kcna1−/− mice resemble those in well-characterized models of temporal lobe epilepsy known to involve limbic brain regions and spontaneous seizures result in enhanced cFos expression and neuronal death in the amygdala. Yet, the functional alterations leading to amygdala hyperexcitability have not been identified. In this study, we used Kcna1−/− mice to examine the contributions of Kv1.1 subunits to excitability in neuronal subtypes from basolateral (BLA) and central lateral (CeL) amygdala known to exhibit distinct firing patterns. We also analyzed synaptic transmission properties in an amygdala local circuit predicted to be involved in epilepsy-related comorbidities. Our data implicate Kv1.1 subunits in controlling spontaneous excitatory synaptic activity in BLA pyramidal neurons. In the CeL, Kv1.1 loss enhances intrinsic excitability and impairs inhibitory synaptic transmission, notably resulting in dysfunction of feed-forward inhibition, a critical mechanism for controlling spike timing. Overall, we find inhibitory control of CeL interneurons is reduced in Kcna1−/− mice suggesting that basal inhibitory network functioning is less able to prevent recurrent hyperexcitation related to seizures.
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81
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Chatterjee R, Paluh JL, Chowdhury S, Mondal S, Raha A, Mukherjee A. SyNC, a Computationally Extensive and Realistic Neural Net to Identify Relative Impacts of Synaptopathy Mechanisms on Glutamatergic Neurons and Their Networks in Autism and Complex Neurological Disorders. Front Cell Neurosci 2021; 15:674030. [PMID: 34354570 PMCID: PMC8330424 DOI: 10.3389/fncel.2021.674030] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/28/2021] [Accepted: 05/25/2021] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Synaptic function and experience-dependent plasticity across multiple synapses are dependent on the types of neurons interacting as well as the intricate mechanisms that operate at the molecular level of the synapse. To understand the complexity of information processing at synaptic networks will rely in part on effective computational models. Such models should also evaluate disruptions to synaptic function by multiple mechanisms. By co-development of algorithms alongside hardware, real time analysis metrics can be co-prioritized along with biological complexity. The hippocampus is implicated in autism spectrum disorders (ASD) and within this region glutamatergic neurons constitute 90% of the neurons integral to the functioning of neuronal networks. Here we generate a computational model referred to as ASD interrogator (ASDint) and corresponding hardware to enable in silicon analysis of multiple ASD mechanisms affecting glutamatergic neuron synapses. The hardware architecture Synaptic Neuronal Circuit, SyNC, is a novel GPU accelerator or neural net, that extends discovery by acting as a biologically relevant realistic neuron synapse in real time. Co-developed ASDint and SyNC expand spiking neural network models of plasticity to comparative analysis of retrograde messengers. The SyNC model is realized in an ASIC architecture, which enables the ability to compute increasingly complex scenarios without sacrificing area efficiency of the model. Here we apply the ASDint model to analyse neuronal circuitry dysfunctions associated with autism spectral disorder (ASD) synaptopathies and their effects on the synaptic learning parameter and demonstrate SyNC on an ideal ASDint scenario. Our work highlights the value of secondary pathways in regard to evaluating complex ASD synaptopathy mechanisms. By comparing the degree of variation in the synaptic learning parameter to the response obtained from simulations of the ideal scenario we determine the potency and time of the effect of a particular evaluated mechanism. Hence simulations of such scenarios in even a small neuronal network now allows us to identify relative impacts of changed parameters and their effect on synaptic function. Based on this, we can estimate the minimum fraction of a neuron exhibiting a particular dysfunction scenario required to lead to complete failure of a neural network to coordinate pre-synaptic and post-synaptic outputs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rounak Chatterjee
- Department of Electronics and Telecommunication Engineering, Jadavpur University, Kolkata, India
| | - Janet L Paluh
- SUNY Polytechnic Institute, College of Nanoscale Science and Engineering, Nanobioscience, Albany, NY, United States
| | - Souradeep Chowdhury
- Department of Electronics and Telecommunication Engineering, Jadavpur University, Kolkata, India
| | - Soham Mondal
- Flash Controller Team, Memory Solutions, Samsung Semiconductor India Research, Samsung Electronics Co., Ltd., Bangalore, India
| | - Arnab Raha
- Advanced Architecture Research, Intel Intelligent Systems Group, Intel Edge AI, Intel Corporation, Santa Clara, CA, United States
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82
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O'Neil SD, Rácz B, Brown WE, Gao Y, Soderblom EJ, Yasuda R, Soderling SH. Action potential-coupled Rho GTPase signaling drives presynaptic plasticity. eLife 2021; 10:63756. [PMID: 34269176 PMCID: PMC8285108 DOI: 10.7554/elife.63756] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/06/2020] [Accepted: 07/06/2021] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
In contrast to their postsynaptic counterparts, the contributions of activity-dependent cytoskeletal signaling to presynaptic plasticity remain controversial and poorly understood. To identify and evaluate these signaling pathways, we conducted a proteomic analysis of the presynaptic cytomatrix using in vivo biotin identification (iBioID). The resultant proteome was heavily enriched for actin cytoskeleton regulators, including Rac1, a Rho GTPase that activates the Arp2/3 complex to nucleate branched actin filaments. Strikingly, we find Rac1 and Arp2/3 are closely associated with synaptic vesicle membranes in adult mice. Using three independent approaches to alter presynaptic Rac1 activity (genetic knockout, spatially restricted inhibition, and temporal optogenetic manipulation), we discover that this pathway negatively regulates synaptic vesicle replenishment at both excitatory and inhibitory synapses, bidirectionally sculpting short-term synaptic depression. Finally, we use two-photon fluorescence lifetime imaging to show that presynaptic Rac1 activation is coupled to action potentials by voltage-gated calcium influx. Thus, this study uncovers a previously unrecognized mechanism of actin-regulated short-term presynaptic plasticity that is conserved across excitatory and inhibitory terminals. It also provides a new proteomic framework for better understanding presynaptic physiology, along with a blueprint of experimental strategies to isolate the presynaptic effects of ubiquitously expressed proteins.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Bence Rácz
- Department of Anatomy and Histology, University of Veterinary Medicine, Budapest, Hungary
| | - Walter Evan Brown
