51
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Noonan MJ, Martinez‐Garcia R, Davis GH, Crofoot MC, Kays R, Hirsch BT, Caillaud D, Payne E, Sih A, Sinn DL, Spiegel O, Fagan WF, Fleming CH, Calabrese JM. Estimating encounter location distributions from animal tracking data. Methods Ecol Evol 2021. [DOI: 10.1111/2041-210x.13597] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Michael J. Noonan
- Department of Biology, The Irving K. Barber Faculty of Science The University of British Columbia Kelowna BC Canada
- Smithsonian Conservation Biology InstituteNational Zoological Park Front Royal VA USA
| | - Ricardo Martinez‐Garcia
- ICTP South American Institute for Fundamental Research & Instituto de Fisica Teorica – UNESP Sao Paulo Brazil
| | - Grace H. Davis
- Department of Anthropology University of California Davis CA USA
- Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute Panama City Panama
- Department for the Ecology of Animal Societies Max Planck Institute of Animal Behavior Konstanz Germany
- Department of Biology University of Konstanz Konstanz Germany
- Centre for the Advanced Study of Collective Behaviour University of Konstanz Konstanz Germany
| | - Margaret C. Crofoot
- Department of Anthropology University of California Davis CA USA
- Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute Panama City Panama
- Department for the Ecology of Animal Societies Max Planck Institute of Animal Behavior Konstanz Germany
- Department of Biology University of Konstanz Konstanz Germany
- Centre for the Advanced Study of Collective Behaviour University of Konstanz Konstanz Germany
| | - Roland Kays
- North Carolina Museum of Natural Sciences and North Carolina State University Raleigh NC USA
| | - Ben T. Hirsch
- Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute Panama City Panama
- College of Science and Engineering James Cook University Townsville Qld Australia
| | - Damien Caillaud
- Department of Anthropology University of California Davis CA USA
| | - Eric Payne
- Department of Environmental Science and Policy University of California Davis Davis CA USA
| | - Andrew Sih
- Department of Environmental Science and Policy University of California Davis Davis CA USA
| | - David L. Sinn
- Department of Environmental Science and Policy University of California Davis Davis CA USA
| | - Orr Spiegel
- School of Zoology Faculty of Life Sciences Tel Aviv University Tel Aviv Israel
| | - William F. Fagan
- Department of Biology University of Maryland College Park MD USA
| | - Christen H. Fleming
- Smithsonian Conservation Biology InstituteNational Zoological Park Front Royal VA USA
- Department of Biology University of Maryland College Park MD USA
| | - Justin M. Calabrese
- Smithsonian Conservation Biology InstituteNational Zoological Park Front Royal VA USA
- Department of Biology University of Maryland College Park MD USA
- Center for Advanced Systems Understanding (CASUS) Görlitz Germany
- Helmholtz‐Zentrum Dresden Rossendorf (HZDR) Dresden Germany
- Department of Ecological Modelling Helmholtz Centre for Environmental Research (UFZ) Leipzig Germany
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52
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Abrahms B, Aikens EO, Armstrong JB, Deacy WW, Kauffman MJ, Merkle JA. Emerging Perspectives on Resource Tracking and Animal Movement Ecology. Trends Ecol Evol 2021; 36:308-320. [DOI: 10.1016/j.tree.2020.10.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/09/2020] [Revised: 10/14/2020] [Accepted: 10/23/2020] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
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53
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Rayl ND, Merkle JA, Proffitt KM, Almberg ES, Jones JD, Gude JA, Cross PC. Elk migration influences the risk of disease spillover in the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem. J Anim Ecol 2021; 90:1264-1275. [PMID: 33630313 PMCID: PMC8251637 DOI: 10.1111/1365-2656.13452] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/24/2019] [Accepted: 11/16/2020] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Wildlife migrations provide important ecosystem services, but they are declining. Within the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem (GYE), some elk Cervus canadensis herds are losing migratory tendencies, which may increase spatiotemporal overlap between elk and livestock (domestic bison Bison bison and cattle Bos taurus), potentially exacerbating pathogen transmission risk. We combined disease, movement, demographic and environmental data from eight elk herds in the GYE to examine the differential risk of brucellosis transmission (through aborted foetuses) from migrant and resident elk to livestock. For both migrants and residents, we found that transmission risk from elk to livestock occurred almost exclusively on private ranchlands as opposed to state or federal grazing allotments. Weather variability affected the estimated distribution of spillover risk from migrant elk to livestock, with a 7%–12% increase in migrant abortions on private ranchlands during years with heavier snowfall. In contrast, weather variability did not affect spillover risk from resident elk. Migrant elk were responsible for the majority (68%) of disease spillover risk to livestock because they occurred in greater numbers than resident elk. On a per‐capita basis, however, our analyses suggested that resident elk disproportionately contributed to spillover risk. In five of seven herds, we estimated that the per‐capita spillover risk was greater from residents than from migrants. Averaged across herds, an individual resident elk was 23% more likely than an individual migrant elk to abort on private ranchlands. Our results demonstrate links between migration behaviour, spillover risk and environmental variability, and highlight the utility of integrating models of pathogen transmission and host movement to generate new insights about the role of migration in disease spillover risk. Furthermore, they add to the accumulating body of evidence across taxa that suggests that migrants and residents should be considered separately during investigations of wildlife disease ecology. Finally, our findings have applied implications for elk and brucellosis in the GYE. They suggest that managers should prioritize actions that maintain spatial separation of elk and livestock on private ranchlands during years when snowpack persists into the risk period.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nathaniel D Rayl
- Colorado Parks and Wildlife, Grand Junction, CO, USA.,U.S. Geological Survey, Northern Rocky Mountain Science Center, Bozeman, MT, USA
| | - Jerod A Merkle
- Department of Zoology and Physiology, University of Wyoming, Laramie, WY, USA
| | | | | | | | | | - Paul C Cross
- U.S. Geological Survey, Northern Rocky Mountain Science Center, Bozeman, MT, USA
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54
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Daversa DR, Hechinger RF, Madin E, Fenton A, Dell AI, Ritchie EG, Rohr J, Rudolf VHW, Lafferty KD. Broadening the ecology of fear: non-lethal effects arise from diverse responses to predation and parasitism. Proc Biol Sci 2021; 288:20202966. [PMID: 33622122 DOI: 10.1098/rspb.2020.2966] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/23/2023] Open
Abstract
Research on the 'ecology of fear' posits that defensive prey responses to avoid predation can cause non-lethal effects across ecological scales. Parasites also elicit defensive responses in hosts with associated non-lethal effects, which raises the longstanding, yet unresolved question of how non-lethal effects of parasites compare with those of predators. We developed a framework for systematically answering this question for all types of predator-prey and host-parasite systems. Our framework reveals likely differences in non-lethal effects not only between predators and parasites, but also between different types of predators and parasites. Trait responses should be strongest towards predators, parasitoids and parasitic castrators, but more numerous and perhaps more frequent for parasites than for predators. In a case study of larval amphibians, whose trait responses to both predators and parasites have been relatively well studied, existing data indicate that individuals generally respond more strongly and proactively to short-term predation risks than to parasitism. Apart from studies using amphibians, there have been few direct comparisons of responses to predation and parasitism, and none have incorporated responses to micropredators, parasitoids or parasitic castrators, or examined their long-term consequences. Addressing these and other data gaps highlighted by our framework can advance the field towards understanding how non-lethal effects impact prey/host population dynamics and shape food webs that contain multiple predator and parasite species.
