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Majda M, Sapala A, Routier-Kierzkowska AL, Smith RS. Cellular Force Microscopy to Measure Mechanical Forces in Plant Cells. Methods Mol Biol 2019; 1992:215-230. [PMID: 31148041 DOI: 10.1007/978-1-4939-9469-4_14] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/24/2023]
Abstract
Cellular force microscopy (CFM) is a noninvasive microindentation method used to measure plant cell stiffness in vivo. CFM is a scanning probe microscopy technique similar in operation to atomic force microscopy (AFM); however, the scale of movement and range of forces are much larger, making it suitable for stiffness measurements on turgid plant cells in whole organs. CFM experiments can be performed on living samples over extended time periods, facilitating the exploration of the dynamics of processes involving mechanics. Different sensor technologies can be used, along with a variety of probe shapes and sizes that can be tailored to specific applications. Measurements can be made for specific indentation depths, forces and timing, allowing for very precise mechanical stimulation of cells with known forces. High forces with sharp tips can also be used for mechanical ablation of cells with force feedback.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mateusz Majda
- Max Planck Institute for Plant Breeding Research, Cologne, Germany
| | - Aleksandra Sapala
- Max Planck Institute for Plant Breeding Research, Cologne, Germany.,Department of Biosystems Science and Engineering, ETH Zurich, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Anne-Lise Routier-Kierzkowska
- Max Planck Institute for Plant Breeding Research, Cologne, Germany.,Institut de Recherche en Biologie Végétale, University of Montréal, Montreal, QC, Canada
| | - Richard S Smith
- Max Planck Institute for Plant Breeding Research, Cologne, Germany.
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53
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Janocha D, Lohmann JU. From signals to stem cells and back again. CURRENT OPINION IN PLANT BIOLOGY 2018; 45:136-142. [PMID: 30014888 PMCID: PMC6250905 DOI: 10.1016/j.pbi.2018.06.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/14/2018] [Revised: 06/06/2018] [Accepted: 06/16/2018] [Indexed: 05/27/2023]
Abstract
During plant development, organ morphology and body architecture are dynamically adjusted in response to a changing environment. This developmental plasticity is based on precisely controlled maintenance of primary, as well as programmed initiation of pluripotent stem cell populations during secondary- and de novo meristem formation (reviewed in [1-3]). Plant stem cells are found exclusively in specific locations that are defined by relative position within the growing tissue. It follows that stem cell fate is primarily instructed by endogenous signals that dynamically define the stem cell niche in response to tissue topography [4]. Furthermore, plant stem cell activity is strongly dependent on developmental stage, suggesting that they are sensitive to long range signaling from distant organs, including the root [5,6••]. And finally, environmental signals exert a major influence allowing plants to cope with the plethora of highly variable environmental parameters during their life-cycle [7]. Integrating tissue level positional information with long range developmental cues, as well as environmental signals requires intricate molecular mechanisms that allow to filter, classify, and balance diverse inputs and translate them into appropriate local cell behavior. In this short review, we aim to highlight advances in identifying the relevant signals, their mode of action, as well as the mechanisms of information processing in stem cells of the shoot apical meristem (SAM).
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Affiliation(s)
- Denis Janocha
- Department of Stem Cell Biology, Centre for Organismal Studies, Heidelberg University, D-69120 Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Jan U Lohmann
- Department of Stem Cell Biology, Centre for Organismal Studies, Heidelberg University, D-69120 Heidelberg, Germany.
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54
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Du F, Guan C, Jiao Y. Molecular Mechanisms of Leaf Morphogenesis. MOLECULAR PLANT 2018; 11:1117-1134. [PMID: 29960106 DOI: 10.1016/j.molp.2018.06.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 118] [Impact Index Per Article: 19.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/09/2018] [Revised: 06/06/2018] [Accepted: 06/21/2018] [Indexed: 05/17/2023]
Abstract
Plants maintain the ability to form lateral appendages throughout their life cycle and form leaves as the principal lateral appendages of the stem. Leaves initiate at the peripheral zone of the shoot apical meristem and then develop into flattened structures. In most plants, the leaf functions as a solar panel, where photosynthesis converts carbon dioxide and water into carbohydrates and oxygen. To produce structures that can optimally fulfill this function, plants precisely control the initiation, shape, and polarity of leaves. Moreover, leaf development is highly flexible but follows common themes with conserved regulatory mechanisms. Leaves may have evolved from lateral branches that are converted into determinate, flattened structures. Many other plant parts, such as floral organs, are considered specialized leaves, and thus leaf development underlies their morphogenesis. Here, we review recent advances in the understanding of how three-dimensional leaf forms are established. We focus on how genes, phytohormones, and mechanical properties modulate leaf development, and discuss these factors in the context of leaf initiation, polarity establishment and maintenance, leaf flattening, and intercalary growth.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fei Du
- State Key Laboratory of Plant Genomics, Institute of Genetics and Developmental Biology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100101, China
| | - Chunmei Guan
- State Key Laboratory of Plant Genomics, Institute of Genetics and Developmental Biology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100101, China
| | - Yuling Jiao
- State Key Laboratory of Plant Genomics, Institute of Genetics and Developmental Biology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100101, China; College of Life Sciences, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China.
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55
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Woolfenden HC, Baillie AL, Gray JE, Hobbs JK, Morris RJ, Fleming AJ. Models and Mechanisms of Stomatal Mechanics. TRENDS IN PLANT SCIENCE 2018; 23:822-832. [PMID: 30149855 DOI: 10.1016/j.tplants.2018.06.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/07/2018] [Revised: 06/04/2018] [Accepted: 06/07/2018] [Indexed: 05/02/2023]
Abstract
The mechanism of stomatal function (control of gas flux through the plant surface via regulation of pore size) is fundamentally mechanical. The material properties of the pore-forming guard cells must play a key role in setting the dynamics and degree of stomatal opening/closure, but our understanding of the molecular players involved and resultant mechanical performance has remained limited. The application of indentation techniques and computational modelling, combined with molecular tools for imaging and manipulating guard cells and their constituent cell walls, has opened the way to a systems approach to analysing this problem. The outcomes of these investigations have led to a reassessment of accepted paradigms and are providing a new understanding of the mechanism of stomatal mechanics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hugh C Woolfenden
- Computational and Systems Biology, John Innes Centre, Norwich, UK; These authors contributed equally to the article
| | - Alice L Baillie
- Department of Animal and Plant Sciences, University of Sheffield, Sheffield, UK; These authors contributed equally to the article
| | - Julie E Gray
- Department of Molecular Biology and Biotechnology, University of Sheffield, Sheffield, UK
| | - Jamie K Hobbs
- Department of Physics and Astronomy, University of Sheffield, Sheffield, UK
| | - Richard J Morris
- Computational and Systems Biology, John Innes Centre, Norwich, UK
| | - Andrew J Fleming
- Department of Animal and Plant Sciences, University of Sheffield, Sheffield, UK; http://fleminglab.group.shef.ac.uk/.
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56
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Klein H, Hesse L, Boljen M, Kampowski T, Butschek I, Speck T, Speck O. Finite element modelling of complex movements during self-sealing of ring incisions in leaves of Delosperma cooperi. J Theor Biol 2018; 458:184-206. [PMID: 30149008 DOI: 10.1016/j.jtbi.2018.08.023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/13/2018] [Revised: 08/06/2018] [Accepted: 08/15/2018] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
A numerical computer model was developed in order to describe the complex self-sealing mechanism of injured Delosperma cooperi leaves. For this purpose, the leaf anatomy was simplified to a model consisting of five concentric tissue layers. Specific parameters (modulus of elasticity, permeability, porosity, etc.) were assigned to each tissue type for modelling its physical properties. These parameters were either determined experimentally from living plant material or taken from literature. The developed computer model considers the leaf as a liquid-filled porous body within a continuum approach in order to determine the governing equations. The modelling of the wound accounts for both the injury of peripheral tissues and the free surfaces caused by the incision. The loss of water through these free surfaces initiates the self-sealing process. It is further shown that the tissue permeability and the reflection coefficient (relative permeability of a cell membrane for solutes) are the determining parameters of the self-sealing process, whereas the modulus of elasticity has a negligible influence. Thus, the self-sealing mechanism is a hydraulically driven process which leads to a local (incision region) and global (total leaf) contraction of the leaf. The accuracy of the modelled self-sealing process was validated by comparing simulation results with experiments conducted on natural plant leaves. The results will serve as valuable input for developing novel, bio-inspired technical products with self-sealing function.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hartmut Klein
- Fraunhofer Institute for High-Speed Dynamics, Ernst-Mach-Institut (EMI), Eckerstraße 4, 79104 Freiburg, Germany.
| | - Linnea Hesse
- Plant Biomechanics Group, Botanic Garden, Faculty of Biology, University of Freiburg, Schänzlestraße 1, 79104 Freiburg, Germany.
| | - Matthias Boljen
- Fraunhofer Institute for High-Speed Dynamics, Ernst-Mach-Institut (EMI), Eckerstraße 4, 79104 Freiburg, Germany.
| | - Tim Kampowski
- Plant Biomechanics Group, Botanic Garden, Faculty of Biology, University of Freiburg, Schänzlestraße 1, 79104 Freiburg, Germany.
| | - Irina Butschek
- Plant Biomechanics Group, Botanic Garden, Faculty of Biology, University of Freiburg, Schänzlestraße 1, 79104 Freiburg, Germany.
| | - Thomas Speck
- Plant Biomechanics Group, Botanic Garden, Faculty of Biology, University of Freiburg, Schänzlestraße 1, 79104 Freiburg, Germany; Freiburg Center for Interactive Materials and Bioinspired Technologies (FIT), University of Freiburg, Georges-Köhler-Allee 105, 79110 Freiburg, Germany.
| | - Olga Speck
- Plant Biomechanics Group, Botanic Garden, Faculty of Biology, University of Freiburg, Schänzlestraße 1, 79104 Freiburg, Germany; Freiburg Center for Interactive Materials and Bioinspired Technologies (FIT), University of Freiburg, Georges-Köhler-Allee 105, 79110 Freiburg, Germany.
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57
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Heinze K, Arnould O, Delenne JY, Lullien-Pellerin V, Ramonda M, George M. On the effect of local sample slope during modulus measurements by contact-resonance atomic force microscopy. Ultramicroscopy 2018; 194:78-88. [PMID: 30092392 DOI: 10.1016/j.ultramic.2018.07.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/13/2017] [Revised: 07/03/2018] [Accepted: 07/22/2018] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Contact-resonance atomic force microscopy (CR-AFM) is of great interest and very valuable for a deeper understanding of the mechanics of biological materials with moduli of at least a few GPa. However, sample surfaces can present a high topography range with significant slopes, where the local angle can be as large as ± 50°. The non-trivial correlation between surface slope and CR-frequency hinders a straight-forward interpretation of CR-AFM indentation modulus measurements on such samples. We aim to demonstrate the significant influence of the surface slope on the CR-frequency that is caused by the local angle between sample surface and the AFM cantilever and present a practical method to correct the measurements. Based on existing analytical models of the effect of the AFM set-up's intrinsic cantilever tilt on CR-frequencies, we compute the non-linear variation of the first two (eigen)modes CR-frequency for a large range of surface angles. The computations are confirmed by CR-AFM experiments performed on a curved surface. Finally, the model is applied to directly correct contact modulus measurements on a durum wheat starch granule as an exemplary sample.