- Department of Cell Biology, Duke University Medical Center, Durham, United States
| | - Yudong Gao
- Department of Cell Biology, Duke University Medical Center, Durham, United States
| | - Erik J Soderblom
- Department of Cell Biology, Duke University Medical Center, Durham, United States.,Proteomics and Metabolomics Shared Resource and Center for Genomic and Computational Biology, Duke University Medical Center, Durham, United States
| | - Ryohei Yasuda
- Max Planck Florida Institute for Neuroscience, Jupiter, United States
| | - Scott H Soderling
- Department of Neurobiology, Duke University Medical Center, Durham, United States.,Department of Cell Biology, Duke University Medical Center, Durham, United States
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83
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Xi F, Han Y, Liu M, Bae JH, Tiedemann A, Grützmacher D, Zhao QT. Artificial Synapses Based on Ferroelectric Schottky Barrier Field-Effect Transistors for Neuromorphic Applications. ACS APPLIED MATERIALS & INTERFACES 2021; 13:32005-32012. [PMID: 34171195 DOI: 10.1021/acsami.1c07505] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
Artificial synapses based on ferroelectric Schottky barrier field-effect transistors (FE-SBFETs) are experimentally demonstrated. The FE-SBFETs employ single-crystalline NiSi2 contacts with an atomically flat interface to Si and Hf0.5Zr0.5O2 ferroelectric layers on silicon-on-insulator substrates. The ferroelectric polarization switching dynamics gradually modulate the NiSi2/Si Schottky barriers and the potential of the channel, thus programming the device conductance with input voltage pulses. The short-term synaptic plasticity is characterized in terms of excitatory/inhibitory post-synaptic current (EPSC) and paired-pulse facilitation/depression. The EPSC amplitude shows a linear response to the amplitude of the pre-synaptic spike. Very low energy/spike consumption as small as ∼2 fJ is achieved, demonstrating high energy efficiency. Long-term potentiation/depression results show very high endurance and very small cycle-to-cycle variations (∼1%) after 105 pulse measurements. Furthermore, spike-timing-dependent plasticity is also emulated using the gate voltage pulse as the pre-synaptic spike and the drain voltage pulse as the post-synaptic spikes. These findings indicate that FE-SBFET synapses have high potential for future neuromorphic computing applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fengben Xi
- Peter Grünberg Institute (PGI 9) and JARA-Fundamentals of Future Information Technologies, Forschungszentrum Jülich GmbH, 52428 Jülich, Germany
- Faculty of Mathematics, Computer Science and Natural Sciences, RWTH Aachen University, 52074 Aachen, Germany
| | - Yi Han
- Peter Grünberg Institute (PGI 9) and JARA-Fundamentals of Future Information Technologies, Forschungszentrum Jülich GmbH, 52428 Jülich, Germany
- Faculty of Mathematics, Computer Science and Natural Sciences, RWTH Aachen University, 52074 Aachen, Germany
| | - Mingshan Liu
- Peter Grünberg Institute (PGI 9) and JARA-Fundamentals of Future Information Technologies, Forschungszentrum Jülich GmbH, 52428 Jülich, Germany
| | - Jin Hee Bae
- Peter Grünberg Institute (PGI 9) and JARA-Fundamentals of Future Information Technologies, Forschungszentrum Jülich GmbH, 52428 Jülich, Germany
| | - Andreas Tiedemann
- Peter Grünberg Institute (PGI 9) and JARA-Fundamentals of Future Information Technologies, Forschungszentrum Jülich GmbH, 52428 Jülich, Germany
| | - Detlev Grützmacher
- Peter Grünberg Institute (PGI 9) and JARA-Fundamentals of Future Information Technologies, Forschungszentrum Jülich GmbH, 52428 Jülich, Germany
| | - Qing-Tai Zhao
- Peter Grünberg Institute (PGI 9) and JARA-Fundamentals of Future Information Technologies, Forschungszentrum Jülich GmbH, 52428 Jülich, Germany
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Zeng M, He Y, Zhang C, Wan Q. Neuromorphic Devices for Bionic Sensing and Perception. Front Neurosci 2021; 15:690950. [PMID: 34267624 PMCID: PMC8275992 DOI: 10.3389/fnins.2021.690950] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/05/2021] [Accepted: 06/07/2021] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Neuromorphic devices that can emulate the bionic sensory and perceptual functions of neural systems have great applications in personal healthcare monitoring, neuro-prosthetics, and human-machine interfaces. In order to realize bionic sensing and perception, it's crucial to prepare neuromorphic devices with the function of perceiving environment in real-time. Up to now, lots of efforts have been made in the incorporation of the bio-inspired sensing and neuromorphic engineering in the booming artificial intelligence industry. In this review, we first introduce neuromorphic devices based on diverse materials and mechanisms. Then we summarize the progress made in the emulation of biological sensing and perception systems. Finally, the challenges and opportunities in these fields are also discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - Qing Wan
- School of Electronic Science & Engineering, Nanjing University, Nanjing, China
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85
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Synaptotagmin-1-, Munc18-1-, and Munc13-1-dependent liposome fusion with a few neuronal SNAREs. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2021; 118:2019314118. [PMID: 33468652 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.2019314118] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Neurotransmitter release is governed by eight central proteins among other factors: the neuronal SNAREs syntaxin-1, synaptobrevin, and SNAP-25, which form a tight SNARE complex that brings the synaptic vesicle and plasma membranes together; NSF and SNAPs, which disassemble SNARE complexes; Munc18-1 and Munc13-1, which organize SNARE complex assembly; and the Ca2+ sensor synaptotagmin-1. Reconstitution experiments revealed that Munc18-1, Munc13-1, NSF, and α-SNAP can mediate Ca2+-dependent liposome fusion between synaptobrevin liposomes and syntaxin-1-SNAP-25 liposomes, but high fusion efficiency due to uncontrolled SNARE complex assembly did not allow investigation of the role of synaptotagmin-1 on fusion. Here, we show that decreasing the synaptobrevin-to-lipid ratio in the corresponding liposomes to very low levels leads to inefficient fusion and that synaptotagmin-1 strongly stimulates fusion under these conditions. Such stimulation depends on Ca2+ binding to the two C2 domains of synaptotagmin-1. We also show that anchoring SNAP-25 on the syntaxin-1 liposomes dramatically enhances fusion. Moreover, we uncover a synergy between synaptotagmin-1 and membrane anchoring of SNAP-25, which allows efficient Ca2+-dependent fusion between liposomes bearing very low synaptobrevin densities and liposomes containing very low syntaxin-1 densities. Thus, liposome fusion in our assays is achieved with a few SNARE complexes in a manner that requires Munc18-1 and Munc13-1 and that depends on Ca2+ binding to synaptotagmin-1, all of which are fundamental features of neurotransmitter release in neurons.