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Affiliation(s)
- D R Daversa
- La Kretz Center for California Conservation Science, Institute for the Environment and Sustainability, University of California, Los Angeles, CA, USA.,Institute of Integrative Biology, University of Liverpool, Liverpool, UK.,National Great Rivers Research and Education Centre (NGRREC), East Alton, IL 62024, USA
| | - R F Hechinger
- Scripps Institution of Oceanography, University of California, San Diego, San Diego, CA, USA
| | - E Madin
- Hawai'i Institute of Marine Biology, University of Hawai'i, Kane'ohe, HI 96744, USA
| | - A Fenton
- Institute of Integrative Biology, University of Liverpool, Liverpool, UK
| | - A I Dell
- National Great Rivers Research and Education Centre (NGRREC), East Alton, IL 62024, USA.,Department of Biology, Washington University of St Louis, St Louis, MO 63130, USA.,Department of Biology, Saint Louis University, Saint Louis, MO 63130, USA
| | - E G Ritchie
- School of Life and Environmental Sciences, Centre for Integrative Ecology (Burwood Campus), Deakin University, Geelong, Victoria 3220, Australia
| | - J Rohr
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Notre Dame, Notre Dame, IN, USA
| | | | - K D Lafferty
- Western Ecological Research Center, US Geological Survey, at UC Santa Barbara, Santa Barbara, CA, USA
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55
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Carrying Capacity of Spatially Distributed Metapopulations. Trends Ecol Evol 2021; 36:164-173. [DOI: 10.1016/j.tree.2020.10.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/18/2020] [Revised: 10/03/2020] [Accepted: 10/08/2020] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
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56
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Smith JE, Smith IB, Working CL, Russell ID, Krout SA, Singh KS, Sih A. Host traits, identity, and ecological conditions predict consistent flea abundance and prevalence on free-living California ground squirrels. Int J Parasitol 2021; 51:587-598. [PMID: 33508332 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijpara.2020.12.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/15/2020] [Revised: 11/29/2020] [Accepted: 12/01/2020] [Indexed: 01/14/2023]
Abstract
Understanding why some individuals are more prone to carry parasites and spread diseases than others is a key question in biology. Although epidemiologists and disease ecologists increasingly recognize that individuals of the same species can vary tremendously in their relative contributions to the emergence of diseases, very few empirical studies systematically assess consistent individual differences in parasite loads within populations over time. Two species of fleas (Oropsylla montana and Hoplopsyllus anomalous) and their hosts, California ground squirrels (Otospermophilus beecheyi), form a major complex for amplifying epizootic plague in the western United States. Understanding its biology is primarily of major ecological importance and is also relevant to public health. Here, we capitalize on a long-term data set to explain flea incidence on California ground squirrels at Briones Regional Park in Contra Costa County, USA. In a 7 year study, we detected 42,358 fleas from 2,759 live trapping events involving 803 unique squirrels from two free-living populations that differed in the amount of human disturbance in those areas. In general, fleas were most abundant and prevalent on adult males, on heavy squirrels, and at the pristine site, but flea distributions varied among years, with seasonal conditions (e.g., temperature, rainfall, humidity), temporally within summers, and between flea species. Although on-host abundances of the two flea species were positively correlated, each flea species occupied a distinctive ecological niche. The common flea (O. montana) occurred primarily on adults in cool, moist conditions in early summer whereas the rare flea (H. anomalous) was mainly on juveniles in hot, dry conditions in late summer. Beyond this, we uncovered significantly repeatable and persistent effects of host individual identity on flea loads, finding consistent individual differences among hosts in all parasite measures. Taken together, we reveal multiple determinants of parasites on free-living mammals, including the underappreciated potential for host heterogeneity - within populations - to structure the emergence of zoonotic diseases such as bubonic plague.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jennifer E Smith
- Biology Department, Mills College, 5000 MacArthur Blvd., Oakland, CA 94631, USA.
| | - Imani B Smith
- Biology Department, Mills College, 5000 MacArthur Blvd., Oakland, CA 94631, USA
| | - Cecelia L Working
- Biology Department, Mills College, 5000 MacArthur Blvd., Oakland, CA 94631, USA; Odum School of Ecology, University of Georgia, 140 E Green St, Athens, GA 30602, USA
| | - Imani D Russell
- Biology Department, Mills College, 5000 MacArthur Blvd., Oakland, CA 94631, USA
| | - Shelby A Krout
- Biology Department, Mills College, 5000 MacArthur Blvd., Oakland, CA 94631, USA
| | - Kajol S Singh
- Biology Department, Mills College, 5000 MacArthur Blvd., Oakland, CA 94631, USA
| | - Andrew Sih
- Department of Environmental Science and Policy, University of California Davis, One Shields Avenue, Davis, CA 95616, USA
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57
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Pepin KM, Golnar A, Podgórski T. Social structure defines spatial transmission of African swine fever in wild boar. J R Soc Interface 2021; 18:20200761. [PMID: 33468025 DOI: 10.1098/rsif.2020.0761] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
The spatial spread of infectious disease is determined by spatial and social processes such as animal space use and family group structure. Yet, the impacts of social processes on spatial spread remain poorly understood and estimates of spatial transmission kernels (STKs) often exclude social structure. Understanding the impacts of social structure on STKs is important for obtaining robust inferences for policy decisions and optimizing response plans. We fit spatially explicit transmission models with different assumptions about contact structure to African swine fever virus surveillance data from eastern Poland from 2014 to 2015 and evaluated how social structure affected inference of STKs and spatial spread. The model with social structure provided better inference of spatial spread, predicted that approximately 80% of transmission events occurred within family groups, and that transmission was weakly female-biased (other models predicted weakly male-biased transmission). In all models, most transmission events were within 1.5 km, with some rare events at longer distances. Effective reproductive numbers were between 1.1 and 2.5 (maximum values between 4 and 8). Social structure can modify spatial transmission dynamics. Accounting for this additional contact heterogeneity in spatial transmission models could provide more robust inferences of STKs for policy decisions, identify best control targets and improve transparency in model uncertainty.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kim M Pepin
- National Wildlife Research Center, USDA, APHIS, Wildlife Services, 4101 Laporte Avenue, Fort Collins, CO 80526, USA
| | - Andrew Golnar
- National Wildlife Research Center, USDA, APHIS, Wildlife Services, 4101 Laporte Avenue, Fort Collins, CO 80526, USA
| | - Tomasz Podgórski
- Mammal Research Institute, Polish Academy of Sciences, Stoczek 1, 17-230 Białowieża, Poland.,Department of Game Management and Wildlife Biology, Faculty of Forestry and Wood Sciences, Czech University of Life Sciences, Kamýcká 129, 165 00 Praha 6, Czech Republic
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58
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The role of social structure and dynamics in the maintenance of endemic disease. Behav Ecol Sociobiol 2021; 75:122. [PMID: 34421183 PMCID: PMC8370858 DOI: 10.1007/s00265-021-03055-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/30/2021] [Revised: 07/09/2021] [Accepted: 07/13/2021] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Social interactions are required for the direct transmission of infectious diseases. Consequently, the social network structure of populations plays a key role in shaping infectious disease dynamics. A huge research effort has examined how specific social network structures make populations more (or less) vulnerable to damaging epidemics. However, it can be just as important to understand how social networks can contribute to endemic disease dynamics, in which pathogens are maintained at stable levels for prolonged periods of time. Hosts that can maintain endemic disease may serve as keystone hosts for multi-host pathogens within an ecological community, and also have greater potential to act as key wildlife reservoirs of agricultural and zoonotic diseases. Here, we examine combinations of social and demographic processes that can foster endemic disease in hosts. We synthesise theoretical and empirical work to demonstrate the importance of both social structure and social dynamics in maintaining endemic disease. We also highlight the importance of distinguishing between the local and global persistence of infection and reveal how different social processes drive variation in the scale at which infectious diseases appear endemic. Our synthesis provides a framework by which to understand how sociality contributes to the long-term maintenance of infectious disease in wildlife hosts and provides a set of tools to unpick the social and demographic mechanisms involved in any given host-pathogen system. SUPPLEMENTARY INFORMATION The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s00265-021-03055-8.