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Affiliation(s)
- K Heinze
- L2C, University of Montpellier, CNRS, Montpellier F-34000, France; IATE, University of Montpellier, INRA, CIRAD, Montpellier SupAgro, Montpellier, France.
| | - O Arnould
- LMGC, University of Montpellier, CNRS, Montpellier, France
| | - J-Y Delenne
- IATE, University of Montpellier, INRA, CIRAD, Montpellier SupAgro, Montpellier, France
| | - V Lullien-Pellerin
- IATE, University of Montpellier, INRA, CIRAD, Montpellier SupAgro, Montpellier, France
| | - M Ramonda
- CTM-LMCP, University of Montpellier, Montpellier, France
| | - M George
- L2C, University of Montpellier, CNRS, Montpellier F-34000, France.
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58
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Milani P, Chlasta J, Abdayem R, Kezic S, Haftek M. Changes in nano-mechanical properties of human epidermal cornified cells depending on their proximity to the skin surface. J Mol Recognit 2018; 31:e2722. [DOI: 10.1002/jmr.2722] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/21/2017] [Revised: 03/14/2018] [Accepted: 04/04/2018] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Rawad Abdayem
- CNRS UMR5305, Laboratory of Tissue Biology and Therapeutic Engineering (LBTI); Lyon France
- L'Oréal, R&I, Aulnay sous Bois; France
| | - Sanja Kezic
- Coronel Institute of Occupational Health, Amsterdam Public Health Research Institute, Academic Medical Center; University of Amsterdam; Amsterdam The Netherlands
| | - Marek Haftek
- CNRS UMR5305, Laboratory of Tissue Biology and Therapeutic Engineering (LBTI); Lyon France
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59
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Hong L, Dumond M, Zhu M, Tsugawa S, Li CB, Boudaoud A, Hamant O, Roeder AHK. Heterogeneity and Robustness in Plant Morphogenesis: From Cells to Organs. ANNUAL REVIEW OF PLANT BIOLOGY 2018; 69:469-495. [PMID: 29505739 DOI: 10.1146/annurev-arplant-042817-040517] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/06/2023]
Abstract
Development is remarkably reproducible, producing organs with the same size, shape, and function repeatedly from individual to individual. For example, every flower on the Antirrhinum stalk has the same snapping dragon mouth. This reproducibility has allowed taxonomists to classify plants and animals according to their morphology. Yet these reproducible organs are composed of highly variable cells. For example, neighboring cells grow at different rates in Arabidopsis leaves, sepals, and shoot apical meristems. This cellular variability occurs in normal, wild-type organisms, indicating that cellular heterogeneity (or diversity in a characteristic such as growth rate) is either actively maintained or, at a minimum, not entirely suppressed. In fact, cellular heterogeneity can contribute to producing invariant organs. Here, we focus on how plant organs are reproducibly created during development from these highly variable cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lilan Hong
- Weill Institute for Cell and Molecular Biology and Section of Plant Biology, School of Integrative Plant Science; Cornell University, Ithaca, New York 14853, USA; , ,
| | - Mathilde Dumond
- Reproduction et Développement des Plantes, Université de Lyon, ENS de Lyon, UCB Lyon 1, INRA, CNRS, 69364 Lyon CEDEX 07, France; , ,
- Current affiliation: Department for Biosystems Science and Engineering, ETH Zurich, 4058 Basel, Switzerland;
| | - Mingyuan Zhu
- Weill Institute for Cell and Molecular Biology and Section of Plant Biology, School of Integrative Plant Science; Cornell University, Ithaca, New York 14853, USA; , ,
| | - Satoru Tsugawa
- Theoretical Biology Laboratory, RIKEN, Wako, Saitama 351-0198, Japan;
| | - Chun-Biu Li
- Department of Mathematics, Stockholm University, 106 91 Stockholm, Sweden;
| | - Arezki Boudaoud
- Reproduction et Développement des Plantes, Université de Lyon, ENS de Lyon, UCB Lyon 1, INRA, CNRS, 69364 Lyon CEDEX 07, France; , ,
| | - Olivier Hamant
- Reproduction et Développement des Plantes, Université de Lyon, ENS de Lyon, UCB Lyon 1, INRA, CNRS, 69364 Lyon CEDEX 07, France; , ,
| | - Adrienne H K Roeder
- Weill Institute for Cell and Molecular Biology and Section of Plant Biology, School of Integrative Plant Science; Cornell University, Ithaca, New York 14853, USA; , ,
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60
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Julien JD, Boudaoud A. Elongation and shape changes in organisms with cell walls: A dialogue between experiments and models. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2018; 1:34-42. [PMID: 32743126 PMCID: PMC7388974 DOI: 10.1016/j.tcsw.2018.04.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/07/2018] [Revised: 04/06/2018] [Accepted: 04/08/2018] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
The generation of anisotropic shapes occurs during morphogenesis of almost all organisms. With the recent renewal of the interest in mechanical aspects of morphogenesis, it has become clear that mechanics contributes to anisotropic forms in a subtle interaction with various molecular actors. Here, we consider plants, fungi, oomycetes, and bacteria, and we review the mechanisms by which elongated shapes are generated and maintained. We focus on theoretical models of the interplay between growth and mechanics, in relation with experimental data, and discuss how models may help us improve our understanding of the underlying biological mechanisms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jean-Daniel Julien
- Laboratoire Reproduction et Développement des Plantes, Université de Lyon, ENS de Lyon, UCB Lyon 1, CNRS, INRA, 46 allée d'Italie, 69364 Lyon Cedex 07, France.,Laboratoire de Physique, Univ. Lyon, ENS de Lyon, UCB Lyon 1, CNRS, 46 allée d'Italie, 69364 Lyon Cedex 07, France
| | - Arezki Boudaoud
- Laboratoire Reproduction et Développement des Plantes, Université de Lyon, ENS de Lyon, UCB Lyon 1, CNRS, INRA, 46 allée d'Italie, 69364 Lyon Cedex 07, France
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61
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Truskina J, Vernoux T. The growth of a stable stationary structure: coordinating cell behavior and patterning at the shoot apical meristem. CURRENT OPINION IN PLANT BIOLOGY 2018; 41:83-88. [PMID: 29073502 DOI: 10.1016/j.pbi.2017.09.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/24/2017] [Revised: 09/27/2017] [Accepted: 09/27/2017] [Indexed: 05/23/2023]
Abstract
Plants are characterized by their ability to produce new organs post-embryonically throughout their entire life cycle. In particular development of all above-ground organs relies almost entirely on the function of the shoot apical meristem (SAM). The SAM performs a dual role by maintaining a pool of undifferentiated cells and simultaneously driving cell differentiation to initiate organogenesis. Both processes require strict coordination between individual cells which leads to formation of reproducible morphological and molecular patterns within SAM. The patterns are formed and maintained in large part due to spatio-temporal variation in signaling of plant hormones auxin and cytokinin resulting in tissue-specific transcriptional regulation. Integration of these mechanisms into computational models further identifies the key regulatory interactions involved in SAM function.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jekaterina Truskina
- Laboratoire Reproduction et Développement des Plantes, Univ Lyon, ENS de Lyon, UCB Lyon 1, CNRS, INRA, F-69342 Lyon, France; Centre for Plant Integrative Biology, School of Biosciences, University of Nottingham, Loughborough LE12 5RD, UK
| | - Teva Vernoux
- Laboratoire Reproduction et Développement des Plantes, Univ Lyon, ENS de Lyon, UCB Lyon 1, CNRS, INRA, F-69342 Lyon, France.
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62
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Speck O, Schlechtendahl M, Borm F, Kampowski T, Speck T. Humidity-dependent wound sealing in succulent leaves of Delosperma cooperi - An adaptation to seasonal drought stress. BEILSTEIN JOURNAL OF NANOTECHNOLOGY 2018; 9:175-186. [PMID: 29441263 PMCID: PMC5789399 DOI: 10.3762/bjnano.9.20] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/03/2017] [Accepted: 12/19/2017] [Indexed: 05/24/2023]
Abstract
During evolution, plants evolved various reactions to wounding. Fast wound sealing and subsequent healing represent a selective advantage of particular importance for plants growing in arid habitats. An effective self-sealing function by internal deformation has been found in the succulent leaves of Delosperma cooperi. After a transversal incision, the entire leaf bends until the wound is closed. Our results indicate that the underlying sealing principle is a combination of hydraulic shrinking and swelling as the main driving forces and growth-induced mechanical pre-stresses in the tissues. Hydraulic effects were measured in terms of the relative bending angle over 55 minutes under various humidity conditions. The higher the relative air humidity, the lower the bending angle. Negative bending angles were found when a droplet of liquid water was applied to the wound. The statistical analysis revealed highly significant differences of the single main effects such as "humidity conditions in the wound region" and "time after wounding" and their interaction effect. The centripetal arrangement of five tissue layers with various thicknesses and significantly different mechanical properties might play an additional role with regard to mechanically driven effects. Injury disturbs the mechanical equilibrium, with pre-stresses leading to internal deformation until a new equilibrium is reached. In the context of self-sealing by internal deformation, the highly flexible wide-band tracheids, which form a net of vascular bundles, are regarded as paedomorphic tracheids, which are specialised to prevent cell collapse under drought stress and allow for building growth-induced mechanical pre-stresses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Olga Speck
- Plant Biomechanics Group, Botanic Garden, Faculty of Biology, University of Freiburg, Schänzlestraße 1, 79104 Freiburg, Germany
- Competence Network Biomimetics, Baden-Württemberg, Schänzlestraße 1, 79104 Freiburg, Germany
- Freiburg Center for Interactive Materials and Bioinspired Technologies (FIT), University of Freiburg, Georges-Köhler-Allee 105, 79110 Freiburg, Germany
| | - Mark Schlechtendahl
- Plant Biomechanics Group, Botanic Garden, Faculty of Biology, University of Freiburg, Schänzlestraße 1, 79104 Freiburg, Germany
- Freiburg Materials Research Center (FMF), University of Freiburg, Stefan-Meier-Str. 21, 79104 Freiburg, Germany
| | - Florian Borm
- Plant Biomechanics Group, Botanic Garden, Faculty of Biology, University of Freiburg, Schänzlestraße 1, 79104 Freiburg, Germany
| | - Tim Kampowski
- Plant Biomechanics Group, Botanic Garden, Faculty of Biology, University of Freiburg, Schänzlestraße 1, 79104 Freiburg, Germany
- Freiburg Materials Research Center (FMF), University of Freiburg, Stefan-Meier-Str. 21, 79104 Freiburg, Germany
| | - Thomas Speck
- Plant Biomechanics Group, Botanic Garden, Faculty of Biology, University of Freiburg, Schänzlestraße 1, 79104 Freiburg, Germany
- Competence Network Biomimetics, Baden-Württemberg, Schänzlestraße 1, 79104 Freiburg, Germany
- Freiburg Center for Interactive Materials and Bioinspired Technologies (FIT), University of Freiburg, Georges-Köhler-Allee 105, 79110 Freiburg, Germany
- Freiburg Materials Research Center (FMF), University of Freiburg, Stefan-Meier-Str. 21, 79104 Freiburg, Germany
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63