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86
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Stavsky A, Stoler O, Kostic M, Katoshevsky T, Assali EA, Savic I, Amitai Y, Prokisch H, Leiz S, Daumer-Haas C, Fleidervish I, Perocchi F, Gitler D, Sekler I. Aberrant activity of mitochondrial NCLX is linked to impaired synaptic transmission and is associated with mental retardation. Commun Biol 2021; 4:666. [PMID: 34079053 PMCID: PMC8172942 DOI: 10.1038/s42003-021-02114-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/25/2020] [Accepted: 03/22/2021] [Indexed: 02/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Calcium dynamics control synaptic transmission. Calcium triggers synaptic vesicle fusion, determines release probability, modulates vesicle recycling, participates in long-term plasticity and regulates cellular metabolism. Mitochondria, the main source of cellular energy, serve as calcium signaling hubs. Mitochondrial calcium transients are primarily determined by the balance between calcium influx, mediated by the mitochondrial calcium uniporter (MCU), and calcium efflux through the sodium/lithium/calcium exchanger (NCLX). We identified a human recessive missense SLC8B1 variant that impairs NCLX activity and is associated with severe mental retardation. On this basis, we examined the effect of deleting NCLX in mice on mitochondrial and synaptic calcium homeostasis, synaptic activity, and plasticity. Neuronal mitochondria exhibited basal calcium overload, membrane depolarization, and a reduction in the amplitude and rate of calcium influx and efflux. We observed smaller cytoplasmic calcium transients in the presynaptic terminals of NCLX-KO neurons, leading to a lower probability of release and weaker transmission. In agreement, synaptic facilitation in NCLX-KO hippocampal slices was enhanced. Importantly, deletion of NCLX abolished long term potentiation of Schaffer collateral synapses. Our results show that NCLX controls presynaptic calcium transients that are crucial for defining synaptic strength as well as short- and long-term plasticity, key elements of learning and memory processes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexandra Stavsky
- Department of Physiology and Cell Biology, Faculty of Health Sciences, Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, Beer-Sheva, Israel
- Zlotowski Center for Neuroscience, Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, Beer-Sheva, Israel
| | - Ohad Stoler
- Department of Physiology and Cell Biology, Faculty of Health Sciences, Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, Beer-Sheva, Israel
- Zlotowski Center for Neuroscience, Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, Beer-Sheva, Israel
| | - Marko Kostic
- Department of Physiology and Cell Biology, Faculty of Health Sciences, Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, Beer-Sheva, Israel
- Zlotowski Center for Neuroscience, Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, Beer-Sheva, Israel
| | - Tomer Katoshevsky
- Department of Physiology and Cell Biology, Faculty of Health Sciences, Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, Beer-Sheva, Israel
- Zlotowski Center for Neuroscience, Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, Beer-Sheva, Israel
| | - Essam A Assali
- Department of Physiology and Cell Biology, Faculty of Health Sciences, Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, Beer-Sheva, Israel
- Zlotowski Center for Neuroscience, Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, Beer-Sheva, Israel
| | - Ivana Savic
- Department of Physiology and Cell Biology, Faculty of Health Sciences, Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, Beer-Sheva, Israel
- Zlotowski Center for Neuroscience, Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, Beer-Sheva, Israel
| | - Yael Amitai
- Department of Physiology and Cell Biology, Faculty of Health Sciences, Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, Beer-Sheva, Israel
- Zlotowski Center for Neuroscience, Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, Beer-Sheva, Israel
| | - Holger Prokisch
- Institute of Human Genetics, School of Medicine, Technische Universität München, Munich, Germany
- Institute of Neurogenomics, Helmholtz Zentrum München, Munich, Germany
| | - Steffen Leiz
- Department of Pediatrics, Klinikum Dritter Orden, Munich, Germany
| | | | - Ilya Fleidervish
- Department of Physiology and Cell Biology, Faculty of Health Sciences, Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, Beer-Sheva, Israel
- Zlotowski Center for Neuroscience, Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, Beer-Sheva, Israel
| | - Fabiana Perocchi
- Institute for Diabetes and Obesity, Helmholtz Diabetes Center (HDC), Helmholtz Zentrum München, Munich, Germany
- Munich Cluster for Systems Neurology, Munich, Germany
| | - Daniel Gitler
- Department of Physiology and Cell Biology, Faculty of Health Sciences, Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, Beer-Sheva, Israel.
- Zlotowski Center for Neuroscience, Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, Beer-Sheva, Israel.
| | - Israel Sekler
- Department of Physiology and Cell Biology, Faculty of Health Sciences, Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, Beer-Sheva, Israel.
- Zlotowski Center for Neuroscience, Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, Beer-Sheva, Israel.
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87
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Shumate KM, Tas ST, Kavalali ET, Emeson RB. RNA editing-mediated regulation of calcium-dependent activator protein for secretion (CAPS1) localization and its impact on synaptic transmission. J Neurochem 2021; 158:182-196. [PMID: 33894004 DOI: 10.1111/jnc.15372] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/07/2021] [Revised: 03/16/2021] [Accepted: 04/07/2021] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Calcium-dependent activator protein for secretion 1 (CAPS1) is a SNARE accessory protein that facilitates formation of the SNARE complex to enable neurotransmitter release. Messenger RNAs encoding CAPS1 are subject to a site-specific adenosine-to-inosine (A-to-I) editing event resulting in a glutamate-to-glycine (E-to-G) substitution in the C-terminal domain of the encoded protein product. The C-terminal domain of CAPS1 is necessary for its synaptic enrichment and Cadps RNA editing has been shown previously to enhance the release of neuromodulatory transmitters. Using mutant mouse lines engineered to solely express CAPS1 protein isoforms encoded by either the non-edited or edited Cadps transcript, primary neuronal cultures from mouse hippocampus were used to explore the effect of Cadps editing on neurotransmission and CAPS1 synaptic localization at both glutamatergic and GABAergic synapses. While the editing of Cadps does not alter baseline evoked neurotransmission, it enhances short-term synaptic plasticity, specifically short-term depression, at inhibitory synapses. Cadps editing also alters spontaneous inhibitory neurotransmission. Neurons that solely express edited Cadps have a greater proportion of synapses that contain CAPS1 than neurons that solely express non-edited Cadps for both glutamatergic and GABAergic synapses. Editing of Cadps transcripts is regulated by neuronal activity, as global network stimulation increases the extent of transcripts edited in wild-type hippocampal neurons, whereas chronic network silencing decreases the level of Cadps editing. Taken together, these results provide key insights into the importance of Cadps editing in modulating its own synaptic localization, as well as the modulation of neurotransmission at inhibitory synapses in hippocampal neurons.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kayla M Shumate
- Department of Pharmacology, Vanderbilt University School of Medicine, Nashville, TN, USA
| | - Sadik T Tas
- Department of Pharmacology, Vanderbilt University School of Medicine, Nashville, TN, USA
| | - Ege T Kavalali
- Department of Pharmacology, Vanderbilt University School of Medicine, Nashville, TN, USA.,Training Program in Neuroscience, Vanderbilt University School of Medicine, Nashville, TN, USA
| | - Ronald B Emeson
- Department of Pharmacology, Vanderbilt University School of Medicine, Nashville, TN, USA.,Training Program in Neuroscience, Vanderbilt University School of Medicine, Nashville, TN, USA