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59
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Mysterud A, Rauset GR, Van Moorter B, Andersen R, Strand O, Rivrud IM. The last moves: The effect of hunting and culling on the risk of disease spread from a population of reindeer. J Appl Ecol 2020. [DOI: 10.1111/1365-2664.13761] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Atle Mysterud
- Department of Biosciences Centre for Ecological and Evolutionary Synthesis (CEES) University of Oslo Oslo Norway
| | | | | | - Roy Andersen
- Norwegian Institute for Nature Research (NINA) Trondheim Norway
| | - Olav Strand
- Norwegian Institute for Nature Research (NINA) Trondheim Norway
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60
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Jacobsen TC, Wiskirchen KH, Ditchkoff SS. A novel method for detecting extra-home range movements (EHRMs) by animals and recommendations for future EHRM studies. PLoS One 2020; 15:e0242328. [PMID: 33253220 PMCID: PMC7703910 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0242328] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/18/2020] [Accepted: 10/30/2020] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Infrequent, long-distance animal movements outside of typical home range areas provide useful insights into resource acquisition, gene flow, and disease transmission within the fields of conservation and wildlife management, yet understanding of these movements is still limited across taxa. To detect these extra-home range movements (EHRMs) in spatial relocation datasets, most previous studies compare relocation points against fixed spatial and temporal bounds, typified by seasonal home ranges (referred to here as the "Fixed-Period" method). However, utilizing home ranges modelled over fixed time periods to detect EHRMs within those periods likely results in many EHRMs going undocumented, particularly when an animal's space use changes within that period of time. To address this, we propose a novel, "Moving-Window" method of detecting EHRMs through an iterative process, comparing each day's relocation data to the preceding period of space use only. We compared the number and characteristics of EHRM detections by both the Moving-Window and Fixed-Period methods using GPS relocations from 33 white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) in Alabama, USA. The Moving-Window method detected 1.5 times as many EHRMs as the Fixed-Period method and identified 120 unique movements that were undetected by the Fixed-Period method, including some movements that extended nearly 5 km outside of home range boundaries. Additionally, we utilized our EHRM dataset to highlight and evaluate potential sources of variation in EHRM summary statistics stemming from differences in definition criteria among previous EHRM literature. We found that this spectrum of criteria identified between 15.6% and 100.0% of the EHRMs within our dataset. We conclude that variability in terminology and definition criteria previously used for EHRM detection hinders useful comparisons between studies. The Moving-Window approach to EHRM detection introduced here, along with proposed methodology guidelines for future EHRM studies, should allow researchers to better investigate and understand these behaviors across a variety of taxa.
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Affiliation(s)
- Todd C. Jacobsen
- School of Forestry and Wildlife Sciences, Auburn University, Auburn, Alabama, United States of America
- * E-mail:
| | - Kevyn H. Wiskirchen
- School of Forestry and Wildlife Sciences, Auburn University, Auburn, Alabama, United States of America
| | - Stephen S. Ditchkoff
- School of Forestry and Wildlife Sciences, Auburn University, Auburn, Alabama, United States of America
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61
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Sánchez CA, Altizer S, Hall RJ. Landscape-level toxicant exposure mediates infection impacts on wildlife populations. Biol Lett 2020; 16:20200559. [PMID: 33202181 DOI: 10.1098/rsbl.2020.0559] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Anthropogenic landscape modification such as urbanization can expose wildlife to toxicants, with profound behavioural and health effects. Toxicant exposure can alter the local transmission of wildlife diseases by reducing survival or altering immune defence. However, predicting the impacts of pathogens on wildlife across their ranges is complicated by heterogeneity in toxicant exposure across the landscape, especially if toxicants alter wildlife movement from toxicant-contaminated to uncontaminated habitats. We developed a mechanistic model to explore how toxicant effects on host health and movement propensity influence range-wide pathogen transmission, and zoonotic exposure risk, as an increasing fraction of the landscape is toxicant-contaminated. When toxicant-contaminated habitat is scarce on the landscape, costs to movement and survival from toxicant exposure can trap infected animals in contaminated habitat and reduce landscape-level transmission. Increasing the proportion of contaminated habitat causes host population declines from combined effects of toxicants and infection. The onset of host declines precedes an increase in the density of infected hosts in contaminated habitat and thus may serve as an early warning of increasing potential for zoonotic spillover in urbanizing landscapes. These results highlight how sublethal effects of toxicants can determine pathogen impacts on wildlife populations that may not manifest until landscape contamination is widespread.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cecilia A Sánchez
- Odum School of Ecology, College of Veterinary Medicine; University of Georgia, Athens, GA, USA.,Center for the Ecology of Infectious Diseases, College of Veterinary Medicine; University of Georgia, Athens, GA, USA
| | - Sonia Altizer
- Odum School of Ecology, College of Veterinary Medicine; University of Georgia, Athens, GA, USA.,Center for the Ecology of Infectious Diseases, College of Veterinary Medicine; University of Georgia, Athens, GA, USA
| | - Richard J Hall
- Odum School of Ecology, College of Veterinary Medicine; University of Georgia, Athens, GA, USA.,Center for the Ecology of Infectious Diseases, College of Veterinary Medicine; University of Georgia, Athens, GA, USA.,Department of Infectious Diseases, College of Veterinary Medicine; University of Georgia, Athens, GA, USA
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62
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Albery GF, Kirkpatrick L, Firth JA, Bansal S. Unifying spatial and social network analysis in disease ecology. J Anim Ecol 2020; 90:45-61. [DOI: 10.1111/1365-2656.13356] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/06/2020] [Accepted: 08/24/2020] [Indexed: 01/18/2023]
Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Josh A. Firth
- Department of Zoology Edward Grey Institute University of Oxford Oxford UK
- Merton College Oxford University Oxford UK
| | - Shweta Bansal
- Department of Biology Georgetown University Washington DC USA
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63
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Webber QMR, Willis CKR. Personality affects dynamics of an experimental pathogen in little brown bats. ROYAL SOCIETY OPEN SCIENCE 2020; 7:200770. [PMID: 33047038 PMCID: PMC7540777 DOI: 10.1098/rsos.200770] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/06/2020] [Accepted: 08/19/2020] [Indexed: 05/13/2023]
Abstract
Host behaviour can affect host-pathogen dynamics and theory predicts that certain individuals disproportionately infect conspecifics during an epidemic. Consistent individual differences in behaviour, or personality, could influence this variation with the most exploratory or sociable individuals most likely to spread pathogens. We quantified exploration and sociability in little brown bats (Myotis lucifugus) and then experimentally manipulated exposure to a proxy pathogen (i.e. ultraviolet (UV) fluorescent powder) to test two related hypotheses: (i) more sociable and more exploratory individuals would be more likely to transmit infections to other individuals, and (ii) more sociable and more exploratory individuals uninfected with an invading pathogen would be more likely to acquire infections. We captured 10 groups of 16 bats at a time and held each group in an outdoor flight tent equipped with roosting-boxes. We used hole-board and Y-maze tests to quantify exploration and sociability of each bat and randomly selected one individual from each group for 'infection' with non-toxic, UV fluorescent powder. Each group of 10 bats was released into the flight tent for 24 h, which represented an experimental infection trial. After 24 h, we removed bats from the trial, photographed each individual under UV light and quantified infection intensity from digital photographs. As predicted, the exploratory behaviour of the experimentally infected individual was positively correlated with infection intensity in their group-mates, while more exploratory females had higher pathogen acquisition. Our results highlight the potential influence of host personality and sex on pathogen dynamics in wildlife populations.