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Yi H, Rui Y, Kandemir B, Wang JZ, Anderson CT, Puri VM. Mechanical Effects of Cellulose, Xyloglucan, and Pectins on Stomatal Guard Cells of Arabidopsis thaliana. FRONTIERS IN PLANT SCIENCE 2018; 9:1566. [PMID: 30455709 PMCID: PMC6230562 DOI: 10.3389/fpls.2018.01566] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/04/2018] [Accepted: 10/08/2018] [Indexed: 05/18/2023]
Abstract
Stomata function as osmotically tunable pores that facilitate gas exchange at the surface of plants. Stomatal opening and closure are regulated by turgor changes in guard cells that result in mechanically regulated deformations of guard cell walls. However, how the molecular, architectural, and mechanical heterogeneities that exist in guard cell walls affect stomatal dynamics is unclear. In this work, stomata of wild type Arabidopsis thaliana plants or of mutants lacking normal cellulose, hemicellulose, or pectins were experimentally induced to close or open. Three-dimensional images of these stomatal complexes were collected using confocal microscopy, images were landmarked, and three-dimensional finite element models (FEMs) were constructed for each complex. Stomatal opening was simulated with a 5 MPa turgor increase. By comparing experimentally measured and computationally modeled changes in stomatal geometry across genotypes, anisotropic mechanical properties of guard cell walls were determined and mapped to cell wall components. Deficiencies in cellulose or hemicellulose were both predicted to stiffen guard cell walls, but differentially affected stomatal pore area and the degree of stomatal opening. Additionally, reducing pectin molecular mass altered the anisotropy of calculated shear moduli in guard cell walls and enhanced stomatal opening. Based on the unique architecture of guard cell walls and our modeled changes in their mechanical properties in cell wall mutants, we discuss how each polysaccharide class contributes to wall architecture and mechanics in guard cells. This study provides new insights into how the walls of guard cells are constructed to meet the mechanical requirements of stomatal dynamics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hojae Yi
- Department of Agricultural and Biological Engineering, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, United States
- *Correspondence: Hojae Yi
| | - Yue Rui
- Department of Biology, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, United States
- Intercollege Graduate Degree Program in Plant Biology, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, United States
| | - Baris Kandemir
- College of Information Sciences and Technology, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, United States
| | - James Z. Wang
- College of Information Sciences and Technology, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, United States
| | - Charles T. Anderson
- Department of Biology, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, United States
- Intercollege Graduate Degree Program in Plant Biology, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, United States
- Charles T. Anderson
| | - Virendra M. Puri
- Department of Agricultural and Biological Engineering, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, United States
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64
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Abad U, Sassi M, Traas J. Flower development: from morphodynamics to morphomechanics. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci 2017; 372:rstb.2015.0545. [PMID: 28348258 PMCID: PMC5379030 DOI: 10.1098/rstb.2015.0545] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 09/12/2016] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
The shoot apical meristem (SAM) is a small population of stem cells that continuously generates organs and tissues. We will discuss here flower formation at the SAM, which involves a complex network of regulatory genes and signalling molecules. A major downstream target of this network is the extracellular matrix or cell wall, which is a local determinant for both growth rates and growth directions. We will discuss here a number of recent studies aimed at analysing the link between cell wall structure and molecular regulation. This has involved multidisciplinary approaches including quantitative imaging, molecular genetics, computational biology and biophysics. A scenario emerges where molecular networks impact on both cell wall anisotropy and synthesis, thus causing the rapid outgrowth of organs at specific locations. More specifically, this involves two interdependent processes: the activation of wall remodelling enzymes and changes in microtubule dynamics.This article is part of the themed issue 'Systems morphodynamics: understanding the development of tissue hardware'.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ursula Abad
- Laboratory for Plant Reproduction and Development, Univ Lyon, ENS de Lyon, UCB Lyon 1, CNRS, INRA, 69342 Lyon, France
| | - Massimiliano Sassi
- Laboratory for Plant Reproduction and Development, Univ Lyon, ENS de Lyon, UCB Lyon 1, CNRS, INRA, 69342 Lyon, France
| | - Jan Traas
- Laboratory for Plant Reproduction and Development, Univ Lyon, ENS de Lyon, UCB Lyon 1, CNRS, INRA, 69342 Lyon, France
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Chlasta J, Milani P, Runel G, Duteyrat JL, Arias L, Lamiré LA, Boudaoud A, Grammont M. Variations in basement membrane mechanics are linked to epithelial morphogenesis. Development 2017; 144:4350-4362. [PMID: 29038305 DOI: 10.1242/dev.152652] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/24/2017] [Accepted: 10/05/2017] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
The regulation of morphogenesis by the basement membrane (BM) may rely on changes in its mechanical properties. To test this, we developed an atomic force microscopy-based method to measure BM mechanical stiffness during two key processes in Drosophila ovarian follicle development. First, follicle elongation depends on epithelial cells that collectively migrate, secreting BM fibrils perpendicularly to the anteroposterior axis. Our data show that BM stiffness increases during this migration and that fibril incorporation enhances BM stiffness. In addition, stiffness heterogeneity, due to oriented fibrils, is important for egg elongation. Second, epithelial cells change their shape from cuboidal to either squamous or columnar. We prove that BM softens around the squamous cells and that this softening depends on the TGFβ pathway. We also demonstrate that interactions between BM constituents are necessary for cell flattening. Altogether, these results show that BM mechanical properties are modified during development and that, in turn, such mechanical modifications influence both cell and tissue shapes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Julien Chlasta
- Laboratoire de Biologie et de Modélisation de la Cellule, Université de Lyon, ENS de Lyon, UCB Lyon 1, CNRS, F-69342, Lyon, France
| | - Pascale Milani
- Laboratoire de Biologie et de Modélisation de la Cellule, Université de Lyon, ENS de Lyon, UCB Lyon 1, CNRS, F-69342, Lyon, France
| | - Gaël Runel
- Laboratoire de Biologie et de Modélisation de la Cellule, Université de Lyon, ENS de Lyon, UCB Lyon 1, CNRS, F-69342, Lyon, France
| | - Jean-Luc Duteyrat
- Institut NeuroMyoGene, Université Claude Bernard Lyon 1, CNRS UMR 5310, INSERM U1217, 16 rue R. Dubois, Villeurbanne Cedex F-69622, France
| | - Leticia Arias
- Laboratoire de Biologie et de Modélisation de la Cellule, Université de Lyon, ENS de Lyon, UCB Lyon 1, CNRS, F-69342, Lyon, France
| | - Laurie-Anne Lamiré
- Laboratoire de Biologie et de Modélisation de la Cellule, Université de Lyon, ENS de Lyon, UCB Lyon 1, CNRS, F-69342, Lyon, France
| | - Arezki Boudaoud
- Laboratoire Reproduction et Développement des Plantes, Université de Lyon, ENS de Lyon, UCB Lyon 1, CNRS, INRA, F-69342, Lyon, France
| | - Muriel Grammont
- Laboratoire de Biologie et de Modélisation de la Cellule, Université de Lyon, ENS de Lyon, UCB Lyon 1, CNRS, F-69342, Lyon, France
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66
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Carter R, Woolfenden H, Baillie A, Amsbury S, Carroll S, Healicon E, Sovatzoglou S, Braybrook S, Gray JE, Hobbs J, Morris RJ, Fleming AJ. Stomatal Opening Involves Polar, Not Radial, Stiffening Of Guard Cells. Curr Biol 2017; 27:2974-2983.e2. [PMID: 28943087 PMCID: PMC5640513 DOI: 10.1016/j.cub.2017.08.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 59] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/20/2017] [Revised: 06/14/2017] [Accepted: 08/02/2017] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
It has long been accepted that differential radial thickening of guard cells plays an important role in the turgor-driven shape changes required for stomatal pore opening to occur [1, 2, 3, 4]. This textbook description derives from an original interpretation of structure rather than measurement of mechanical properties. Here we show, using atomic force microscopy, that although mature guard cells display a radial gradient of stiffness, this is not present in immature guard cells, yet young stomata show a normal opening response. Finite element modeling supports the experimental observation that radial stiffening plays a very limited role in stomatal opening. In addition, our analysis reveals an unexpected stiffening of the polar regions of the stomata complexes, both in Arabidopsis and other plants, suggesting a widespread occurrence. Combined experimental data (analysis of guard cell wall epitopes and treatment of tissue with cell wall digesting enzymes, coupled with bioassay of guard cell function) plus modeling lead us to propose that polar stiffening reflects a mechanical, pectin-based pinning down of the guard cell ends, which restricts increase of stomatal complex length during opening. This is predicted to lead to an improved response sensitivity of stomatal aperture movement with respect to change of turgor pressure. Our results provide new insight into the mechanics of stomatal function, both negating an established view of the importance of radial thickening and providing evidence for a significant role for polar stiffening. Improved stomatal performance via altered cell-wall-mediated mechanics is likely to be of evolutionary and agronomic significance. Stomatal poles are stiff and have a distinct cell wall composition Loss of polar stiffening is associated with decreased degree of stomatal opening Lack of radial guard cell stiffening does not preclude stomatal opening A “fix and flex” model predicts more efficient opening of stomata via polar stiffening
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Affiliation(s)
- Ross Carter
- Department of Animal and Plant Sciences, University of Sheffield, Sheffield, UK; Department of Physics and Astronomy, University of Sheffield, Sheffield, UK; Computational and Systems Biology, John Innes Centre, Norwich, UK
| | - Hugh Woolfenden
- Computational and Systems Biology, John Innes Centre, Norwich, UK
| | - Alice Baillie
- Department of Animal and Plant Sciences, University of Sheffield, Sheffield, UK
| | - Sam Amsbury
- Department of Animal and Plant Sciences, University of Sheffield, Sheffield, UK
| | - Sarah Carroll
- Department of Animal and Plant Sciences, University of Sheffield, Sheffield, UK
| | - Eleanor Healicon
- Department of Animal and Plant Sciences, University of Sheffield, Sheffield, UK
| | - Spyros Sovatzoglou
- Department of Physics and Astronomy, University of Sheffield, Sheffield, UK
| | | | - Julie E Gray
- Department of Molecular Biology and Biotechnology, University of Sheffield, Sheffield, UK
| | - Jamie Hobbs
- Department of Physics and Astronomy, University of Sheffield, Sheffield, UK
| | - Richard J Morris
- Computational and Systems Biology, John Innes Centre, Norwich, UK
| | - Andrew J Fleming
- Department of Animal and Plant Sciences, University of Sheffield, Sheffield, UK.