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88
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Hoffman AF, Hwang EK, Lupica CR. Impairment of Synaptic Plasticity by Cannabis, Δ 9-THC, and Synthetic Cannabinoids. Cold Spring Harb Perspect Med 2021; 11:cshperspect.a039743. [PMID: 32341064 PMCID: PMC8091957 DOI: 10.1101/cshperspect.a039743] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
The ability of neurons to dynamically and flexibly encode synaptic inputs via short- and long-term plasticity is critical to an organism's ability to learn and adapt to the environment. Whereas synaptic plasticity may be encoded by pre- or postsynaptic mechanisms, current evidence suggests that optimization of learning requires both forms of plasticity. Endogenous cannabinoids (eCBs) play critical roles in modulating synaptic transmission via activation of cannabinoid CB1 receptors (CB1Rs) in many central nervous system (CNS) regions, and the eCB system has been implicated, either directly or indirectly, in several forms of synaptic plasticity. Because of this, perturbations within the eCB signaling system can lead to impairments in a variety of learned behaviors. One agent of altered eCB signaling is exposure to "exogenous cannabinoids" such as the primary psychoactive constituent of cannabis, Δ9-THC, or illicit synthetic cannabinoids that in many cases have higher potency and efficacy than Δ9-THC. Thus, by targeting the eCB system, these agonists can produce widespread impairment of synaptic plasticity by disrupting ongoing eCB function. Here, we review studies in which Δ9-THC and synthetic cannabinoids impair synaptic plasticity in a variety of neuronal circuits and examine evidence that this contributes to their well-documented ability to disrupt cognition and behavior.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexander F Hoffman
- Electrophysiology Research Section, National Institute on Drug Abuse Intramural Research Program, National Institutes of Health, Baltimore, Maryland 21224, USA
| | - Eun-Kyung Hwang
- Electrophysiology Research Section, National Institute on Drug Abuse Intramural Research Program, National Institutes of Health, Baltimore, Maryland 21224, USA
| | - Carl R Lupica
- Electrophysiology Research Section, National Institute on Drug Abuse Intramural Research Program, National Institutes of Health, Baltimore, Maryland 21224, USA
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89
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Yan WW, Xia M, Chiang J, Levitt A, Hawkins N, Kearney J, Swanson GT, Chetkovich D, Nobis WP. Enhanced Synaptic Transmission in the Extended Amygdala and Altered Excitability in an Extended Amygdala to Brainstem Circuit in a Dravet Syndrome Mouse Model. eNeuro 2021; 8:ENEURO.0306-20.2021. [PMID: 34045209 PMCID: PMC8213443 DOI: 10.1523/eneuro.0306-20.2021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/08/2020] [Revised: 04/29/2021] [Accepted: 05/11/2021] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Dravet syndrome (DS) is a developmental and epileptic encephalopathy with an increased incidence of sudden death. Evidence of interictal breathing deficits in DS suggests that alterations in subcortical projections to brainstem nuclei may exist, which might be driving comorbidities in DS. The aim of this study was to determine whether a subcortical structure, the bed nucleus of the stria terminalis (BNST) in the extended amygdala, is activated by seizures, exhibits changes in excitability, and expresses any alterations in neurons projecting to a brainstem nucleus associated with respiration, stress response, and homeostasis. Experiments were conducted using F1 mice generated by breeding 129.Scn1a+/- mice with wild-type C57BL/6J mice. Immunohistochemistry was performed to quantify neuronal c-fos activation in DS mice after observed spontaneous seizures. Whole-cell patch-clamp and current-clamp electrophysiology recordings were conducted to evaluate changes in intrinsic and synaptic excitability in the BNST. Spontaneous seizures in DS mice significantly enhanced neuronal c-fos expression in the BNST. Further, the BNST had altered AMPA/NMDA postsynaptic receptor composition and showed changes in spontaneous neurotransmission, with greater excitation and decreased inhibition. BNST to parabrachial nucleus (PBN) projection neurons exhibited intrinsic excitability in wild-type mice, while these projection neurons were hypoexcitable in DS mice. The findings suggest that there is altered excitability in neurons of the BNST, including BNST-to-PBN projection neurons, in DS mice. These alterations could potentially be driving comorbid aspects of DS outside of seizures, including respiratory dysfunction and sudden death.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wen Wei Yan
- Department of Neurology, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, Tennessee 37232
| | - Maya Xia
- Department of Neurology, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, Tennessee 37232
| | - Jeremy Chiang
- Department of Neurology, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, Tennessee 37232
| | - Alyssa Levitt
- Department of Neurology, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, Tennessee 37232
| | - Nicole Hawkins
- Department of Pharmacology, Northwestern University Feinberg School of Medicine, Chicago, Illinois 60611
| | - Jennifer Kearney
- Department of Pharmacology, Northwestern University Feinberg School of Medicine, Chicago, Illinois 60611
| | - Geoffrey T Swanson
- Department of Pharmacology, Northwestern University Feinberg School of Medicine, Chicago, Illinois 60611
| | - Dane Chetkovich
- Department of Neurology, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, Tennessee 37232
| | - William P Nobis
- Department of Neurology, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, Tennessee 37232
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90
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McDaid J, Briggs CA, Barrington NM, Peterson DA, Kozlowski DA, Stutzmann GE. Sustained Hippocampal Synaptic Pathophysiology Following Single and Repeated Closed-Head Concussive Impacts. Front Cell Neurosci 2021; 15:652721. [PMID: 33867941 PMCID: PMC8044326 DOI: 10.3389/fncel.2021.652721] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/13/2021] [Accepted: 03/11/2021] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Traumatic brain injury (TBI), and related diseases such as chronic traumatic encephalopathy (CTE) and Alzheimer's (AD), are of increasing concern in part due to enhanced awareness of their long-term neurological effects on memory and behavior. Repeated concussions, vs. single concussions, have been shown to result in worsened and sustained symptoms including impaired cognition and histopathology. To assess and compare the persistent effects of single or repeated concussive impacts on mediators of memory encoding such as synaptic transmission, plasticity, and cellular Ca2+ signaling, a closed-head controlled cortical impact (CCI) approach was used which closely replicates the mode of injury in clinical cases. Adult male rats received a sham procedure, a single impact, or three successive impacts at 48-hour intervals. After 30 days, hippocampal slices were prepared for electrophysiological recordings and 2-photon Ca2+ imaging, or fixed and immunostained for pathogenic phospho-tau species. In both concussion groups, hippocampal circuits showed hyper-excitable synaptic responsivity upon Schaffer collateral stimulation compared to sham animals, indicating sustained defects in hippocampal circuitry. This was not accompanied by sustained LTP deficits, but resting Ca2+ levels and voltage-gated Ca2+ signals were elevated in both concussion groups, while ryanodine receptor-evoked Ca2+ responses decreased with repeat concussions. Furthermore, pathogenic phospho-tau staining was progressively elevated in both concussion groups, with spreading beyond the hemisphere of injury, consistent with CTE. Thus, single and repeated concussions lead to a persistent upregulation of excitatory hippocampal synapses, possibly through changes in postsynaptic Ca2+ signaling/regulation, which may contribute to histopathology and detrimental long-term cognitive symptoms.