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64
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Wilson MW, Ridlon AD, Gaynor KM, Gaines SD, Stier AC, Halpern BS. Ecological impacts of human-induced animal behaviour change. Ecol Lett 2020; 23:1522-1536. [PMID: 32705769 DOI: 10.1111/ele.13571] [Citation(s) in RCA: 65] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/01/2020] [Accepted: 06/02/2020] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
A growing body of literature has documented myriad effects of human activities on animal behaviour, yet the ultimate ecological consequences of these behavioural shifts remain largely uninvestigated. While it is understood that, in the absence of humans, variation in animal behaviour can have cascading effects on species interactions, community structure and ecosystem function, we know little about whether the type or magnitude of human-induced behavioural shifts translate into detectable ecological change. Here we synthesise empirical literature and theory to create a novel framework for examining the range of behaviourally mediated pathways through which human activities may affect different ecosystem functions. We highlight the few empirical studies that show the potential realisation of some of these pathways, but also identify numerous factors that can dampen or prevent ultimate ecosystem consequences. Without a deeper understanding of these pathways, we risk wasting valuable resources on mitigating behavioural effects with little ecological relevance, or conversely mismanaging situations in which behavioural effects do drive ecosystem change. The framework presented here can be used to anticipate the nature and likelihood of ecological outcomes and prioritise management among widespread human-induced behavioural shifts, while also suggesting key priorities for future research linking humans, animal behaviour and ecology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Margaret W Wilson
- Bren School of Environmental Science & Management, University of California, Santa Barbara, CA, 93106, USA
| | - April D Ridlon
- National Center for Ecological Analysis and Synthesis, University of California, Santa Barbara, CA, 93101, USA
| | - Kaitlyn M Gaynor
- National Center for Ecological Analysis and Synthesis, University of California, Santa Barbara, CA, 93101, USA
| | - Steven D Gaines
- Bren School of Environmental Science & Management, University of California, Santa Barbara, CA, 93106, USA
| | - Adrian C Stier
- Department of Ecology, Evolution, and Marine Biology, University of California Santa Barbara, Santa Barbara, CA, 93106, USA
| | - Benjamin S Halpern
- Bren School of Environmental Science & Management, University of California, Santa Barbara, CA, 93106, USA.,National Center for Ecological Analysis and Synthesis, University of California, Santa Barbara, CA, 93101, USA
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65
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White LA, VandeWoude S, Craft ME. A mechanistic, stigmergy model of territory formation in solitary animals: Territorial behavior can dampen disease prevalence but increase persistence. PLoS Comput Biol 2020; 16:e1007457. [PMID: 32525874 PMCID: PMC7289346 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pcbi.1007457] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/02/2019] [Accepted: 04/08/2020] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Although movement ecology has leveraged models of home range formation to explore the effects of spatial heterogeneity and social cues on movement behavior, disease ecology has yet to integrate these potential drivers and mechanisms of contact behavior into a generalizable disease modeling framework. Here we ask how dynamic territory formation and maintenance might contribute to disease dynamics in a territorial, solitary predator for an indirectly transmitted pathogen. We developed a mechanistic individual-based model where stigmergy—the deposition of signals into the environment (e.g., scent marking, scraping)—dictates local movement choices and long-term territory formation, but also the risk of pathogen transmission. Based on a variable importance analysis, the length of the infectious period was the single most important variable in predicting outbreak success, maximum prevalence, and outbreak duration. Host density and rate of pathogen decay were also key predictors. We found that territoriality best reduced maximum prevalence in conditions where we would otherwise expect outbreaks to be most successful: slower recovery rates (i.e., longer infectious periods) and higher conspecific densities. However, for slower pathogen decay rates, stigmergy-driven movement increased outbreak durations relative to random movement simulations. Our findings therefore support a limited version of the “territoriality benefits” hypothesis—where reduced home range overlap leads to reduced opportunities for pathogen transmission, but with the caveat that reduction in outbreak severity may increase the likelihood of pathogen persistence. For longer infectious periods and higher host densities, key trade-offs emerged between the strength of pathogen load, the strength of the stigmergy cue, and the rate at which those two quantities decayed; this finding raises interesting questions about the evolutionary nature of these competing processes and the role of possible feedbacks between parasitism and territoriality. This work also highlights the importance of considering social cues as part of the movement landscape in order to better understand the consequences of individual behaviors on population level outcomes. Making decisions about conservation and disease management relies on our understanding of what allows animal populations to be successful, which often depends on when and where animals encounter each other. However, disease ecology often focuses on the social behavior of animals without accounting for their individual movement patterns. We developed a simulation model that bridges the fields of disease and movement ecology by allowing hosts to inform their movement based on the past movements of other hosts. As hosts navigate their environment, they leave behind a scent trail while avoiding the scent trails of other individuals. We wanted to know if this means of territory formation could heighten or dampen disease spread when infectious hosts leave pathogens in their wake. We found that territoriality can inhibit disease spread under conditions that we would normally expect pathogens to be most successful: when there are many hosts on the landscape and hosts stay infectious for longer. This work points to how incorporating movement behavior into disease models can provide improved understanding of how diseases spread in wildlife populations; such understanding is particularly important in the face of combatting ongoing and emerging infectious diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lauren A. White
- National Socio-Environmental Synthesis Center, University of Maryland, Annapolis, Maryland, United States of America
- * E-mail:
| | - Sue VandeWoude
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology & Pathology, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, Colorado, United States of America
| | - Meggan E. Craft
- Department of Veterinary Population Medicine, University of Minnesota, St. Paul, Minnesota, United States of America
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McClure KM, Gilbert AT, Chipman RB, Rees EE, Pepin KM. Variation in host home range size decreases rabies vaccination effectiveness by increasing the spatial spread of rabies virus. J Anim Ecol 2020; 89:1375-1386. [PMID: 31957005 PMCID: PMC7317853 DOI: 10.1111/1365-2656.13176] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/08/2018] [Accepted: 11/21/2019] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Animal movement influences the spatial spread of directly transmitted wildlife disease through host-host contact structure. Wildlife disease hosts vary in home range-associated foraging and social behaviours, which may increase the spread and intensity of disease outbreaks. The consequences of variation in host home range movement and space use on wildlife disease dynamics are poorly understood, but could help to predict disease spread and determine more effective disease management strategies. We developed a spatially explicit individual-based model to examine the effect of spatiotemporal variation in host home range size on the spatial spread rate, persistence and incidence of rabies virus (RABV) in raccoons (Procyon lotor). We tested the hypothesis that variation in home range size increases RABV spread and decreases vaccination effectiveness in host populations following pathogen invasion into a vaccination zone. We simulated raccoon demography and RABV dynamics across a range of magnitudes and variances in weekly home range size for raccoons. We examined how variable home range size influenced the relative effectiveness of three components of oral rabies vaccination (ORV) programmes targeting raccoons-timing and frequency of bait delivery, width of the ORV zone and proportion of hosts immunized. Variability in weekly home range size increased RABV spread rates by 1.2-fold to 5.2-fold compared to simulations that assumed a fixed home range size. More variable host home range sizes decreased relative vaccination effectiveness by 71% compared to less variable host home range sizes under conventional vaccination conditions. We found that vaccination timing was more influential for vaccination effectiveness than vaccination frequency or vaccination zone width. Our results suggest that variation in wildlife home range movement behaviour increases the spatial spread and incidence of RABV. Our vaccination results underscore the importance of prioritizing individual-level space use and movement data collection to understand wildlife disease dynamics and plan their effective control and elimination.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katherine M. McClure
- United States Department of Agriculture, Animal and Plant Health Inspection ServiceNational Wildlife Research CenterFort CollinsCOUSA
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology, and PathologyColorado State UniversityFort CollinsCOUSA
- Present address:
Cornell Atkinson Center for Sustainability and the Cornell Wildlife Health CenterCornell UniversityIthacaNYUSA
| | - Amy T. Gilbert
- United States Department of Agriculture, Animal and Plant Health Inspection ServiceNational Wildlife Research CenterFort CollinsCOUSA
| | - Richard B. Chipman
- United States Department of Agriculture, Animal and Plant Health Inspection ServiceNational Rabies Management ProgramConcordNHUSA
| | - Erin E. Rees
- Land and Sea Systems Analysis Inc.GranbyQCCanada
- National Microbiology LaboratoryPublic Health Risk Sciences DivisionPublic Health Agency of CanadaSaint‐HyacintheQCCanada
| | - Kim M. Pepin
- United States Department of Agriculture, Animal and Plant Health Inspection ServiceNational Wildlife Research CenterFort CollinsCOUSA
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Payne E, Sinn DL, Spiegel O, Leu ST, Wohlfeil C, Godfrey SS, Gardner M, Sih A. Consistent individual differences in ecto‐parasitism of a long‐lived lizard host. OIKOS 2020. [DOI: 10.1111/oik.06670] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Eric Payne
- Dept of Environmental Science and Policy, Univ. of California Davis 1 Shields Ave. Davis CA 95616‐5270 USA
| | - David L. Sinn
- Dept of Environmental Science and Policy, Univ. of California Davis 1 Shields Ave. Davis CA 95616‐5270 USA
- Dept of Biological Sciences, Univ. of Tasmania Hobart Tasmania Australia
| | - Orr Spiegel
- School of Zoology, Faculty of Life Sciences, Tel Aviv Univ. Tel Aviv Israel