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67
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Qi J, Wu B, Feng S, Lü S, Guan C, Zhang X, Qiu D, Hu Y, Zhou Y, Li C, Long M, Jiao Y. Mechanical regulation of organ asymmetry in leaves. NATURE PLANTS 2017; 3:724-733. [PMID: 29150691 DOI: 10.1038/s41477-017-0008-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 71] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/26/2016] [Accepted: 07/28/2017] [Indexed: 05/08/2023]
Abstract
How appendages, such as plant leaves or animal limbs, develop asymmetric shapes remains a fundamental question in biology. Although ongoing research has revealed the genetic regulation of organ pattern formation, how gene activity ultimately directs organ shape remains unclear. Here, we show that leaf dorsoventral (adaxial-abaxial) polarity signals lead to mechanical heterogeneity of the cell wall, related to the methyl-esterification of cell-wall pectins in tomato and Arabidopsis. Numerical simulations predicate that mechanical heterogeneity is sufficient to produce the asymmetry seen in planar leaves. Experimental tests that alter pectin methyl-esterification, and therefore cell wall mechanical properties, support this model and lead to polar changes in gene expression, suggesting the existence of a feedback mechanism for mechanical signals in morphogenesis. Thus, mechanical heterogeneity within tissue may underlie organ shape asymmetry.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jiyan Qi
- State Key Laboratory of Plant Genomics, Institute of Genetics and Developmental Biology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, and National Center for Plant Gene Research, 100101, Beijing, China
| | - Binbin Wu
- State Key Laboratory of Plant Genomics, Institute of Genetics and Developmental Biology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, and National Center for Plant Gene Research, 100101, Beijing, China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, 100049, Beijing, China
| | - Shiliang Feng
- Key Laboratory of Microgravity (National Microgravity Laboratory), Center of Biomechanics and Bioengineering, and Beijing Key Laboratory of Engineered Construction and Mechanobiology, Institute of Mechanics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 100190, Beijing, China
| | - Shouqin Lü
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, 100049, Beijing, China
- Key Laboratory of Microgravity (National Microgravity Laboratory), Center of Biomechanics and Bioengineering, and Beijing Key Laboratory of Engineered Construction and Mechanobiology, Institute of Mechanics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 100190, Beijing, China
| | - Chunmei Guan
- State Key Laboratory of Plant Genomics, Institute of Genetics and Developmental Biology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, and National Center for Plant Gene Research, 100101, Beijing, China
| | - Xiao Zhang
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, 100049, Beijing, China
- Key Laboratory of Microgravity (National Microgravity Laboratory), Center of Biomechanics and Bioengineering, and Beijing Key Laboratory of Engineered Construction and Mechanobiology, Institute of Mechanics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 100190, Beijing, China
| | - Dengli Qiu
- Bruker Nano Surfaces Business, 100081, Beijing, China
| | - Yingchun Hu
- College of Life Sciences, Peking University, 100871, Beijing, China
| | - Yihua Zhou
- State Key Laboratory of Plant Genomics, Institute of Genetics and Developmental Biology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, and National Center for Plant Gene Research, 100101, Beijing, China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, 100049, Beijing, China
| | - Chuanyou Li
- State Key Laboratory of Plant Genomics, Institute of Genetics and Developmental Biology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, and National Center for Plant Gene Research, 100101, Beijing, China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, 100049, Beijing, China
| | - Mian Long
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, 100049, Beijing, China.
- Key Laboratory of Microgravity (National Microgravity Laboratory), Center of Biomechanics and Bioengineering, and Beijing Key Laboratory of Engineered Construction and Mechanobiology, Institute of Mechanics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 100190, Beijing, China.
| | - Yuling Jiao
- State Key Laboratory of Plant Genomics, Institute of Genetics and Developmental Biology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, and National Center for Plant Gene Research, 100101, Beijing, China.
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, 100049, Beijing, China.
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68
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Durand-Smet P, Gauquelin E, Chastrette N, Boudaoud A, Asnacios A. Estimation of turgor pressure through comparison between single plant cell and pressurized shell mechanics. Phys Biol 2017; 14:055002. [DOI: 10.1088/1478-3975/aa7f30] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
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69
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Variable Cell Growth Yields Reproducible OrganDevelopment through Spatiotemporal Averaging. Dev Cell 2017; 38:15-32. [PMID: 27404356 DOI: 10.1016/j.devcel.2016.06.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 112] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/24/2015] [Revised: 05/04/2016] [Accepted: 06/09/2016] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Organ sizes and shapes are strikingly reproducible, despite the variable growth and division of individual cells within them. To reveal which mechanisms enable this precision, we designed a screen for disrupted sepal size and shape uniformity in Arabidopsis and identified mutations in the mitochondrial i-AAA protease FtsH4. Counterintuitively, through live imaging we observed that variability of neighboring cell growth was reduced in ftsh4 sepals. We found that regular organ shape results from spatiotemporal averaging of the cellular variability in wild-type sepals, which is disrupted in the less-variable cells of ftsh4 mutants. We also found that abnormal, increased accumulation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) in ftsh4 mutants disrupts organ size consistency. In wild-type sepals, ROS accumulate in maturing cells and limit organ growth, suggesting that ROS are endogenous signals promoting termination of growth. Our results demonstrate that spatiotemporal averaging of cellular variability is required for precision in organ size.
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70
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Balzergue C, Dartevelle T, Godon C, Laugier E, Meisrimler C, Teulon JM, Creff A, Bissler M, Brouchoud C, Hagège A, Müller J, Chiarenza S, Javot H, Becuwe-Linka N, David P, Péret B, Delannoy E, Thibaud MC, Armengaud J, Abel S, Pellequer JL, Nussaume L, Desnos T. Low phosphate activates STOP1-ALMT1 to rapidly inhibit root cell elongation. Nat Commun 2017; 8:15300. [PMID: 28504266 PMCID: PMC5440667 DOI: 10.1038/ncomms15300] [Citation(s) in RCA: 215] [Impact Index Per Article: 30.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/22/2016] [Accepted: 03/16/2017] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Environmental cues profoundly modulate cell proliferation and cell elongation to inform and direct plant growth and development. External phosphate (Pi) limitation inhibits primary root growth in many plant species. However, the underlying Pi sensory mechanisms are unknown. Here we genetically uncouple two Pi sensing pathways in the root apex of Arabidopsis thaliana. First, the rapid inhibition of cell elongation in the transition zone is controlled by transcription factor STOP1, by its direct target, ALMT1, encoding a malate channel, and by ferroxidase LPR1, which together mediate Fe and peroxidase-dependent cell wall stiffening. Second, during the subsequent slow inhibition of cell proliferation in the apical meristem, which is mediated by LPR1-dependent, but largely STOP1–ALMT1-independent, Fe and callose accumulate in the stem cell niche, leading to meristem reduction. Our work uncovers STOP1 and ALMT1 as a signalling pathway of low Pi availability and exuded malate as an unexpected apoplastic inhibitor of root cell wall expansion. Low Pi availability inhibits primary root growth, but the sensory mechanisms are not known. Here the authors uncover a signalling pathway regulating Pi-mediated root growth inhibition in Arabidopsis, involving the transcription factor STOP1, its direct target ALMT1, a malate channel, and ferroxidase LPR1.
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Affiliation(s)
- Coline Balzergue
- Laboratoire de Biologie du Développement des Plantes, Institut de Biosciences et Biotechnology Aix-Marseille, Commissariat à l'Energie Atomique et aux énergies alternatives, Saint-Paul-Lez-Durance 13108, France.,Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, UMR 7265 Biol. Végét. &Microbiol. Environ., Saint-Paul-Lez-Durance, France.,Aix-Marseille Université, UMR 7265, Marseille, France
| | - Thibault Dartevelle
- Laboratoire de Biologie du Développement des Plantes, Institut de Biosciences et Biotechnology Aix-Marseille, Commissariat à l'Energie Atomique et aux énergies alternatives, Saint-Paul-Lez-Durance 13108, France.,Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, UMR 7265 Biol. Végét. &Microbiol. Environ., Saint-Paul-Lez-Durance, France.,Aix-Marseille Université, UMR 7265, Marseille, France
| | - Christian Godon
- Laboratoire de Biologie du Développement des Plantes, Institut de Biosciences et Biotechnology Aix-Marseille, Commissariat à l'Energie Atomique et aux énergies alternatives, Saint-Paul-Lez-Durance 13108, France.,Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, UMR 7265 Biol. Végét. &Microbiol. Environ., Saint-Paul-Lez-Durance, France.,Aix-Marseille Université, UMR 7265, Marseille, France
| | - Edith Laugier
- Laboratoire de Biologie du Développement des Plantes, Institut de Biosciences et Biotechnology Aix-Marseille, Commissariat à l'Energie Atomique et aux énergies alternatives, Saint-Paul-Lez-Durance 13108, France.,Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, UMR 7265 Biol. Végét. &Microbiol. Environ., Saint-Paul-Lez-Durance, France.,Aix-Marseille Université, UMR 7265, Marseille, France
| | - Claudia Meisrimler
- Laboratoire de Biologie du Développement des Plantes, Institut de Biosciences et Biotechnology Aix-Marseille, Commissariat à l'Energie Atomique et aux énergies alternatives, Saint-Paul-Lez-Durance 13108, France.,Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, UMR 7265 Biol. Végét. &Microbiol. Environ., Saint-Paul-Lez-Durance, France.,Aix-Marseille Université, UMR 7265, Marseille, France
| | - Jean-Marie Teulon
- CNRS, IBS, Grenoble F-38044, France.,CEA, IBS, Grenoble F-38044, France.,Université Grenoble Alpes, IBS, Grenoble F-38044, France
| | - Audrey Creff
- Laboratoire de Biologie du Développement des Plantes, Institut de Biosciences et Biotechnology Aix-Marseille, Commissariat à l'Energie Atomique et aux énergies alternatives, Saint-Paul-Lez-Durance 13108, France.,Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, UMR 7265 Biol. Végét. &Microbiol. Environ., Saint-Paul-Lez-Durance, France.,Aix-Marseille Université, UMR 7265, Marseille, France
| | - Marie Bissler
- Laboratoire de Biologie du Développement des Plantes, Institut de Biosciences et Biotechnology Aix-Marseille, Commissariat à l'Energie Atomique et aux énergies alternatives, Saint-Paul-Lez-Durance 13108, France.,Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, UMR 7265 Biol. Végét. &Microbiol. Environ., Saint-Paul-Lez-Durance, France.,Aix-Marseille Université, UMR 7265, Marseille, France
| | - Corinne Brouchoud