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Affiliation(s)
- John McDaid
- Center for Neurodegenerative Disease and Therapeutics, Rosalind Franklin University of Medicine and Science, North Chicago, IL, United States
| | - Clark A. Briggs
- Center for Neurodegenerative Disease and Therapeutics, Rosalind Franklin University of Medicine and Science, North Chicago, IL, United States
| | - Nikki M. Barrington
- Center for Neurodegenerative Disease and Therapeutics, Rosalind Franklin University of Medicine and Science, North Chicago, IL, United States
- Chicago Medical School, Rosalind Franklin University of Medicine and Science, North Chicago, IL, United States
| | - Daniel A. Peterson
- Center for Neurodegenerative Disease and Therapeutics, Rosalind Franklin University of Medicine and Science, North Chicago, IL, United States
- Chicago Medical School, Rosalind Franklin University of Medicine and Science, North Chicago, IL, United States
- Center for Stem Cell and Regenerative Medicine, Rosalind Franklin University of Medicine and Science, North Chicago, IL, United States
| | - Dorothy A. Kozlowski
- Department of Biological Sciences and Neuroscience Program, DePaul University, Chicago, IL, United States
| | - Grace E. Stutzmann
- Center for Neurodegenerative Disease and Therapeutics, Rosalind Franklin University of Medicine and Science, North Chicago, IL, United States
- Chicago Medical School, Rosalind Franklin University of Medicine and Science, North Chicago, IL, United States
- Center for Stem Cell and Regenerative Medicine, Rosalind Franklin University of Medicine and Science, North Chicago, IL, United States
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91
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Acharya AR, Larsen LE, Van Lysebettens W, Wadman WJ, Delbeke J, Vonck K, Meurs A, Boon P, Raedt R. Attenuation of Hippocampal Evoked Potentials in vivo by Activation of GtACR2, an Optogenetic Chloride Channel. Front Neurosci 2021; 15:653844. [PMID: 33854415 PMCID: PMC8039138 DOI: 10.3389/fnins.2021.653844] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/15/2021] [Accepted: 02/26/2021] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
AIM GtACR2, a light-activated chloride channel, is an attractive tool for neural inhibition as it can shunt membrane depolarizations. In this study, we assessed the effect of activating GtACR2 on in vivo hippocampal CA1 activity evoked by Schaffer collateral (SC) stimulation. METHODS Adult male Wistar rats were unilaterally injected with 0.5 μL of adeno associated viral vector for induction of GtACR2-mCherry (n = 10, GtACR2 group) or mCherry (n = 4, Sham group) expression in CA1 pyramidal neurons of the hippocampus. Three weeks later, evoked potentials (EPs) were recorded from the CA1 subfield placing an optrode (bipolar recording electrode attached to an optic fiber) at the injection site and a stimulation electrode targeting SCs. Effects of illumination parameters required to activate GtACR2 such as light power densities (LPDs), illumination delays, and light-pulse durations were tested on CA1 EP parameters [population spike (PS) amplitude and field excitatory postsynaptic potential (fEPSP) slope]. RESULTS In the GtACR2 group, delivery of a 10 ms light-pulse induced a negative deflection in the local field potential which increased with increasing LPD. When combined with electrical stimulation of the SCs, light-induced activation of GtACR2 had potent inhibitory effects on CA1 EPs. An LPD of 160 mW/mm2 was sufficient to obtain maximal inhibition CA1 EPs. To quantify the duration of the inhibitory effect, a 10 ms light-pulse of 160 mW/mm2 was delivered at increasing delays before the CA1 EPs. Inhibition of EPs was found to last up to 9 ms after the cessation of the light-pulse. Increasing light-pulse durations beyond 10 ms did not result in larger inhibitory effects. CONCLUSION Precisely timed activation of GtACR2 potently blocks evoked activity of CA1 neurons. The strength of inhibition depends on LPD, lasts up to 9 ms after a light-pulse of 10 ms, and is independent of the duration of the light-pulse given.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - Robrecht Raedt
- 4BRAIN Team, Department of Head and Skin, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium
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92
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Maus L, Lee C, Altas B, Sertel SM, Weyand K, Rizzoli SO, Rhee J, Brose N, Imig C, Cooper BH. Ultrastructural Correlates of Presynaptic Functional Heterogeneity in Hippocampal Synapses. Cell Rep 2021; 30:3632-3643.e8. [PMID: 32187536 PMCID: PMC7090384 DOI: 10.1016/j.celrep.2020.02.083] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/12/2019] [Revised: 12/15/2019] [Accepted: 02/21/2020] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Although similar in molecular composition, synapses can exhibit strikingly distinct functional transmitter release and plasticity characteristics. To determine whether ultrastructural differences co-define this functional heterogeneity, we combine hippocampal organotypic slice cultures, high-pressure freezing, freeze substitution, and 3D-electron tomography to compare two functionally distinct synapses: hippocampal Schaffer collateral and mossy fiber synapses. We find that mossy fiber synapses, which exhibit a lower release probability and stronger short-term facilitation than Schaffer collateral synapses, harbor lower numbers of docked synaptic vesicles at active zones and a second pool of possibly tethered vesicles in their vicinity. Our data indicate that differences in the ratio of docked versus tethered vesicles at active zones contribute to distinct functional characteristics of synapses. Electron tomography enables the dissection of vesicle pools at synaptic active zones Docked and primed vesicle availability contributes to initial release probability The ratio of docked and tethered vesicles may co-determine short-term plasticity Hippocampal mossy fibers contain three morphological types of docked vesicles
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Affiliation(s)
- Lydia Maus
- Department of Molecular Neurobiology, Max Planck Institute of Experimental Medicine, 37075 Göttingen, Germany; Georg August University, School of Science, 37073 Göttingen, Germany
| | - ChoongKu Lee
- Department of Molecular Neurobiology, Max Planck Institute of Experimental Medicine, 37075 Göttingen, Germany
| | - Bekir Altas
- Department of Molecular Neurobiology, Max Planck Institute of Experimental Medicine, 37075 Göttingen, Germany; Department of Pharmacology, University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD 21201, USA
| | - Sinem M Sertel
- Institute for Neuro- and Sensory Physiology, Center for Biostructural Imaging of Neurodegeneration, University Medical Center Göttingen, Göttingen, Germany
| | - Kirsten Weyand
- Department of Molecular Neurobiology, Max Planck Institute of Experimental Medicine, 37075 Göttingen, Germany
| | - Silvio O Rizzoli
- Institute for Neuro- and Sensory Physiology, Center for Biostructural Imaging of Neurodegeneration, University Medical Center Göttingen, Göttingen, Germany
| | - JeongSeop Rhee
- Department of Molecular Neurobiology, Max Planck Institute of Experimental Medicine, 37075 Göttingen, Germany
| | - Nils Brose
- Department of Molecular Neurobiology, Max Planck Institute of Experimental Medicine, 37075 Göttingen, Germany
| | - Cordelia Imig
- Department of Molecular Neurobiology, Max Planck Institute of Experimental Medicine, 37075 Göttingen, Germany.