| | - Stephan T. Leu
- Dept of Biological Sciences, Macquarie Univ. Sydney Australia
| | - Caroline Wohlfeil
- College of Science and Engineering, Flinders Univ. Adelaide Australia
| | | | - Michael Gardner
- College of Science and Engineering, Flinders Univ. Adelaide Australia
- Evolutionary Biology Unit, South Australian Museum North Terrace Adelaide Australia
| | - Andy Sih
- Dept of Environmental Science and Policy, Univ. of California Davis 1 Shields Ave. Davis CA 95616‐5270 USA
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Ditmer MA, McGraw AM, Cornicelli L, Forester JD, Mahoney PJ, Moen RA, Stapleton SP, St-Louis V, VanderWaal K, Carstensen M. Using movement ecology to investigate meningeal worm risk in moose, Alces alces. J Mammal 2020. [DOI: 10.1093/jmammal/gyaa019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Abstract
Anthropogenic habitat change and moderating climatic conditions have enabled the northward geographic expansion of white-tailed deer, Odocoileus virginianus, and of the parasitic nematode (meningeal worm) it carries, Parelaphostrongylus tenuis. This expansion can have consequences in dead-end host species for other ungulates because meningeal worm reduces health, causes morbidity or direct mortality, and has been attributed to population declines. In northeastern Minnesota, which marks the southern extent of the bioclimatic range for moose (Alces alces), the moose population has declined more than 50% in the last decade, with studies detecting P. tenuis in 25–45% of necropsied animals. We assessed the factors that most commonly are associated with meningeal worm infection by linking moose movement ecology with known P. tenuis infection status from necropsy. We outfitted moose with GPS collars to assess their space use and cause-specific mortality. Upon death of the subject animal, we performed a necropsy to determine the cause of death and document meningeal worm infection. We then created statistical models to assess the relationship between meningeal worm infection and exposure to hypothesized factors of infection risk based on the space use of each moose by season. Predictors included land cover types, deer space use and density, environmental conditions, and demographics of individual moose (age and sex). Moose with autumn home ranges that included more upland shrub/conifer, and individuals with high proportions of wet environments, regardless of season, had increased infection risk. In contrast, the strongest relationships we found showed that high proportions of mixed and conifer forest within spring home ranges resulted in reduced risk of infection. The spring models showed the strongest relationships between exposure and infection, potentially due to moose foraging on ground vegetation during spring. By incorporating movement of moose into disease ecology, we were able to take a top-down approach to test hypothesized components of infection risk with actual spatial and temporal exposure of individual necropsied moose. The probability of infection for moose was not influenced by deer density, although deer densities did not vary greatly within the study area (2–4 deer/km2), highlighting the importance of also considering both moose space use and environmental conditions in understanding infection risk. We suggest management strategies that use a combination of deer and land management prescriptions designed to limit contact rates in susceptible populations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mark A Ditmer
- Conservation Department, Minnesota Zoo, Apple Valley, MN, USA
- Department of Fisheries, Wildlife & Conservation Biology, University of Minnesota, St. Paul, MN, USA
| | - Amanda M McGraw
- Natural Resources Research Institute and Department of Biology, University of Minnesota, Duluth, MN, USA
| | - Louis Cornicelli
- Wildlife Research Unit, Minnesota Department of Natural Resources, St. Paul, MN, USA
| | - James D Forester
- Department of Fisheries, Wildlife & Conservation Biology, University of Minnesota, St. Paul, MN, USA
| | - Peter J Mahoney
- School of Environmental and Forest Sciences, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA
| | - Ron A Moen
- Natural Resources Research Institute and Department of Biology, University of Minnesota, Duluth, MN, USA
| | - Seth P Stapleton
- Conservation Department, Minnesota Zoo, Apple Valley, MN, USA
- Department of Fisheries, Wildlife & Conservation Biology, University of Minnesota, St. Paul, MN, USA
| | - Véronique St-Louis
- Wildlife Research Unit, Minnesota Department of Natural Resources, Forest Lake, MN, USA
| | - Kimberly VanderWaal
- Department of Veterinary Population Medicine, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Minnesota, St. Paul, MN, USA
| | - Michelle Carstensen
- Wildlife Research Unit, Minnesota Department of Natural Resources, Forest Lake, MN, USA
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Kärvemo S, Wikström G, Widenfalk L, Höglund J, Laurila A. Chytrid fungus dynamics and infections associated with movement distances in a red‐listed amphibian. J Zool (1987) 2020. [DOI: 10.1111/jzo.12773] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- S. Kärvemo
- Department of Ecology Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences Uppsala Sweden
- Department of Ecology and Genetics/Animal Ecology Uppsala University Uppsala Sweden
| | - G. Wikström
- Department of Ecology and Genetics/Animal Ecology Uppsala University Uppsala Sweden
| | - L.A. Widenfalk
- Department of Ecology Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences Uppsala Sweden
- Greensway AB Uppsala Sweden
| | - J. Höglund
- Department of Ecology and Genetics/Animal Ecology Uppsala University Uppsala Sweden
| | - A. Laurila
- Department of Ecology and Genetics/Animal Ecology Uppsala University Uppsala Sweden
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Scherer C, Radchuk V, Franz M, Thulke H, Lange M, Grimm V, Kramer‐Schadt S. Moving infections: individual movement decisions drive disease persistence in spatially structured landscapes. OIKOS 2020. [DOI: 10.1111/oik.07002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Cédric Scherer
- Leibniz Inst. for Zoo and Wildlife Research (IZW) Alfred‐Kowalke‐Str. 17 DE‐10315 Berlin Germany
| | - Viktoriia Radchuk
- Leibniz Inst. for Zoo and Wildlife Research (IZW) Alfred‐Kowalke‐Str. 17 DE‐10315 Berlin Germany
| | - Mathias Franz
- Leibniz Inst. for Zoo and Wildlife Research (IZW) Alfred‐Kowalke‐Str. 17 DE‐10315 Berlin Germany
| | | | - Martin Lange
- Helmholtz Centre for Environmental Research–UFZ Leipzig Germany
| | - Volker Grimm
- Helmholtz Centre for Environmental Research–UFZ Leipzig Germany
| | - Stephanie Kramer‐Schadt
- Leibniz Inst. for Zoo and Wildlife Research (IZW) Alfred‐Kowalke‐Str. 17 DE‐10315 Berlin Germany
- Dept of Ecology, Technische Univ. Berlin Berlin Germany
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Gilbertson MLJ, White LA, Craft ME. Trade-offs with telemetry-derived contact networks for infectious disease studies in wildlife. Methods Ecol Evol 2020; 12:76-87. [PMID: 33692875 DOI: 10.1111/2041-210x.13355] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Network analysis of infectious disease in wildlife can reveal traits or individuals critical to pathogen transmission and help inform disease management strategies. However, estimates of contact between animals are notoriously difficult to acquire. Researchers commonly use telemetry technologies to identify animal associations; but such data may have different sampling intervals and often captures a small subset of the population. The objectives of this study were to outline best practices for telemetry sampling in network studies of infectious disease by determining (1) the consequences of telemetry sampling on our ability to estimate network structure, (2) whether contact networks can be approximated using purely spatial contact definitions, and (3) how wildlife spatial configurations may influence telemetry sampling requirements.We simulated individual movement trajectories for wildlife populations using a home range-like movement model, creating full location datasets and corresponding "complete" networks. To mimic telemetry data, we created "sample" networks by subsampling the population (10-100% of individuals) with a range of sampling intervals (every minute to every three days). We varied the definition of contact for sample networks, using either spatiotemporal or spatial overlap, and varied the spatial configuration of populations (random, lattice, or clustered). To compare complete and sample networks, we calculated seven network metrics important for disease transmission and assessed mean ranked correlation coefficients and percent error between complete and sample network metrics.Telemetry sampling severely reduced our ability to calculate global node-level network metrics, but had less impact on local and network-level metrics. Even so, in populations with infrequent associations, high intensity telemetry sampling may still be necessary. Defining contact in terms of spatial overlap generally resulted in overly connected networks, but in some instances, could compensate for otherwise coarse telemetry data.By synthesizing movement and disease ecology with computational approaches, we characterized trade-offs important for using wildlife telemetry data beyond ecological studies of individual movement, and found that careful use of telemetry data has the potential to inform network models. Thus, with informed application of telemetry data, we can make significant advances in leveraging its use for a better understanding and management of wildlife infectious disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marie L J Gilbertson
- Veterinary Population Medicine Department, University of Minnesota, St. Paul, MN, USA
| | - Lauren A White
- National Socio-Environmental Synthesis Center, Annapolis, MD, USA
| | - Meggan E Craft
- Veterinary Population Medicine Department, University of Minnesota, St. Paul, MN, USA
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Phytoseiid predatory mites can disperse entomopathogenic fungi to prey patches. Sci Rep 2019; 9:19435. [PMID: 31857623 PMCID: PMC6923365 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-019-55499-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/22/2018] [Accepted: 11/28/2019] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Recent studies have shown that predatory mites used as biocontrol agents can be loaded with entomopathogenic fungal conidia to increase infection rates in pest populations. Under laboratory conditions, we determined the capacity of two phytoseiid mites, Amblyseius swirskii and Neoseiulus cucumeris to deliver the entomopathogenic fungus Beauveria bassiana to their prey, Frankliniella occidentalis. Predatory mites were loaded with conidia and released on plants that had been previously infested with first instar prey clustered on a bean leaf. We examined each plant section to characterize the spatial distribution of each interacting organism. Our results showed that A. swirskii delivered high numbers of conidia to thrips infested leaves, thereby increasing the proportion of thrips that came into contact with the fungus. The effect was larger when thrips infestation occurred on young leaves than on old leaves. Neoseiulus cucumeris delivered less conidia to the thrips infested leaves. These patterns result from differences in foraging activity between predatory mite species. Amblyseius swirskii stayed longer on plants, especially within thrips colonies, and had a stronger suppressing effect on thrips than N. cucumeris. Our study suggests that loading certain predatory mite species with fungal conidia can increase their capacity to suppress thrips populations by combining predation and dispersing pathogens.