- Laboratoire de Biologie du Développement des Plantes, Institut de Biosciences et Biotechnology Aix-Marseille, Commissariat à l'Energie Atomique et aux énergies alternatives, Saint-Paul-Lez-Durance 13108, France.,Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, UMR 7265 Biol. Végét. &Microbiol. Environ., Saint-Paul-Lez-Durance, France.,Aix-Marseille Université, UMR 7265, Marseille, France
| | - Agnès Hagège
- Commissariat à l'Energie Atomique et aux énergies alternatives, Service de Biologie et de Toxicologie Nucléaire, Laboratoire d'Etude des Protéines Cibles, 30200 Bagnols sur Cèze, France
| | - Jens Müller
- Department of Molecular Signal Processing, Leibniz Institute of Plant Biochemistry, Halle (Saale) 06120, Germany
| | - Serge Chiarenza
- Laboratoire de Biologie du Développement des Plantes, Institut de Biosciences et Biotechnology Aix-Marseille, Commissariat à l'Energie Atomique et aux énergies alternatives, Saint-Paul-Lez-Durance 13108, France.,Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, UMR 7265 Biol. Végét. &Microbiol. Environ., Saint-Paul-Lez-Durance, France.,Aix-Marseille Université, UMR 7265, Marseille, France
| | - Hélène Javot
- Laboratoire de Biologie du Développement des Plantes, Institut de Biosciences et Biotechnology Aix-Marseille, Commissariat à l'Energie Atomique et aux énergies alternatives, Saint-Paul-Lez-Durance 13108, France.,Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, UMR 7265 Biol. Végét. &Microbiol. Environ., Saint-Paul-Lez-Durance, France.,Aix-Marseille Université, UMR 7265, Marseille, France
| | - Noëlle Becuwe-Linka
- Laboratoire de Biologie du Développement des Plantes, Institut de Biosciences et Biotechnology Aix-Marseille, Commissariat à l'Energie Atomique et aux énergies alternatives, Saint-Paul-Lez-Durance 13108, France.,Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, UMR 7265 Biol. Végét. &Microbiol. Environ., Saint-Paul-Lez-Durance, France.,Aix-Marseille Université, UMR 7265, Marseille, France
| | - Pascale David
- Laboratoire de Biologie du Développement des Plantes, Institut de Biosciences et Biotechnology Aix-Marseille, Commissariat à l'Energie Atomique et aux énergies alternatives, Saint-Paul-Lez-Durance 13108, France.,Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, UMR 7265 Biol. Végét. &Microbiol. Environ., Saint-Paul-Lez-Durance, France.,Aix-Marseille Université, UMR 7265, Marseille, France
| | - Benjamin Péret
- Laboratoire de Biologie du Développement des Plantes, Institut de Biosciences et Biotechnology Aix-Marseille, Commissariat à l'Energie Atomique et aux énergies alternatives, Saint-Paul-Lez-Durance 13108, France.,Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, UMR 7265 Biol. Végét. &Microbiol. Environ., Saint-Paul-Lez-Durance, France.,Aix-Marseille Université, UMR 7265, Marseille, France
| | - Etienne Delannoy
- Laboratoire de Biologie du Développement des Plantes, Institut de Biosciences et Biotechnology Aix-Marseille, Commissariat à l'Energie Atomique et aux énergies alternatives, Saint-Paul-Lez-Durance 13108, France.,Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, UMR 7265 Biol. Végét. &Microbiol. Environ., Saint-Paul-Lez-Durance, France.,Aix-Marseille Université, UMR 7265, Marseille, France
| | - Marie-Christine Thibaud
- Laboratoire de Biologie du Développement des Plantes, Institut de Biosciences et Biotechnology Aix-Marseille, Commissariat à l'Energie Atomique et aux énergies alternatives, Saint-Paul-Lez-Durance 13108, France.,Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, UMR 7265 Biol. Végét. &Microbiol. Environ., Saint-Paul-Lez-Durance, France.,Aix-Marseille Université, UMR 7265, Marseille, France
| | - Jean Armengaud
- CEA, DRF, JOLIOT/DMTS/SPI/Li2D, Laboratory 'Innovative Technologies for Detection and Diagnostics', Bagnols-sur-Cèze F-30200, France
| | - Steffen Abel
- Department of Molecular Signal Processing, Leibniz Institute of Plant Biochemistry, Halle (Saale) 06120, Germany
| | - Jean-Luc Pellequer
- CNRS, IBS, Grenoble F-38044, France.,CEA, IBS, Grenoble F-38044, France.,Université Grenoble Alpes, IBS, Grenoble F-38044, France
| | - Laurent Nussaume
- Laboratoire de Biologie du Développement des Plantes, Institut de Biosciences et Biotechnology Aix-Marseille, Commissariat à l'Energie Atomique et aux énergies alternatives, Saint-Paul-Lez-Durance 13108, France.,Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, UMR 7265 Biol. Végét. &Microbiol. Environ., Saint-Paul-Lez-Durance, France.,Aix-Marseille Université, UMR 7265, Marseille, France
| | - Thierry Desnos
- Laboratoire de Biologie du Développement des Plantes, Institut de Biosciences et Biotechnology Aix-Marseille, Commissariat à l'Energie Atomique et aux énergies alternatives, Saint-Paul-Lez-Durance 13108, France.,Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, UMR 7265 Biol. Végét. &Microbiol. Environ., Saint-Paul-Lez-Durance, France.,Aix-Marseille Université, UMR 7265, Marseille, France
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71
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Kozioł A, Cybulska J, Pieczywek PM, Zdunek A. Changes of pectin nanostructure and cell wall stiffness induced in vitro by pectinase. Carbohydr Polym 2017; 161:197-207. [DOI: 10.1016/j.carbpol.2017.01.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/03/2016] [Revised: 12/23/2016] [Accepted: 01/04/2017] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
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72
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73
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Mosca G, Sapala A, Strauss S, Routier-Kierzkowska AL, Smith RS. On the micro-indentation of plant cells in a tissue context. Phys Biol 2017; 14:015003. [DOI: 10.1088/1478-3975/aa5698] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/12/2023]
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74
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Pfeiffer A, Wenzl C, Lohmann JU. Beyond flexibility: controlling stem cells in an ever changing environment. CURRENT OPINION IN PLANT BIOLOGY 2017; 35:117-123. [PMID: 27918940 DOI: 10.1016/j.pbi.2016.11.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/26/2016] [Revised: 11/14/2016] [Accepted: 11/21/2016] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
Developmental plasticity is a defining feature of plants allowing them to colonize a wide range of different ecosystems by promoting environmental adaptation. Their postembryonic development requires life-long maintenance of stem cells, which are embedded into specialized tissues, called meristems. The shoot apical meristem gives rise to all above ground tissues and is a complex and dynamic three-dimensional structure harboring cells of different clonal origins and fates. Functionally divergent subdomains are stably maintained despite permanent cell division, however their relative sizes are modified in response to developmental and environmental signals. In this review, we briefly describe the core regulatory program of the shoot apical meristem and discuss progress in the fields of mechanical and environmental control of its activity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anne Pfeiffer
- Department of Stem Cell Biology, Centre for Organismal Studies, University of Heidelberg, D-69120 Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Christian Wenzl
- Department of Stem Cell Biology, Centre for Organismal Studies, University of Heidelberg, D-69120 Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Jan U Lohmann
- Department of Stem Cell Biology, Centre for Organismal Studies, University of Heidelberg, D-69120 Heidelberg, Germany.
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75
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Abstract
Although many molecular regulators of morphogenesis have been identified in plants, it remains largely unknown how the molecular networks influence local cell shape and how cell growth, form, and position are coordinated during tissue and organ formations. So far, analyses of gene function in morphogenesis have mainly focused on the qualitative analysis of phenotypes, often providing limited mechanistic insight into how particular factors act. For this reason, there has been a growing interest in mathematical and computational models to formalize and test hypotheses. These require much more rigorous, quantitative approaches; in parallel, new quantitative and correlative imaging pipelines have been developed to study morphogenesis. Here, we describe a number of such methods, focusing on live imaging.
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Affiliation(s)
- T Stanislas
- Laboratoire de Reproduction et Développement des Plantes, ENS-Lyon, INRA, CNRS, UCBL, Université de Lyon, 46 allée d'Italie, 69364 Lyon Cedex 07, France
| | - O Hamant
- Laboratoire de Reproduction et Développement des Plantes, ENS-Lyon, INRA, CNRS, UCBL, Université de Lyon, 46 allée d'Italie, 69364 Lyon Cedex 07, France
| | - J Traas
- Laboratoire de Reproduction et Développement des Plantes, ENS-Lyon, INRA, CNRS, UCBL, Université de Lyon, 46 allée d'Italie, 69364 Lyon Cedex 07, France
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76
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Hocq L, Pelloux J, Lefebvre V. Connecting Homogalacturonan-Type Pectin Remodeling to Acid Growth. TRENDS IN PLANT SCIENCE 2017; 22:20-29. [PMID: 27884541 DOI: 10.1016/j.tplants.2016.10.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 119] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/07/2016] [Revised: 10/20/2016] [Accepted: 10/25/2016] [Indexed: 05/18/2023]
Abstract
According to the 'acid growth theory', cell wall acidification controls cell elongation, therefore plant growth. This notably involves changes in cell wall mechanics through modifications of cell wall polysaccharide structure. Recently, advances in cell biology showed that changes in cell elongation rate can be mediated by the remodeling of pectins, and in particular of homogalacturonans (HGs). Their demethylesterification appears to be a key element controlling the chemistry and the rheology of the cell wall. We postulate that precise and dynamic modulation of extracellular pH plays a central role in the control of HG-modifying enzyme activities, and in particular those of pectin methylesterases and polygalacturonases. We propose that acid growth requires dynamic HG remodeling through the tight control of cell wall pH.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ludivine Hocq
- EA3900 Biologie des Plantes et Innovation (BIOPI), Structure Féderative de Recherche (SFR) Condorcet Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (CNRS) 3417, Université de Picardie, 33 Rue St Leu, 80039 Amiens, France
| | - Jérôme Pelloux
- EA3900 Biologie des Plantes et Innovation (BIOPI), Structure Féderative de Recherche (SFR) Condorcet Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (CNRS) 3417, Université de Picardie, 33 Rue St Leu, 80039 Amiens, France.
| | - Valérie Lefebvre
- EA3900 Biologie des Plantes et Innovation (BIOPI), Structure Féderative de Recherche (SFR) Condorcet Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (CNRS) 3417, Université de Picardie, 33 Rue St Leu, 80039 Amiens, France.
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77
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Braybrook SA. Analyzing Cell Wall Elasticity After Hormone Treatment: An Example Using Tobacco BY-2 Cells and Auxin. Methods Mol Biol 2017; 1497:125-133. [PMID: 27864763 DOI: 10.1007/978-1-4939-6469-7_12] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
Atomic force microscopy, and related nano-indentation techniques, is a valuable tool for analyzing the elastic properties of plant cell walls as they relate to changes in cell wall chemistry, changes in development, and response to hormones. Within this chapter I will describe a method for analyzing the effect of the phytohormone auxin on the cell wall elasticity of tobacco BY-2 cells. This general method may be easily altered for different experimental systems and hormones of interest.
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Affiliation(s)
- Siobhan A Braybrook
- The Sainsbury Laboratory, University of Cambridge, Bateman Street, Cambridge, CB2 1LR, UK.