| | - Benjamin H Cooper
- Department of Molecular Neurobiology, Max Planck Institute of Experimental Medicine, 37075 Göttingen, Germany.
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93
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Retrograde Suppression of Post-Tetanic Potentiation at the Mossy Fiber-CA3 Pyramidal Cell Synapse. eNeuro 2021; 8:ENEURO.0450-20.2021. [PMID: 33593734 PMCID: PMC7986537 DOI: 10.1523/eneuro.0450-20.2021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/19/2020] [Revised: 12/17/2020] [Accepted: 01/16/2021] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
In the hippocampus, the excitatory synapse between dentate granule cell (GC) axons, or mossy fibers (MFs), and CA3 pyramidal cells (MF-CA3) expresses robust forms of short-term plasticity, such as frequency facilitation and post-tetanic potentiation (PTP). These forms of plasticity are due to increases in presynaptic neurotransmitter release, and can be engaged when dentate GCs fire in bursts (e.g., during exploratory behaviors) and bring CA3 pyramidal neurons above threshold. While frequency facilitation at this synapse is limited by endogenous activation of presynaptic metabotropic glutamate receptors (mGluRs), whether MF-PTP can be regulated in an activity-dependent manner is unknown. Here, using physiologically relevant patterns of MF stimulation in acute mouse hippocampal slices, we found that disrupting postsynaptic Ca2+ dynamics increases MF-PTP, strongly suggesting a form of Ca2+-dependent retrograde suppression of this form of plasticity. PTP suppression requires a few seconds of MF bursting activity and Ca2+ release from internal stores. Our findings raise the possibility that the powerful MF-CA3 synapse can negatively regulate its own strength not only during PTP-inducing activity typical of normal exploratory behaviors, but also during epileptic activity.
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94
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Liu H, Li L, Sheoran S, Yu Y, Richmond JE, Xia J, Tang J, Liu J, Hu Z. The M domain in UNC-13 regulates the probability of neurotransmitter release. Cell Rep 2021; 34:108828. [PMID: 33691106 PMCID: PMC8066380 DOI: 10.1016/j.celrep.2021.108828] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/28/2020] [Revised: 12/25/2020] [Accepted: 02/16/2021] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Synapses exhibit multiple forms of short-term plasticities, which have been attributed to the heterogeneity of neurotransmitter release probability. However, the molecular mechanisms that underlie the differential release states remain to be fully elucidated. The Unc-13 proteins appear to have key roles in synaptic function through multiple regulatory domains. Here, we report that deleting the M domain in Caenorhabditis elegans UNC-13MR leads to a significant increase in release probability, revealing an inhibitory function of this domain. The inhibitory effect of this domain is eliminated when the C1 and C2B domains are absent or activated, suggesting that the M domain inhibits release probability by suppressing the activity of C1 and C2B domains. When fused directly to the MUNC2C fragment of UNC-13, the M domain greatly enhances release probability. Thus, our findings reveal a mechanism by which the UNC-13 M domain regulates synaptic transmission and provides molecular insights into the regulation of release probability.
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Affiliation(s)
- Haowen Liu
- Queensland Brain Institute, Clem Jones Centre for Ageing Dementia Research (CJCADR), The University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD 4072, Australia
| | - Lei Li
- Queensland Brain Institute, Clem Jones Centre for Ageing Dementia Research (CJCADR), The University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD 4072, Australia
| | - Seema Sheoran
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, IL 60607, USA
| | - Yi Yu
- Queensland Brain Institute, Clem Jones Centre for Ageing Dementia Research (CJCADR), The University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD 4072, Australia
| | - Janet E Richmond
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, IL 60607, USA
| | - Jingyao Xia
- Queensland Brain Institute, Clem Jones Centre for Ageing Dementia Research (CJCADR), The University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD 4072, Australia
| | - Jing Tang
- Queensland Brain Institute, Clem Jones Centre for Ageing Dementia Research (CJCADR), The University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD 4072, Australia
| | - Jie Liu
- Neuroscience Program, Monash Biomedicine Discovery Institute and Department of Anatomy and Developmental Biology, Monash University, Melbourne, VIC 3800, Australia
| | - Zhitao Hu
- Queensland Brain Institute, Clem Jones Centre for Ageing Dementia Research (CJCADR), The University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD 4072, Australia.