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Gamble A, Bazire R, Delord K, Barbraud C, Jaeger A, Gantelet H, Thibault E, Lebarbenchon C, Lagadec E, Tortosa P, Weimerskirch H, Thiebot J, Garnier R, Tornos J, Boulinier T. Predator and scavenger movements among and within endangered seabird colonies: Opportunities for pathogen spread. J Appl Ecol 2019. [DOI: 10.1111/1365-2664.13531] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Amandine Gamble
- Centre d'Écologie Fonctionnelle et Évolutive (CEFE) UMR CNRS 5175University of MontpellierEPHEUniversity Paul Valéry Montpellier 3IRD Montpellier France
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology University of California Los Angeles CA USA
| | - Romain Bazire
- Centre d'Écologie Fonctionnelle et Évolutive (CEFE) UMR CNRS 5175University of MontpellierEPHEUniversity Paul Valéry Montpellier 3IRD Montpellier France
| | - Karine Delord
- Centre d'Études Biologiques de Chizé (CEBC) UMR CNRS 7372Université La Rochelle Villiers en Bois France
| | - Christophe Barbraud
- Centre d'Études Biologiques de Chizé (CEBC) UMR CNRS 7372Université La Rochelle Villiers en Bois France
| | - Audrey Jaeger
- Université de la RéunionUMR Processus Infectieux en Milieu Insulaire Tropical (PIMIT)CNRSGIP CYROI Saint Denis La Réunion France
- Université de la RéunionÉcologie Marine Tropicale des Océans Pacifique et Indien (ENTROPIE)UMR UR‐IRD‐CNRS Saint Denis La Réunion France
| | | | | | - Camille Lebarbenchon
- Université de la RéunionUMR Processus Infectieux en Milieu Insulaire Tropical (PIMIT)CNRSGIP CYROI Saint Denis La Réunion France
| | - Erwan Lagadec
- Université de la RéunionUMR Processus Infectieux en Milieu Insulaire Tropical (PIMIT)CNRSGIP CYROI Saint Denis La Réunion France
- Réserve Naturelle Nationale des Terres Australes Française La Réunion France
| | - Pablo Tortosa
- Université de la RéunionUMR Processus Infectieux en Milieu Insulaire Tropical (PIMIT)CNRSGIP CYROI Saint Denis La Réunion France
| | - Henri Weimerskirch
- Centre d'Études Biologiques de Chizé (CEBC) UMR CNRS 7372Université La Rochelle Villiers en Bois France
| | - Jean‐Baptiste Thiebot
- Centre d'Études Biologiques de Chizé (CEBC) UMR CNRS 7372Université La Rochelle Villiers en Bois France
- Réserve Naturelle Nationale des Terres Australes Française La Réunion France
- National Institute of Polar Research Tachikawa Tokyo Japan
| | - Romain Garnier
- Department of Biology Georgetown University Washington D.C. USA
| | - Jérémy Tornos
- Centre d'Écologie Fonctionnelle et Évolutive (CEFE) UMR CNRS 5175University of MontpellierEPHEUniversity Paul Valéry Montpellier 3IRD Montpellier France
- Ceva Biovac Beaucouzé France
| | - Thierry Boulinier
- Centre d'Écologie Fonctionnelle et Évolutive (CEFE) UMR CNRS 5175University of MontpellierEPHEUniversity Paul Valéry Montpellier 3IRD Montpellier France
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Herrera J, Nunn CL. Behavioural ecology and infectious disease: implications for conservation of biodiversity. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci 2019; 374:20180054. [PMID: 31352881 DOI: 10.1098/rstb.2018.0054] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Behaviour underpins interactions among conspecifics and between species, with consequences for the transmission of disease-causing parasites. Because many parasites lead to declines in population size and increased risk of extinction for threatened species, understanding the link between host behaviour and disease transmission is particularly important for conservation management. Here, we consider the intersection of behaviour, ecology and parasite transmission, broadly encompassing micro- and macroparasites. We focus on behaviours that have direct impacts on transmission, as well as the behaviours that result from infection. Given the important role of parasites in host survival and reproduction, the effects of behaviour on parasitism can scale up to population-level processes, thus affecting species conservation. Understanding how conservation and infectious disease control strategies actually affect transmission potential can therefore often only be understood through a behavioural lens. We highlight how behavioural perspectives of disease ecology apply to conservation by reviewing the different ways that behavioural ecology influences parasite transmission and conservation goals. This article is part of the theme issue 'Linking behaviour to dynamics of populations and communities: application of novel approaches in behavioural ecology to conservation'.
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Affiliation(s)
- James Herrera
- Department of Evolutionary Anthropology, Duke University, 103 Science Drive, Durham, NC 27705, USA
| | - Charles L Nunn
- Department of Evolutionary Anthropology, Duke University, 103 Science Drive, Durham, NC 27705, USA.,Duke Global Health Institute, Duke University, 103 Science Drive, Durham, NC 27705, USA
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Rayl ND, Proffitt KM, Almberg ES, Jones JD, Merkle JA, Gude JA, Cross PC. Modeling elk‐to‐livestock transmission risk to predict hotspots of brucellosis spillover. J Wildl Manage 2019. [DOI: 10.1002/jwmg.21645] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Nathaniel D. Rayl
- U.S. Geological SurveyNorthern Rocky Mountain Science CenterBozemanMT59715USA
| | | | | | | | - Jerod A. Merkle
- Wyoming Cooperative Fish and Wildlife Research UnitDepartment of Zoology and PhysiologyUniversity of WyomingLaramieWY82071USA
| | | | - Paul C. Cross
- U.S. Geological SurveyNorthern Rocky Mountain Science CenterBozemanMT59715USA
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van Toor ML, Avril A, Wu G, Holan SH, Waldenström J. As the Duck Flies—Estimating the Dispersal of Low-Pathogenic Avian Influenza Viruses by Migrating Mallards. Front Ecol Evol 2018. [DOI: 10.3389/fevo.2018.00208] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
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Taggart PL, Leu ST, Spiegel O, Godfrey SS, Sih A, Bull CM. Endure your parasites: Sleepy Lizard (Tiliqua rugosa) movement is not affected by their ectoparasites. CAN J ZOOL 2018. [DOI: 10.1139/cjz-2017-0352] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Movement is often used to indicate host vigour, as it has various ecological and evolutionary implications, and has been shown to be affected by parasites. We investigate the relationship between tick load and movement in the Australian Sleepy Lizard (Tiliqua rugosa (Gray, 1825)) using high resolution GPS tracking. This allowed us to track individuals across the entire activity season. We hypothesized that tick load negatively affects host movement (mean distance moved per day). We used a multivariate statistical model informed by the ecology and biology of the host and parasite, their host–parasite relationship, and known host movement patterns. This allowed us to quantify the effects of ticks on lizard movement above and beyond effects of other factors such as time in the activity season, lizard body condition, and stress. We did not find any support for our hypothesis. Instead, our results provide evidence that lizard movement is strongly driven by internal state (sex and body condition independent of tick load) and by external factors (environmental conditions). We suggest that the Sleepy Lizard has largely adapted to natural levels of tick infection in this system. Our results conform to host–parasite arms race theory, which predicts varying impacts of parasites on hosts in natural systems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Patrick L. Taggart
- College of Science and Engineering, Flinders University, Sturt Road, Bedford Park, SA 5042, Australia
| | - Stephan T. Leu
- College of Science and Engineering, Flinders University, Sturt Road, Bedford Park, SA 5042, Australia
| | - Orr Spiegel
- School of Zoology, Faculty of Life Sciences, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv 69978, Israel
| | - Stephanie S. Godfrey
- Department of Zoology, University of Otago, 340 Great King Street, P.O. Box 56, Dunedin 9054, New Zealand
| | - Andrew Sih
- Department of Environmental Science and Policy, University of California, 1023 Wickson Hall, One Shields Avenue, Davis, CA 95616, USA
| | - C. Michael Bull
- College of Science and Engineering, Flinders University, Sturt Road, Bedford Park, SA 5042, Australia
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Kozakiewicz CP, Burridge CP, Funk WC, VandeWoude S, Craft ME, Crooks KR, Ernest HB, Fountain‐Jones NM, Carver S. Pathogens in space: Advancing understanding of pathogen dynamics and disease ecology through landscape genetics. Evol Appl 2018; 11:1763-1778. [PMID: 30459828 PMCID: PMC6231466 DOI: 10.1111/eva.12678] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/20/2018] [Revised: 06/24/2018] [Accepted: 06/28/2018] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Landscape genetics has provided many insights into how heterogeneous landscape features drive processes influencing spatial genetic variation in free-living organisms. This rapidly developing field has focused heavily on vertebrates, and expansion of this scope to the study of infectious diseases holds great potential for landscape geneticists and disease ecologists alike. The potential application of landscape genetics to infectious agents has garnered attention at formative stages in the development of landscape genetics, but systematic examination is lacking. We comprehensively review how landscape genetics is being used to better understand pathogen dynamics. We characterize the field and evaluate the types of questions addressed, approaches used and systems studied. We also review the now established landscape genetic methods and their realized and potential applications to disease ecology. Lastly, we identify emerging frontiers in the landscape genetic study of infectious agents, including recent phylogeographic approaches and frameworks for studying complex multihost and host-vector systems. Our review emphasizes the expanding utility of landscape genetic methods available for elucidating key pathogen dynamics (particularly transmission and spread) and also how landscape genetic studies of pathogens can provide insight into host population dynamics. Through this review, we convey how increasing awareness of the complementarity of landscape genetics and disease ecology among practitioners of each field promises to drive important cross-disciplinary advances.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - W. Chris Funk