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78
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Zubairova U, Nikolaev S, Penenko A, Podkolodnyy N, Golushko S, Afonnikov D, Kolchanov N. Mechanical Behavior of Cells within a Cell-Based Model of Wheat Leaf Growth. FRONTIERS IN PLANT SCIENCE 2016; 7:1878. [PMID: 28018409 PMCID: PMC5156783 DOI: 10.3389/fpls.2016.01878] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/27/2016] [Accepted: 11/28/2016] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
Understanding the principles and mechanisms of cell growth coordination in plant tissue remains an outstanding challenge for modern developmental biology. Cell-based modeling is a widely used technique for studying the geometric and topological features of plant tissue morphology during growth. We developed a quasi-one-dimensional model of unidirectional growth of a tissue layer in a linear leaf blade that takes cell autonomous growth mode into account. The model allows for fitting of the visible cell length using the experimental cell length distribution along the longitudinal axis of a wheat leaf epidermis. Additionally, it describes changes in turgor and osmotic pressures for each cell in the growing tissue. Our numerical experiments show that the pressures in the cell change over the cell cycle, and in symplastically growing tissue, they vary from cell to cell and strongly depend on the leaf growing zone to which the cells belong. Therefore, we believe that the mechanical signals generated by pressures are important to consider in simulations of tissue growth as possible targets for molecular genetic regulators of individual cell growth.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ulyana Zubairova
- Department of Systems Biology, Institute of Cytology and Genetics (ICG), Siberian Branch of Russian Academy of ScienceNovosibirsk, Russia
| | - Sergey Nikolaev
- Department of Systems Biology, Institute of Cytology and Genetics (ICG), Siberian Branch of Russian Academy of ScienceNovosibirsk, Russia
- Laboratory of Analysis and Optimization of Non-Linear Systems, Institute of Computational Technologies (ICG), Siberian Branch of Russian Academy of ScienceNovosibirsk, Russia
| | - Aleksey Penenko
- Laboratory of Mathematical Modeling of Hydrodynamic Processes in the Environment, Institute of Computational Mathematics and Mathematical Geophysics (ICM & MG), Siberian Branch of Russian Academy of ScienceNovosibirsk, Russia
- Chair of Mathematical Methods in Geophysics, Faculty of Mechanics and Mathematics, Novosibirsk State UniversityNovosibirsk, Russia
| | - Nikolay Podkolodnyy
- Department of Systems Biology, Institute of Cytology and Genetics (ICG), Siberian Branch of Russian Academy of ScienceNovosibirsk, Russia
- Laboratory of Mathematical Problems of Geophysics, Institute of Computational Mathematics and Mathematical Geophysics (ICM & MG), Siberian Branch of Russian Academy of ScienceNovosibirsk, Russia
- Chair of Informatics Systems, Faculty of Information Technologies, Novosibirsk State UniversityNovosibirsk, Russia
| | - Sergey Golushko
- Laboratory of Analysis and Optimization of Non-Linear Systems, Institute of Computational Technologies (ICG), Siberian Branch of Russian Academy of ScienceNovosibirsk, Russia
- Chair of Mathematical Modeling, Faculty of Mechanics and Mathematics, Novosibirsk State UniversityNovosibirsk, Russia
| | - Dmitry Afonnikov
- Department of Systems Biology, Institute of Cytology and Genetics (ICG), Siberian Branch of Russian Academy of ScienceNovosibirsk, Russia
- Chair of Informational Biology, Faculty of Natural Sciences, Novosibirsk State UniversityNovosibirsk, Russia
| | - Nikolay Kolchanov
- Department of Systems Biology, Institute of Cytology and Genetics (ICG), Siberian Branch of Russian Academy of ScienceNovosibirsk, Russia
- Chair of Informational Biology, Faculty of Natural Sciences, Novosibirsk State UniversityNovosibirsk, Russia
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79
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Regulation of Meristem Morphogenesis by Cell Wall Synthases in Arabidopsis. Curr Biol 2016; 26:1404-15. [PMID: 27212401 PMCID: PMC5024349 DOI: 10.1016/j.cub.2016.04.026] [Citation(s) in RCA: 74] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/11/2016] [Revised: 03/24/2016] [Accepted: 04/11/2016] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
The cell walls of the shoot apical meristem (SAM), containing the stem cell niche that gives rise to the above-ground tissues, are crucially involved in regulating differentiation. It is currently unknown how these walls are built and refined or their role, if any, in influencing meristem developmental dynamics. We have combined polysaccharide linkage analysis, immuno-labeling, and transcriptome profiling of the SAM to provide a spatiotemporal plan of the walls of this dynamic structure. We find that meristematic cells express only a core subset of 152 genes encoding cell wall glycosyltransferases (GTs). Systemic localization of all these GT mRNAs by in situ hybridization reveals members with either enrichment in or specificity to apical subdomains such as emerging flower primordia, and a large class with high expression in dividing cells. The highly localized and coordinated expression of GTs in the SAM suggests distinct wall properties of meristematic cells and specific differences between newly forming walls and their mature descendants. Functional analysis demonstrates that a subset of CSLD genes is essential for proper meristem maintenance, confirming the key role of walls in developmental pathways.
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80
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Galvan-Ampudia CS, Chaumeret AM, Godin C, Vernoux T. Phyllotaxis: from patterns of organogenesis at the meristem to shoot architecture. WILEY INTERDISCIPLINARY REVIEWS-DEVELOPMENTAL BIOLOGY 2016; 5:460-73. [PMID: 27199252 DOI: 10.1002/wdev.231] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/10/2015] [Revised: 01/14/2016] [Accepted: 01/18/2016] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
Abstract
The primary architecture of the aerial part of plants is controlled by the shoot apical meristem, a specialized tissue containing a stem cell niche. The iterative generation of new aerial organs, (leaves, lateral inflorescences, and flowers) at the meristem follows regular patterns, called phyllotaxis. Phyllotaxis has long been proposed to self-organize from the combined action of growth and of inhibitory fields blocking organogenesis in the vicinity of existing organs in the meristem. In this review, we will highlight how a combination of mathematical/computational modeling and experimental biology has demonstrated that the spatiotemporal distribution of the plant hormone auxin controls both organogenesis and the establishment of inhibitory fields. We will discuss recent advances showing that auxin likely acts through a combination of biochemical and mechanical regulatory mechanisms that control not only the pattern of organogenesis in the meristem but also postmeristematic growth, to shape the shoot. WIREs Dev Biol 2016, 5:460-473. doi: 10.1002/wdev.231 For further resources related to this article, please visit the WIREs website.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carlos S Galvan-Ampudia
- Laboratoire de Reproduction et Développement des plantes, CNRS, INRA, ENS Lyon, UCBL, Université de Lyon, Lyon, France
| | - Anaïs M Chaumeret
- Laboratoire de Reproduction et Développement des plantes, CNRS, INRA, ENS Lyon, UCBL, Université de Lyon, Lyon, France
| | - Christophe Godin
- Virtual Plants Plants INRIA/CIRAD/INRA Project Team, Montpellier, France
| | - Teva Vernoux
- Laboratoire de Reproduction et Développement des plantes, CNRS, INRA, ENS Lyon, UCBL, Université de Lyon, Lyon, France
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81
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Abstract
Bruising and other mechanical damage to fruit caused by external forces during and postharvesting is manifested at the macroscale but is ultimately the result of failure of cells at the microscale. However, fruits have internal structures and cells from different tissue types react differently to application of an external force. Not much is known about the effects of such forces on single cells within tissues and one reason for this is the lack of multiscale models linking macro- (organ or whole fruit), meso- (tissue), and micro- (cell) mechanics. This review concerns tomato fruits specifically as this is an important crop and is an excellent exemplar of past and proposed research in this field. The first consideration is the multiscale anatomy of tomato fruits that provides the basis for mechanical modeling. The literature on experimental methods for studying multiscale mechanics of fruit is then reviewed, as are recent results from using those methods. Finally, future research directions are discussed, in particular the combination of work over all scales. It is clear that a bottom-up approach incorporating single-cell mechanics in finite element models of whole fruit assumed to have internal structures is a promising way forward for tomato fruits but further method developments may be needed for these and other fruits and vegetables, in particular recovery of representative single cells from tissues for mechanical characterization.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhiguo Li
- a School of Mechanics and Power Engineering, Henan Polytechnic University , Jiaozuo , China
| | - Colin Thomas
- b School of Chemical Engineering, University of Birmingham , Edgbaston, Birmingham , UK
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82
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Tesson B, Latz MI. Mechanosensitivity of a rapid bioluminescence reporter system assessed by atomic force microscopy. Biophys J 2016; 108:1341-1351. [PMID: 25809248 DOI: 10.1016/j.bpj.2015.02.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/11/2014] [Revised: 12/10/2014] [Accepted: 02/02/2015] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Cells are sophisticated integrators of mechanical stimuli that lead to physiological, biochemical, and genetic responses. The bioluminescence of dinoflagellates, alveolate protists that use light emission for predator defense, serves as a rapid noninvasive whole-cell reporter of mechanosensitivity. In this study, we used atomic force microscopy (AFM) to explore the relationship between cell mechanical properties and mechanosensitivity in live cells of the dinoflagellate Pyrocystis lunula. Cell stiffness was 0.56 MPa, consistent with cells possessing a cell wall. Cell response depended on both the magnitude and velocity of the applied force. At the maximum stimulation velocity of 390 μm s(-1), the threshold response occurred at a force of 7.2 μN, resulting in a contact time of 6.1 ms and indentation of 2.1 μm. Cells did not respond to a low stimulation velocity of 20 μm s(-1), indicating a velocity dependent response that, based on stress relaxation experiments, was explained by the cell viscoelastic properties. This study demonstrates the use of AFM to study mechanosensitivity in a cell system that responds at fast timescales, and provides insights into how viscoelastic properties affect mechanosensitivity. It also provides a comparison with previous studies using hydrodynamic stimulation, showing the discrepancy in cell response between direct compressive forces using AFM and those within flow fields based on average flow properties.
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Affiliation(s)
- Benoit Tesson
- Scripps Institution of Oceanography, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, California.
| | - Michael I Latz
- Scripps Institution of Oceanography, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, California.
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83
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Magaña-Álvarez A, Vencioneck Dutra JC, Carneiro T, Pérez-Brito D, Tapia-Tussell R, Ventura JA, Higuera-Ciapara I, Fernandes PMB, Fernandes AAR. Physical Characteristics of the Leaves and Latex of Papaya Plants Infected with the Papaya meleira Virus. Int J Mol Sci 2016; 17:574. [PMID: 27092495 PMCID: PMC4849030 DOI: 10.3390/ijms17040574] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/15/2016] [Revised: 02/24/2016] [Accepted: 03/23/2016] [Indexed: 01/25/2023] Open
Abstract
Sticky disease, which is caused by Papaya meleira virus (PMeV), is a significant papaya disease in Brazil and Mexico, where it has caused severe economic losses, and it seems to have spread to Central and South America. Studies assessing the pathogen-host interaction at the nano-histological level are needed to better understand the mechanisms that underlie natural resistance. In this study, the topography and mechanical properties of the leaf midribs and latex of healthy and PMeV-infected papaya plants were observed by atomic force microscopy and scanning electron microscopy. Healthy plants displayed a smooth surface with practically no roughness of the leaf midribs and the latex and a higher adhesion force than infected plants. PMeV promotes changes in the leaf midribs and latex, making them more fragile and susceptible to breakage. These changes, which are associated with increased water uptake and internal pressure in laticifers, causes cell disruption that leads to spontaneous exudation of the latex and facilitates the spread of PMeV to other laticifers. These results provide new insights into the papaya-PMeV interaction that could be helpful for controlling papaya sticky disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anuar Magaña-Álvarez
- Núcleo de Biotecnologia, Universidade Federal do Espírito Santo, Av. Marechal Campos 1468, Vitória, Espírito Santo 29040-090, Brazil.
- Laboratorio GeMBio, Centro de Investigación Científica de Yucatán A.C., Calle 43 # 130, Col. Chuburná de Hidalgo, Mérida, Yucatán 97200, Mexico.
| | - Jean Carlos Vencioneck Dutra
- Núcleo de Biotecnologia, Universidade Federal do Espírito Santo, Av. Marechal Campos 1468, Vitória, Espírito Santo 29040-090, Brazil.
| | - Tarcio Carneiro
- Núcleo de Biotecnologia, Universidade Federal do Espírito Santo, Av. Marechal Campos 1468, Vitória, Espírito Santo 29040-090, Brazil.
| | - Daisy Pérez-Brito
- Laboratorio GeMBio, Centro de Investigación Científica de Yucatán A.C., Calle 43 # 130, Col. Chuburná de Hidalgo, Mérida, Yucatán 97200, Mexico.
| | - Raúl Tapia-Tussell
- Laboratorio GeMBio, Centro de Investigación Científica de Yucatán A.C., Calle 43 # 130, Col. Chuburná de Hidalgo, Mérida, Yucatán 97200, Mexico.
| | - Jose Aires Ventura
- Núcleo de Biotecnologia, Universidade Federal do Espírito Santo, Av. Marechal Campos 1468, Vitória, Espírito Santo 29040-090, Brazil.
- Instituto Capixaba de Pesquisa, Assistência Técnica e Extensão Rural, R. Afonso Sarlo 160, Vitória, Espírito Santo 29052-010, Brazil.
| | - Inocencio Higuera-Ciapara
- Unidad de Tecnología de Alimentos, Centro de Investigación y Asistencia Tecnológica y Diseño del Estado de Jalisco A.C., Ave. Normalistas # 800, Col. Colinas de la Norma, Guadalajara, Jalisco 44270, Mexico.
| | - Patricia Machado Bueno Fernandes
- Núcleo de Biotecnologia, Universidade Federal do Espírito Santo, Av. Marechal Campos 1468, Vitória, Espírito Santo 29040-090, Brazil.
| | - Antonio Alberto Ribeiro Fernandes
- Núcleo de Biotecnologia, Universidade Federal do Espírito Santo, Av. Marechal Campos 1468, Vitória, Espírito Santo 29040-090, Brazil.