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95
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Brill SE, Maraslioglu A, Kurz C, Kramer F, Fuhr MF, Singh A, Friauf E. Glycinergic Transmission in the Presence and Absence of Functional GlyT2: Lessons From the Auditory Brainstem. Front Synaptic Neurosci 2021; 12:560008. [PMID: 33633558 PMCID: PMC7900164 DOI: 10.3389/fnsyn.2020.560008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/07/2020] [Accepted: 12/01/2020] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Synaptic transmission is controlled by re-uptake systems that reduce transmitter concentrations in the synaptic cleft and recycle the transmitter into presynaptic terminals. The re-uptake systems are thought to ensure cytosolic concentrations in the terminals that are sufficient for reloading empty synaptic vesicles (SVs). Genetic deletion of glycine transporter 2 (GlyT2) results in severely disrupted inhibitory neurotransmission and ultimately to death. Here we investigated the role of GlyT2 at inhibitory glycinergic synapses in the mammalian auditory brainstem. These synapses are tuned for resilience, reliability, and precision, even during sustained high-frequency stimulation when endocytosis and refilling of SVs probably contribute substantially to efficient replenishment of the readily releasable pool (RRP). Such robust synapses are formed between MNTB and LSO neurons (medial nucleus of the trapezoid body, lateral superior olive). By means of patch-clamp recordings, we assessed the synaptic performance in controls, in GlyT2 knockout mice (KOs), and upon acute pharmacological GlyT2 blockade. Via computational modeling, we calculated the reoccupation rate of empty release sites and RRP replenishment kinetics during 60-s challenge and 60-s recovery periods. Control MNTB-LSO inputs maintained high fidelity neurotransmission at 50 Hz for 60 s and recovered very efficiently from synaptic depression. During 'marathon-experiments' (30,600 stimuli in 20 min), RRP replenishment accumulated to 1,260-fold. In contrast, KO inputs featured severe impairments. For example, the input number was reduced to ~1 (vs. ~4 in controls), implying massive functional degeneration of the MNTB-LSO microcircuit and a role of GlyT2 during synapse maturation. Surprisingly, neurotransmission did not collapse completely in KOs as inputs still replenished their small RRP 80-fold upon 50 Hz | 60 s challenge. However, they totally failed to do so for extended periods. Upon acute pharmacological GlyT2 inactivation, synaptic performance remained robust, in stark contrast to KOs. RRP replenishment was 865-fold in marathon-experiments, only ~1/3 lower than in controls. Collectively, our empirical and modeling results demonstrate that GlyT2 re-uptake activity is not the dominant factor in the SV recycling pathway that imparts indefatigability to MNTB-LSO synapses. We postulate that additional glycine sources, possibly the antiporter Asc-1, contribute to RRP replenishment at these high-fidelity brainstem synapses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sina E Brill
- Animal Physiology Group, Department of Biology, University of Kaiserslautern, Kaiserslautern, Germany
| | - Ayse Maraslioglu
- Animal Physiology Group, Department of Biology, University of Kaiserslautern, Kaiserslautern, Germany
| | - Catharina Kurz
- Animal Physiology Group, Department of Biology, University of Kaiserslautern, Kaiserslautern, Germany
| | - Florian Kramer
- Animal Physiology Group, Department of Biology, University of Kaiserslautern, Kaiserslautern, Germany
| | - Martin F Fuhr
- Animal Physiology Group, Department of Biology, University of Kaiserslautern, Kaiserslautern, Germany
| | - Abhyudai Singh
- Electrical & Computer Engineering, University of Delaware, Newark, DE, United States
| | - Eckhard Friauf
- Animal Physiology Group, Department of Biology, University of Kaiserslautern, Kaiserslautern, Germany
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96
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Chen F, Chen H, Chen Y, Wei W, Sun Y, Zhang L, Cui L, Wang Y. Dysfunction of the SNARE complex in neurological and psychiatric disorders. Pharmacol Res 2021; 165:105469. [PMID: 33524541 DOI: 10.1016/j.phrs.2021.105469] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/29/2020] [Revised: 12/30/2020] [Accepted: 01/24/2021] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
The communication between neurons constitutes the basis of all neural activities, and synaptic vesicle exocytosis is the fundamental biological event that mediates most communication between neurons in the central nervous system. The SNARE complex is the core component of the protein machinery that facilitates the fusion of synaptic vesicles with presynaptic terminals and thereby the release of neurotransmitters. In synapses, each release event is dependent on the assembly of the SNARE complex. In recent years, basic research on the SNARE complex has provided a clearer understanding of the mechanism underlying the formation of the SNARE complex and its role in vesicle formation. Emerging evidence indicates that abnormal expression or dysfunction of the SNARE complex in synapse physiology might contribute to abnormal neurotransmission and ultimately to synaptic dysfunction. Clinical research using postmortem tissues suggests that SNARE complex dysfunction is correlated with various neurological diseases, and some basic research has also confirmed the important role of the SNARE complex in the pathology of these diseases. Genetic and pharmacogenetic studies suggest that the SNARE complex and individual proteins might represent important molecular targets in neurological disease. In this review, we summarize the recent progress toward understanding the SNARE complex in regulating membrane fusion events and provide an update of the recent discoveries from clinical and basic research on the SNARE complex in neurodegenerative, neuropsychiatric, and neurodevelopmental diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Feng Chen
- Guangdong Key Laboratory of Age-Related Cardiac and Cerebral Diseases, Affiliated Hospital of Guangdong Medical University, Zhanjiang, China
| | - Huiyi Chen
- Guangdong Key Laboratory of Age-Related Cardiac and Cerebral Diseases, Affiliated Hospital of Guangdong Medical University, Zhanjiang, China
| | - Yanting Chen
- Guangdong Key Laboratory of Age-Related Cardiac and Cerebral Diseases, Affiliated Hospital of Guangdong Medical University, Zhanjiang, China
| | - Wenyan Wei
- Department of Gerontology, Affiliated Hospital of Guangdong Medical University, Zhanjiang, China
| | - Yuanhong Sun
- Department of Pharmacology and Neuroscience, University of North Texas Health Science Center, Fort Worth, TX, USA
| | - Lu Zhang
- The First Clinical College, Guangdong Medical University, Zhanjiang, China
| | - Lili Cui
- Guangdong Key Laboratory of Age-Related Cardiac and Cerebral Diseases, Affiliated Hospital of Guangdong Medical University, Zhanjiang, China.
| | - Yan Wang
- Guangdong Key Laboratory of Age-Related Cardiac and Cerebral Diseases, Affiliated Hospital of Guangdong Medical University, Zhanjiang, China; Key Laboratory of Biomedical Information Engineering of Ministry of Education, Biomedical Informatics & Genomics Center, School of Life Science and Technology, Xi'an Jiao tong University, Xi'an, China.