- Department of BiologyGraduate Degree Program in EcologyColorado State UniversityFort CollinsColorado
| | - Sue VandeWoude
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology, and PathologyColorado State UniversityFort CollinsColorado
| | - Meggan E. Craft
- Department of Veterinary Population MedicineUniversity of MinnesotaSt. PaulMinnesota
| | - Kevin R. Crooks
- Department of Fish, Wildlife, and Conservation BiologyColorado State UniversityFort CollinsColorado
| | - Holly B. Ernest
- Wildlife Genomics and Disease Ecology LaboratoryDepartment of Veterinary SciencesUniversity of WyomingLaramieWyoming
| | | | - Scott Carver
- School of Natural SciencesUniversity of TasmaniaHobartTasmaniaAustralia
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80
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Seidel DP, Dougherty E, Carlson C, Getz WM. Ecological metrics and methods for GPS movement data. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF GEOGRAPHICAL INFORMATION SCIENCE : IJGIS 2018; 32:2272-2293. [PMID: 30631244 PMCID: PMC6322554 DOI: 10.1080/13658816.2018.1498097] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/27/2018] [Accepted: 07/04/2018] [Indexed: 05/07/2023]
Abstract
The growing field of movement ecology uses high resolution movement data to analyze animal behavior across multiple scales: from individual foraging decisions to population-level space-use patterns. These analyses contribute to various subfields of ecology-inter alia behavioral, disease, landscape, resource, and wildlife-and facilitate facilitate novel exploration in fields ranging from conservation planning to public health. Despite the growing availability and general accessibility of animal movement data, much potential remains for the analytical methods of movement ecology to be incorporated in all types of geographic analyses. This review provides for the Geographical Information Sciences (GIS) community an overview of the most common movement metrics and methods of analysis employed by animal ecologists. Through illustrative applications, we emphasize the potential for movement analyses to promote transdisciplinary GIS/wildlife-ecology research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dana Paige Seidel
- Department of Environmental Science, Policy, & Management, University of California, Berkeley
| | - Eric Dougherty
- Department of Environmental Science, Policy, & Management, University of California, Berkeley
| | - Colin Carlson
- National Socio-Environmental Synthesis Center, University of Maryland, Annapolis, MD 21401, USA
- Department of Biology, Georgetown University, Washington, D.C. 20057, USA
| | - Wayne M. Getz
- Department of Environmental Science, Policy, & Management, University of California, Berkeley
- Schools of Mathematical Sciences, University of KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa
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81
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Disease outbreak thresholds emerge from interactions between movement behavior, landscape structure, and epidemiology. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2018; 115:7374-7379. [PMID: 29941567 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1801383115] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Disease models have provided conflicting evidence as to whether spatial heterogeneity promotes or impedes pathogen persistence. Moreover, there has been limited theoretical investigation into how animal movement behavior interacts with the spatial organization of resources (e.g., clustered, random, uniform) across a landscape to affect infectious disease dynamics. Importantly, spatial heterogeneity of resources can sometimes lead to nonlinear or counterintuitive outcomes depending on the host and pathogen system. There is a clear need to develop a general theoretical framework that could be used to create testable predictions for specific host-pathogen systems. Here, we develop an individual-based model integrated with movement ecology approaches to investigate how host movement behaviors interact with landscape heterogeneity (in the form of various levels of resource abundance and clustering) to affect pathogen dynamics. For most of the parameter space, our results support the counterintuitive idea that fragmentation promotes pathogen persistence, but this finding was largely dependent on perceptual range of the host, conspecific density, and recovery rate. For simulations with high conspecific density, slower recovery rates, and larger perceptual ranges, more complex disease dynamics emerged, and the most fragmented landscapes were not necessarily the most conducive to outbreaks or pathogen persistence. These results point to the importance of interactions between landscape structure, individual movement behavior, and pathogen transmission for predicting and understanding disease dynamics.
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82
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Winner K, Noonan MJ, Fleming CH, Olson KA, Mueller T, Sheldon D, Calabrese JM. Statistical inference for home range overlap. Methods Ecol Evol 2018. [DOI: 10.1111/2041-210x.13027] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Kevin Winner
- College of Information and Computer Sciences University of Massachusetts Amherst Amherst Massachusetts
| | - Michael J. Noonan
- Smithsonian Conservation Biology Institute National Zoological Park Front Royal Virginia
- Department of Biology University of Maryland College Park Maryland
| | - Christen H. Fleming
- Smithsonian Conservation Biology Institute National Zoological Park Front Royal Virginia
- Department of Biology University of Maryland College Park Maryland
| | - Kirk A. Olson
- Wildlife Conservation Society Mongolia Program Ulaanbaatar Mongolia
| | - Thomas Mueller
- Smithsonian Conservation Biology Institute National Zoological Park Front Royal Virginia
- Senckenberg Biodiversity and Climate Research Centre Senckenberg Gesellschaft für Naturforschung Frankfurt (Main) Germany
- Department of Biological Sciences Goethe University Frankfurt (Main) Germany
| | - Daniel Sheldon
- College of Information and Computer Sciences University of Massachusetts Amherst Amherst Massachusetts
- Department of Computer Science Mount Holyoke College South Hadley Massachusetts
| | - Justin M. Calabrese
- Smithsonian Conservation Biology Institute National Zoological Park Front Royal Virginia
- Department of Biology University of Maryland College Park Maryland
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83
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Carlson CJ, Getz WM, Kausrud KL, Cizauskas CA, Blackburn JK, Bustos Carrillo FA, Colwell R, Easterday WR, Ganz HH, Kamath PL, Økstad OA, Turner WC, Kolstø AB, Stenseth NC. Spores and soil from six sides: interdisciplinarity and the environmental biology of anthrax (Bacillus anthracis). Biol Rev Camb Philos Soc 2018; 93:1813-1831. [PMID: 29732670 DOI: 10.1111/brv.12420] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/22/2017] [Revised: 03/27/2018] [Accepted: 04/03/2018] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Environmentally transmitted diseases are comparatively poorly understood and managed, and their ecology is particularly understudied. Here we identify challenges of studying environmental transmission and persistence with a six-sided interdisciplinary review of the biology of anthrax (Bacillus anthracis). Anthrax is a zoonotic disease capable of maintaining infectious spore banks in soil for decades (or even potentially centuries), and the mechanisms of its environmental persistence have been the topic of significant research and controversy. Where anthrax is endemic, it plays an important ecological role, shaping the dynamics of entire herbivore communities. The complex eco-epidemiology of anthrax, and the mysterious biology of Bacillus anthracis during its environmental stage, have necessitated an interdisciplinary approach to pathogen research. Here, we illustrate different disciplinary perspectives through key advances made by researchers working in Etosha National Park, a long-term ecological research site in Namibia that has exemplified the complexities of the enzootic process of anthrax over decades of surveillance. In Etosha, the role of scavengers and alternative routes (waterborne transmission and flies) has proved unimportant relative to the long-term persistence of anthrax spores in soil and their infection of herbivore hosts. Carcass deposition facilitates green-ups of vegetation to attract herbivores, potentially facilitated by the role of anthrax spores in the rhizosphere. The underlying seasonal pattern of vegetation, and herbivores' immune and behavioural responses to anthrax risk, interact to produce regular 'anthrax seasons' that appear to be a stable feature of the Etosha ecosystem. Through the lens of microbiologists, geneticists, immunologists, ecologists, epidemiologists, and clinicians, we discuss how anthrax dynamics are shaped at the smallest scale by population genetics and interactions within the bacterial communities up to the broadest scales of ecosystem structure. We illustrate the benefits and challenges of this interdisciplinary approach to disease ecology, and suggest ways anthrax might offer insights into the biology of other important pathogens. Bacillus anthracis, and the more recently emerged Bacillus cereus biovar anthracis, share key features with other environmentally transmitted pathogens, including several zoonoses and panzootics of special interest for global health and conservation efforts. Understanding the dynamics of anthrax, and developing interdisciplinary research programs that explore environmental persistence, is a critical step forward for understanding these emerging threats.