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84
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Yakubov GE, Bonilla MR, Chen H, Doblin MS, Bacic A, Gidley MJ, Stokes JR. Mapping nano-scale mechanical heterogeneity of primary plant cell walls. JOURNAL OF EXPERIMENTAL BOTANY 2016; 67:2799-816. [PMID: 26988718 PMCID: PMC4861025 DOI: 10.1093/jxb/erw117] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/18/2023]
Abstract
Nanoindentation experiments are performed using an atomic force microscope (AFM) to quantify the spatial distribution of mechanical properties of plant cell walls at nanometre length scales. At any specific location on the cell wall, a complex (non-linear) force-indentation response occurs that can be deconvoluted using a unique multiregime analysis (MRA). This allows an unambiguous evaluation of the local transverse elastic modulus of the wall. Nanomechanical measurements on suspension-cultured cells (SCCs), derived from Italian ryegrass (Lolium multiflorum) starchy endosperm, show three characteristic modes of deformation and a spatial distribution of elastic moduli across the surface. 'Soft' and 'hard' domains are found across length scales between 0.1 µm and 3 µm, which is well above a typical pore size of the polysaccharide mesh. The generality and wider applicability of this mechanical heterogeneity is verified through in planta characterization on leaf epidermal cells of Arabidopsis thaliana and L. multiflorum The outcomes of this research provide a basis for uncovering and quantifying the relationships between local wall composition, architecture, cell growth, and/or morphogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gleb E Yakubov
- Australian Research Council Centre of Excellence in Plant Cell Walls School of Chemical Engineering, The University of Queensland, Queensland, Australia
| | - Mauricio R Bonilla
- Australian Research Council Centre of Excellence in Plant Cell Walls School of Chemical Engineering, The University of Queensland, Queensland, Australia
| | - Huaying Chen
- Australian Institute for Bioengineering and Nanotechnology, The University of Queensland, Queensland, Australia
| | - Monika S Doblin
- Australian Research Council Centre of Excellence in Plant Cell Walls School of BioSciences, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC 3010, Australia
| | - Antony Bacic
- Australian Research Council Centre of Excellence in Plant Cell Walls School of BioSciences, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC 3010, Australia
| | - Michael J Gidley
- Australian Research Council Centre of Excellence in Plant Cell Walls Centre for Nutrition and Food Sciences, Queensland Alliance for Agriculture and Food Innovation, The University of Queensland, Queensland, Australia
| | - Jason R Stokes
- Australian Research Council Centre of Excellence in Plant Cell Walls School of Chemical Engineering, The University of Queensland, Queensland, Australia
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85
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Zdunek A, Kozioł A, Cybulska J, Lekka M, Pieczywek PM. The stiffening of the cell walls observed during physiological softening of pears. PLANTA 2016; 243:519-29. [PMID: 26498014 PMCID: PMC4722064 DOI: 10.1007/s00425-015-2423-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/31/2015] [Accepted: 10/13/2015] [Indexed: 05/12/2023]
Abstract
The Young's modulus of the primary cell walls of pears decreases linearly during the pre-harvest on-tree maturation and increases during postharvest storage, and does not correlate with firmness of fruit. The determination of mechanical properties of cell walls is indispensable for understanding the mechanism of physiological softening and deterioration of quality of fruits during postharvest storage. The Young's modulus of the primary cell walls from pear fruit (Pyrus communis L., cultivars 'Conference' and 'Xenia') during pre-harvest maturation and postharvest storage in an ambient atmosphere at 2 °C followed by shelf life was studied using atomic force microscopy (AFM). The results were related to the firmness of fruits, galacturonic acid content in water, chelator, sodium carbonate and insoluble pectin fractions, polygalacturonase and pectin methylesterase activities. The Young's modulus of the primary cell walls decreased linearly during the last month of pre-harvest maturation from 3.2 ± 1.8 to 1.1 ± 0.7 MPa for 'Conference' and from 1.9 ± 1.2 to 0.2 ± 0.1 MPa for 'Xenia' which correlated with linear firmness decrease. During postharvest storage the cell wall Young's modulus increased while firmness continued to decrease. Correlation analysis for the entire period of the experiment showed a lack of straightforward relation between the Young's modulus of primary cell walls and fruit firmness. The Young's modulus of cell walls correlated negatively either with galacturonic acid content in sodium carbonate soluble pectin ('Conference') or with insoluble pectin fractions ('Xenia') and positively with polygalacturonase activity. It was therefore evidenced that covalently linked pectins play the key role for the stiffness of fruit cell walls. Based on the obtained results, the model explaining the fruit transition from firm and crispy to soft and mealy was proposed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Artur Zdunek
- />Institute of Agrophysics, Polish Academy of Sciences, Doświadczalna 4, 20-290 Lublin, Poland
| | - Arkadiusz Kozioł
- />Institute of Agrophysics, Polish Academy of Sciences, Doświadczalna 4, 20-290 Lublin, Poland
| | - Justyna Cybulska
- />Institute of Agrophysics, Polish Academy of Sciences, Doświadczalna 4, 20-290 Lublin, Poland
| | - Małgorzata Lekka
- />The Henryk Niewodniczański Institute of Nuclear Physics, Polish Academy of Sciences, Radzikowskiego 152, 31-342 Kraków, Poland
| | - Piotr M. Pieczywek
- />Institute of Agrophysics, Polish Academy of Sciences, Doświadczalna 4, 20-290 Lublin, Poland
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86
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Malgat R, Faure F, Boudaoud A. A Mechanical Model to Interpret Cell-Scale Indentation Experiments on Plant Tissues in Terms of Cell Wall Elasticity and Turgor Pressure. FRONTIERS IN PLANT SCIENCE 2016; 7:1351. [PMID: 27656191 PMCID: PMC5013127 DOI: 10.3389/fpls.2016.01351] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/27/2016] [Accepted: 08/23/2016] [Indexed: 05/05/2023]
Abstract
Morphogenesis in plants is directly linked to the mechanical elements of growing tissues, namely cell wall and inner cell pressure. Studies of these structural elements are now often performed using indentation methods such as atomic force microscopy. In these methods, a probe applies a force to the tissue surface at a subcellular scale and its displacement is monitored, yielding force-displacement curves that reflect tissue mechanics. However, the interpretation of these curves is challenging as they may depend not only on the cell probed, but also on neighboring cells, or even on the whole tissue. Here, we build a realistic three-dimensional model of the indentation of a flower bud using SOFA (Simulation Open Framework Architecture), in order to provide a framework for the analysis of force-displacement curves obtained experimentally. We find that the shape of indentation curves mostly depends on the ratio between cell pressure and wall modulus. Hysteresis in force-displacement curves can be accounted for by a viscoelastic behavior of the cell wall. We consider differences in elastic modulus between cell layers and we show that, according to the location of indentation and to the size of the probe, force-displacement curves are sensitive with different weights to the mechanical components of the two most external cell layers. Our results confirm most of the interpretations of previous experiments and provide a guide to future experimental work.
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Affiliation(s)
- Richard Malgat
- Institut National de Recherche en Informatique et en AutomatiqueGrenoble, France
- Laboratoire Jean Kuntzmann, Centre National de la Recherche ScientifiqueGrenoble, France
- Reproduction et Développement des Plantes, Université de Lyon, Ecole Normale Supérieure de Lyon, Université Claude Bernard Lyon 1, Institut National de la Recherche Agronomique, Centre National de la Recherche ScientifiqueLyon, France
| | - François Faure
- Institut National de Recherche en Informatique et en AutomatiqueGrenoble, France
- Laboratoire Jean Kuntzmann, Centre National de la Recherche ScientifiqueGrenoble, France
| | - Arezki Boudaoud
- Reproduction et Développement des Plantes, Université de Lyon, Ecole Normale Supérieure de Lyon, Université Claude Bernard Lyon 1, Institut National de la Recherche Agronomique, Centre National de la Recherche ScientifiqueLyon, France
- *Correspondence: Arezki Boudaoud
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87
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Cosgrove DJ. Plant cell wall extensibility: connecting plant cell growth with cell wall structure, mechanics, and the action of wall-modifying enzymes. JOURNAL OF EXPERIMENTAL BOTANY 2016; 67:463-76. [PMID: 26608646 DOI: 10.1093/jxb/erv511] [Citation(s) in RCA: 285] [Impact Index Per Article: 35.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/18/2023]
Abstract
The advent of user-friendly instruments for measuring force/deflection curves of plant surfaces at high spatial resolution has resulted in a recent outpouring of reports of the 'Young's modulus' of plant cell walls. The stimulus for these mechanical measurements comes from biomechanical models of morphogenesis of meristems and other tissues, as well as single cells, in which cell wall stress feeds back to regulate microtubule organization, auxin transport, cellulose deposition, and future growth directionality. In this article I review the differences between elastic modulus and wall extensibility in the context of cell growth. Some of the inherent complexities, assumptions, and potential pitfalls in the interpretation of indentation force/deflection curves are discussed. Reported values of elastic moduli from surface indentation measurements appear to be 10- to >1000-fold smaller than realistic tensile elastic moduli in the plane of plant cell walls. Potential reasons for this disparity are discussed, but further work is needed to make sense of the huge range in reported values. The significance of wall stress relaxation for growth is reviewed and connected to recent advances and remaining enigmas in our concepts of how cellulose, hemicellulose, and pectins are assembled to make an extensible cell wall. A comparison of the loosening action of α-expansin and Cel12A endoglucanase is used to illustrate two different ways in which cell walls may be made more extensible and the divergent effects on wall mechanics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel J Cosgrove
- Department of Biology, 208 Mueller Lab, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA 16802, USA
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88
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Sassi M, Traas J. When biochemistry meets mechanics: a systems view of growth control in plants. CURRENT OPINION IN PLANT BIOLOGY 2015; 28:137-43. [PMID: 26583832 DOI: 10.1016/j.pbi.2015.10.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/17/2015] [Revised: 10/08/2015] [Accepted: 10/12/2015] [Indexed: 05/11/2023]
Abstract
The emergence of complex shapes during the development of plants is under the control of genetically determined molecular networks. Such regulatory networks, comprising hormones and transcription factors, regulate the collective behavior of cell growth within a tissue. Because all the cells within a tissue are linked together by the cell wall, their collective growth generates a good amount of mechanical stress. In the last few years a compelling amount of evidence has shown that growth-generated mechanical stress can feed back on plant developmental programs by modifying cell growth. This involves primarily responses from the microtubules and interaction with auxin transport and signaling. Here we discuss the most recent advances in the understanding of mechanical feedbacks in plant development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Massimiliano Sassi
- Laboratoire de Reproduction et Développement des Plantes, INRA, CNRS, ENS, UCBL, 46 Allée d'Italie, 69364 Lyon Cedex 07, France.
| | - Jan Traas
- Laboratoire de Reproduction et Développement des Plantes, INRA, CNRS, ENS, UCBL, 46 Allée d'Italie, 69364 Lyon Cedex 07, France.