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97
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Coppi E, Dettori I, Cherchi F, Bulli I, Venturini M, Pedata F, Pugliese AM. New Insight into the Role of Adenosine in Demyelination, Stroke and Neuropathic Pain. Front Pharmacol 2021; 11:625662. [PMID: 33584309 PMCID: PMC7878385 DOI: 10.3389/fphar.2020.625662] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/06/2020] [Accepted: 12/18/2020] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Elisabetta Coppi
- Department of Neuroscience, Psychology, Drug Research and Child Health (NEUROFARBA), Section of Pharmacology and Toxicology, University of Florence, Florence, Italy
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98
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Tyurikova O, Zheng K, Nicholson E, Timofeeva Y, Semyanov A, Volynski KE, Rusakov DA. Fluorescence lifetime imaging reveals regulation of presynaptic Ca 2+ by glutamate uptake and mGluRs, but not somatic voltage in cortical neurons. J Neurochem 2021; 156:48-58. [PMID: 32418206 PMCID: PMC8436763 DOI: 10.1111/jnc.15094] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/31/2020] [Revised: 04/21/2020] [Accepted: 05/08/2020] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Brain function relies on vesicular release of neurotransmitters at chemical synapses. The release probability depends on action potential-evoked presynaptic Ca2+ entry, but also on the resting Ca2+ level. Whether these basic aspects of presynaptic calcium homeostasis show any consistent trend along the axonal path, and how they are controlled by local network activity, remains poorly understood. Here, we take advantage of the recently advanced FLIM-based method to monitor presynaptic Ca2+ with nanomolar sensitivity. We find that, in cortical pyramidal neurons, action potential-evoked calcium entry (range 10-300 nM), but not the resting Ca2+ level (range 10-100 nM), tends to increase with higher order of axonal branches. Blocking astroglial glutamate uptake reduces evoked Ca2+ entry but has little effect on resting Ca2+ whereas both appear boosted by the constitutive activation of group 1/2 metabotropic glutamate receptors. We find no consistent effect of transient somatic depolarization or hyperpolarization on presynaptic Ca2+ entry or its basal level. The results unveil some key aspects of presynaptic machinery in cortical circuits, shedding light on basic principles of synaptic connectivity in the brain.
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Affiliation(s)
- Olga Tyurikova
- Queen Square Institute of NeurologyUniversity College LondonLondonUK
- Shemyakin‐Ovchinnikov Institute of Bioorganic ChemistryRussian Academy of SciencesMoscowRussia
| | - Kaiyu Zheng
- Queen Square Institute of NeurologyUniversity College LondonLondonUK
| | | | - Yulia Timofeeva
- Queen Square Institute of NeurologyUniversity College LondonLondonUK
- Department of Computer Science, Centre for Complexity Science, University of WarwickCoventryUK
| | - Alexey Semyanov
- Shemyakin‐Ovchinnikov Institute of Bioorganic ChemistryRussian Academy of SciencesMoscowRussia
- Sechenov First Moscow State Medical UniversityMoscowRussia
| | | | - Dmitri A. Rusakov
- Queen Square Institute of NeurologyUniversity College LondonLondonUK
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99
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Neural Networks in Health and Disease. SYSTEMS MEDICINE 2021. [DOI: 10.1016/b978-0-12-801238-3.11470-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
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100
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Cannady R, Nguyen T, Padula AE, Rinker JA, Lopez MF, Becker HC, Woodward JJ, Mulholland PJ. Interaction of chronic intermittent ethanol and repeated stress on structural and functional plasticity in the mouse medial prefrontal cortex. Neuropharmacology 2021; 182:108396. [PMID: 33181147 PMCID: PMC7942177 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuropharm.2020.108396] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/11/2020] [Revised: 10/05/2020] [Accepted: 11/06/2020] [Indexed: 01/27/2023]
Abstract
Stress is a risk factor that plays a considerable role in the development and maintenance of alcohol (ethanol) abuse and relapse. Preclinical studies examining ethanol-stress interactions have demonstrated elevated ethanol drinking, cognitive deficits, and negative affective behaviors in mice. However, the neural adaptations in prefrontal cortical regions that drive these aberrant behaviors produced by ethanol-stress interactions are unknown. In this study, male C57BL/6J mice were exposed to chronic intermittent ethanol (CIE) and repeated forced swim stress (FSS). After two cycles of CIE x FSS, brain slices containing the prelimbic (PrL) and infralimbic (IfL) cortex were prepared for analysis of adaptations in dendritic spines and synaptic plasticity. In the PrL cortex, total spine density was increased in mice exposed to CIE. Immediately following induction of long-term potentiation (LTP), the fEPSP slope was increased in the PrL of CIE x FSS treated mice, indicative of a presynaptic adaptation on post-tetanic potentiation (PTP). In the IfL cortex, CIE exposure regardless of FSS experience resulted in an increase in spine density. FSS alone or when combined with CIE exposure increased PTP following LTP induction. Repeated FSS episodes increased IfL cortical paired-pulse facilitation, a second measure of presynaptic plasticity. In summary, CIE exposure resulted in structural adaptations while repeated stress exposure drove metaplastic changes in presynaptic function, demonstrating distinct morphological and functional changes in PrL and IfL cortical neurons. Thus, the structural and functional adaptations may be one mechanism underlying the development of excessive drinking and cognitive deficits associated with ethanol-stress interactions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Reginald Cannady
- Department of Neuroscience, Charleston Alcohol Research Center, Medical University of South Carolina, 30 Courtenay Drive, Charleston, SC, 29425, USA; Department of Biology, College of Science and Technology, North Carolina Agricultural & Technical State University, 1601 East Market Street, Barnes Hall 215, Greensboro, NC, 27411, USA
| | - Tiffany Nguyen
- Department of Neuroscience, Charleston Alcohol Research Center, Medical University of South Carolina, 30 Courtenay Drive, Charleston, SC, 29425, USA
| | - Audrey E Padula
- Department of Neuroscience, Charleston Alcohol Research Center, Medical University of South Carolina, 30 Courtenay Drive, Charleston, SC, 29425, USA
| | - Jennifer A Rinker
- Department of Neuroscience, Charleston Alcohol Research Center, Medical University of South Carolina, 30 Courtenay Drive, Charleston, SC, 29425, USA
| | - Marcelo F Lopez
- Department of Neuroscience, Charleston Alcohol Research Center, Medical University of South Carolina, 30 Courtenay Drive, Charleston, SC, 29425, USA
| | - Howard C Becker
- Department of Neuroscience, Charleston Alcohol Research Center, Medical University of South Carolina, 30 Courtenay Drive, Charleston, SC, 29425, USA
| | - John J Woodward
- Department of Neuroscience, Charleston Alcohol Research Center, Medical University of South Carolina, 30 Courtenay Drive, Charleston, SC, 29425, USA
| | - Patrick J Mulholland
- Department of Neuroscience, Charleston Alcohol Research Center, Medical University of South Carolina, 30 Courtenay Drive, Charleston, SC, 29425, USA.
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