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Affiliation(s)
- Colin J Carlson
- National Socio-Environmental Synthesis Center (SESYNC), University of Maryland, Annapolis, MD 21401, U.S.A.,Department of Biology, Georgetown University, Washington, DC 20057, U.S.A
| | - Wayne M Getz
- Department of Environmental Science, Policy, and Management, University of California, Berkeley, CA 94720, U.S.A.,School of Mathematical Sciences, University of KwaZulu-Natal, PB X 54001, Durban 4000, South Africa
| | - Kyrre L Kausrud
- Centre for Ecological and Evolutionary Synthesis (CEES), Department of Biosciences, University of Oslo, PO Box 1066 Blindern, N-0316, Oslo, Norway
| | - Carrie A Cizauskas
- Department of Environmental Science, Policy, and Management, University of California, Berkeley, CA 94720, U.S.A
| | - Jason K Blackburn
- Spatial Epidemiology & Ecology Research Lab, Department of Geography, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32611, U.S.A.,Emerging Pathogens Institute, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, U.S.A
| | - Fausto A Bustos Carrillo
- Department of Epidemiology & Department of Biostatistics, School of Public Health, University of California, Berkeley, CA 94720-7360, U.S.A
| | - Rita Colwell
- CosmosID Inc., Rockville, MD 20850, U.S.A.,Center for Bioinformatics and Computational Biology, University of Maryland Institute for Advanced Computer Studies, University of Maryland, College Park, MD 20742, U.S.A.,Bloomberg School of Public Health, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD 21205, U.S.A
| | - W Ryan Easterday
- Centre for Ecological and Evolutionary Synthesis (CEES), Department of Biosciences, University of Oslo, PO Box 1066 Blindern, N-0316, Oslo, Norway
| | - Holly H Ganz
- UC Davis Genome Center, University of California, Davis, CA 95616, U.S.A
| | - Pauline L Kamath
- School of Food and Agriculture, University of Maine, Orono, ME 04469, U.S.A
| | - Ole A Økstad
- Centre for Integrative Microbial Evolution and Section for Pharmaceutical Biosciences, School of Pharmacy, University of Oslo, PO Box 1068 Blindern, N-0316, Oslo, Norway
| | - Wendy C Turner
- Department of Biological Sciences, University at Albany, State University of New York, Albany, NY 12222, U.S.A
| | - Anne-Brit Kolstø
- Centre for Integrative Microbial Evolution and Section for Pharmaceutical Biosciences, School of Pharmacy, University of Oslo, PO Box 1068 Blindern, N-0316, Oslo, Norway
| | - Nils C Stenseth
- Centre for Ecological and Evolutionary Synthesis (CEES), Department of Biosciences, University of Oslo, PO Box 1066 Blindern, N-0316, Oslo, Norway
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84
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Leu ST, Godfrey SS. Advances from the nexus of animal behaviour and pathogen transmission: new directions and opportunities using contact networks. BEHAVIOUR 2018. [DOI: 10.1163/1568539x-00003507] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Abstract
Contact network models have enabled significant advances in understanding the influence of behaviour on parasite and pathogen transmission. They are an important tool that links variation in individual behaviour, to epidemiological consequences at the population level. Here, in our introduction to this special issue, we highlight the importance of applying network approaches to disease ecological and epidemiological questions, and how this has provided a much deeper understanding of these research areas. Recent advances in tracking host behaviour (bio-logging: e.g., GPS tracking, barcoding) and tracking pathogens (high-resolution sequencing), as well as methodological advances (multi-layer networks, computational techniques) started producing exciting new insights into disease transmission through contact networks. We discuss some of the exciting directions that the field is taking, some of the challenges, and importantly the opportunities that lie ahead. For instance, we suggest to integrate multiple transmission pathways, multiple pathogens, and in some systems, multiple host species, into the next generation of network models. Corresponding opportunities exist in utilising molecular techniques, such as high-resolution sequencing, to establish causality in network connectivity and disease outcomes. Such novel developments and the continued integration of network tools offers a more complete understanding of pathogen transmission processes, their underlying mechanisms and their evolutionary consequences.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stephan T. Leu
- aDepartment of Biological Sciences, Macquarie University, Sydney, Australia. E-mail:
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85
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Silk M, Drewe J, Delahay R, Weber N, Steward L, Wilson-Aggarwal J, Boots M, Hodgson D, Croft D, McDonald R. Quantifying direct and indirect contacts for the potential transmission of infection between species using a multilayer contact network. BEHAVIOUR 2018. [DOI: 10.1163/1568539x-00003493] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Abstract
Detecting opportunities for between-species transmission of pathogens can be challenging, particularly if rare behaviours or environmental transmission are involved. We present a multilayer network framework to quantify transmission potential in multi-host systems, incorporating environmental transmission, by using empirical data on direct and indirect contacts between European badgers Meles meles and domestic cattle. We identify that indirect contacts via the environment at badger latrines on pasture are likely to be important for transmission within badger populations and between badgers and cattle. We also find a positive correlation between the role of individual badgers within the badger social network, and their role in the overall badger-cattle-environment network, suggesting that the same behavioural traits contribute to the role of individual badgers in within- and between-species transmission. These findings have implications for disease management interventions in this system, and our novel network approach can provide general insights into transmission in other multi-host disease systems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matthew J. Silk
- aEnvironment and Sustainability Institute, University of Exeter, Penryn, Cornwall, UK
| | - Julian A. Drewe
- bThe Royal Veterinary College, Hawkshead Lane, North Mymms, Hatfield, Hertfordshire, UK
| | - Richard J. Delahay
- cNational Wildlife Management Centre, Animal and Plant Health Agency, Gloucestershire, UK
| | - Nicola Weber
- dCentre for Ecology and Conservation, University of Exeter, Penryn, Cornwall, UK
| | - Lucy C. Steward
- aEnvironment and Sustainability Institute, University of Exeter, Penryn, Cornwall, UK
| | - Jared Wilson-Aggarwal
- aEnvironment and Sustainability Institute, University of Exeter, Penryn, Cornwall, UK
| | - Mike Boots
- dCentre for Ecology and Conservation, University of Exeter, Penryn, Cornwall, UK
- eIntegrative Biology, University of California, Berkeley, CA, USA
| | - David J. Hodgson
- dCentre for Ecology and Conservation, University of Exeter, Penryn, Cornwall, UK
| | - Darren P. Croft
- fCentre for Research in Animal Behaviour, University of Exeter, Exeter, UK
| | - Robbie A. McDonald
- aEnvironment and Sustainability Institute, University of Exeter, Penryn, Cornwall, UK
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