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89
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A comparative mechanical analysis of plant and animal cells reveals convergence across kingdoms. Biophys J 2015; 107:2237-44. [PMID: 25418292 DOI: 10.1016/j.bpj.2014.10.023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/14/2014] [Revised: 09/29/2014] [Accepted: 10/03/2014] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Plant and animals have evolved different strategies for their development. Whether this is linked to major differences in their cell mechanics remains unclear, mainly because measurements on plant and animal cells relied on independent experiments and setups, thus hindering any direct comparison. In this study we used the same micro-rheometer to compare animal and plant single cell rheology. We found that wall-less plant cells exhibit the same weak power law rheology as animal cells, with comparable values of elastic and loss moduli. Remarkably, microtubules primarily contributed to the rheological behavior of wall-less plant cells whereas rheology of animal cells was mainly dependent on the actin network. Thus, plant and animal cells evolved different molecular strategies to reach a comparable cytoplasmic mechanical core, suggesting that evolutionary convergence could include the internal biophysical properties of cells.
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90
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Sankaran AK, Nijsse J, Cardinaels R, Bialek L, Shpigelman A, Hendrickx M, Moldenaers P, Van Loey AM. Effect of Enzymes on Serum and Particle Properties of Carrot Cell Suspensions. FOOD BIOPHYS 2015. [DOI: 10.1007/s11483-015-9403-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
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91
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Weber A, Braybrook S, Huflejt M, Mosca G, Routier-Kierzkowska AL, Smith RS. Measuring the mechanical properties of plant cells by combining micro-indentation with osmotic treatments. JOURNAL OF EXPERIMENTAL BOTANY 2015; 66:3229-41. [PMID: 25873663 PMCID: PMC4449541 DOI: 10.1093/jxb/erv135] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/02/2023]
Abstract
Growth in plants results from the interaction between genetic and signalling networks and the mechanical properties of cells and tissues. There has been a recent resurgence in research directed at understanding the mechanical aspects of growth, and their feedback on genetic regulation. This has been driven in part by the development of new micro-indentation techniques to measure the mechanical properties of plant cells in vivo. However, the interpretation of indentation experiments remains a challenge, since the force measures results from a combination of turgor pressure, cell wall stiffness, and cell and indenter geometry. In order to interpret the measurements, an accurate mechanical model of the experiment is required. Here, we used a plant cell system with a simple geometry, Nicotiana tabacum Bright Yellow-2 (BY-2) cells, to examine the sensitivity of micro-indentation to a variety of mechanical and experimental parameters. Using a finite-element mechanical model, we found that, for indentations of a few microns on turgid cells, the measurements were mostly sensitive to turgor pressure and the radius of the cell, and not to the exact indenter shape or elastic properties of the cell wall. By complementing indentation experiments with osmotic experiments to measure the elastic strain in turgid cells, we could fit the model to both turgor pressure and cell wall elasticity. This allowed us to interpret apparent stiffness values in terms of meaningful physical parameters that are relevant for morphogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alain Weber
- Institute of Plant Sciences, University of Bern, Altenbergrain 21, CH-3013 Bern, Switzerland
| | - Siobhan Braybrook
- Institute of Plant Sciences, University of Bern, Altenbergrain 21, CH-3013 Bern, Switzerland Sainsbury Laboratory, Bateman Street, Cambridge, CB2 1LR, UK
| | - Michal Huflejt
- Institute of Plant Sciences, University of Bern, Altenbergrain 21, CH-3013 Bern, Switzerland
| | - Gabriella Mosca
- Institute of Plant Sciences, University of Bern, Altenbergrain 21, CH-3013 Bern, Switzerland Max Planck Institute for Plant Breeding Research, Carl-von-Linné-Weg 1050829 Köln, Cologne, Germany
| | - Anne-Lise Routier-Kierzkowska
- Institute of Plant Sciences, University of Bern, Altenbergrain 21, CH-3013 Bern, Switzerland Max Planck Institute for Plant Breeding Research, Carl-von-Linné-Weg 1050829 Köln, Cologne, Germany
| | - Richard S Smith
- Institute of Plant Sciences, University of Bern, Altenbergrain 21, CH-3013 Bern, Switzerland Max Planck Institute for Plant Breeding Research, Carl-von-Linné-Weg 1050829 Köln, Cologne, Germany
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92
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Beauzamy L, Derr J, Boudaoud A. Quantifying hydrostatic pressure in plant cells by using indentation with an atomic force microscope. Biophys J 2015; 108:2448-2456. [PMID: 25992723 PMCID: PMC4457008 DOI: 10.1016/j.bpj.2015.03.035] [Citation(s) in RCA: 58] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/22/2014] [Revised: 02/14/2015] [Accepted: 03/19/2015] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Plant cell growth depends on a delicate balance between an inner drive-the hydrostatic pressure known as turgor-and an outer restraint-the polymeric wall that surrounds a cell. The classical technique to measure turgor in a single cell, the pressure probe, is intrusive and cannot be applied to small cells. In order to overcome these limitations, we developed a method that combines quantification of topography, nanoindentation force measurements, and an interpretation using a published mechanical model for the pointlike loading of thin elastic shells. We used atomic force microscopy to estimate the elastic properties of the cell wall and turgor pressure from a single force-depth curve. We applied this method to onion epidermal peels and quantified the response to changes in osmolality of the bathing solution. Overall our approach is accessible and enables a straightforward estimation of the hydrostatic pressure inside a walled cell.
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Affiliation(s)
- Léna Beauzamy
- Laboratoire Reproduction et Développement des Plantes, Institut National de la Recherche Agronomique; Laboratoire Joliot-Curie, Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, École Normale Supérieure de Lyon, Université Claude Bernard Lyon 1, Université de Lyon, Lyon, France
| | - Julien Derr
- Laboratoire Matière et Systèmes Complexes, UMR 7057, Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique and Université Paris Diderot, Paris, France
| | - Arezki Boudaoud
- Laboratoire Reproduction et Développement des Plantes, Institut National de la Recherche Agronomique; Laboratoire Joliot-Curie, Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, École Normale Supérieure de Lyon, Université Claude Bernard Lyon 1, Université de Lyon, Lyon, France; Institut Universitaire de France, Paris, France.
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93
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Digiuni S, Berne-Dedieu A, Martinez-Torres C, Szecsi J, Bendahmane M, Arneodo A, Argoul F. Single Cell Wall Nonlinear Mechanics Revealed by a Multiscale Analysis of AFM Force-Indentation Curves. Biophys J 2015; 108:2235-48. [PMID: 25954881 PMCID: PMC4423067 DOI: 10.1016/j.bpj.2015.02.024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/23/2014] [Revised: 01/28/2015] [Accepted: 02/12/2015] [Indexed: 10/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Individual plant cells are rather complex mechanical objects. Despite the fact that their wall mechanical strength may be weakened by comparison with their original tissue template, they nevertheless retain some generic properties of the mother tissue, namely the viscoelasticity and the shape of their walls, which are driven by their internal hydrostatic turgor pressure. This viscoelastic behavior, which affects the power-law response of these cells when indented by an atomic force cantilever with a pyramidal tip, is also very sensitive to the culture media. To our knowledge, we develop here an original analyzing method, based on a multiscale decomposition of force-indentation curves, that reveals and quantifies for the first time the nonlinearity of the mechanical response of living single plant cells upon mechanical deformation. Further comparing the nonlinear strain responses of these isolated cells in three different media, we reveal an alteration of their linear bending elastic regime in both hyper- and hypotonic conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Simona Digiuni
- Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique UMR5672, Laboratoire de Physique, Ecole Normale Supérieure de Lyon, Université de Lyon I, France
| | - Annik Berne-Dedieu
- Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique UMR5667, Laboratoire de Reproduction et de Développement des Plantes, Ecole Normale Supérieure de Lyon, Université de Lyon I, France
| | - Cristina Martinez-Torres
- Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique UMR5672, Laboratoire de Physique, Ecole Normale Supérieure de Lyon, Université de Lyon I, France
| | - Judit Szecsi
- Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique UMR5667, Laboratoire de Reproduction et de Développement des Plantes, Ecole Normale Supérieure de Lyon, Université de Lyon I, France
| | - Mohammed Bendahmane
- Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique UMR5667, Laboratoire de Reproduction et de Développement des Plantes, Ecole Normale Supérieure de Lyon, Université de Lyon I, France
| | - Alain Arneodo
- Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique UMR5672, Laboratoire de Physique, Ecole Normale Supérieure de Lyon, Université de Lyon I, France
| | - Françoise Argoul
- Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique UMR5672, Laboratoire de Physique, Ecole Normale Supérieure de Lyon, Université de Lyon I, France.
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94
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Measuring the Mechanical Properties of Plant Cell Walls. PLANTS 2015; 4:167-82. [PMID: 27135321 PMCID: PMC4844320 DOI: 10.3390/plants4020167] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/23/2015] [Revised: 03/05/2015] [Accepted: 03/11/2015] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
The size, shape and stability of a plant depend on the flexibility and integrity of its cell walls, which, at the same time, need to allow cell expansion for growth, while maintaining mechanical stability. Biomechanical studies largely vanished from the focus of plant science with the rapid progress of genetics and molecular biology since the mid-twentieth century. However, the development of more sensitive measurement tools renewed the interest in plant biomechanics in recent years, not only to understand the fundamental concepts of growth and morphogenesis, but also with regard to economically important areas in agriculture, forestry and the paper industry. Recent advances have clearly demonstrated that mechanical forces play a crucial role in cell and organ morphogenesis, which ultimately define plant morphology. In this article, we will briefly review the available methods to determine the mechanical properties of cell walls, such as atomic force microscopy (AFM) and microindentation assays, and discuss their advantages and disadvantages. But we will focus on a novel methodological approach, called cellular force microscopy (CFM), and its automated successor, real-time CFM (RT-CFM).
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95
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Bonilla MR, Stokes JR, Gidley MJ, Yakubov GE. Interpreting atomic force microscopy nanoindentation of hierarchical biological materials using multi-regime analysis. SOFT MATTER 2015; 11:1281-92. [PMID: 25569139 DOI: 10.1039/c4sm02440k] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/06/2023]
Abstract
We present a novel Multi-Regime Analysis (MRA) routine for interpreting force indentation measurements of soft materials using atomic force microscopy. The MRA approach combines both well established and semi-empirical theories of contact mechanics within a single framework to deconvolute highly complex and non-linear force-indentation curves. The fundamental assumption in the present form of the model is that each structural contribution to the mechanical response acts in series with other 'mechanical resistors'. This simplification enables interpretation of the micromechanical properties of materials with hierarchical structures and it allows automated processing of large data sets, which is particularly indispensable for biological systems. We validate the algorithm by demonstrating for the first time that the elastic modulus of polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) films is accurately predicted from both approach and retraction branches of force-indentation curves. For biological systems with complex hierarchical structures, we show the unique capability of MRA to map the micromechanics of live plant cells, revealing an intricate sequence of mechanical deformations resolved with precision that is unattainable using conventional methods of analysis. We recommend the routine use of MRA to interpret AFM force-indentation measurements for other complex soft materials including mammalian cells, bacteria and nanomaterials.
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Affiliation(s)
- M R Bonilla
- ARC Centre of Excellence in Plant Cell Walls, School of Chemical Engineering, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Australia.
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96
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Abstract
Plant cells in tissues experience mechanical stress not only as a result of high turgor, but also through interaction with their neighbors. Cells can expand at different rates and in different directions from neighbors with which they share a cell wall. This in connection with specific tissue shapes and properties of the cell wall material can lead to intricate stress patterns throughout the tissue. Two cellular responses to mechanical stress are a microtubule cytoskeletal response that directs new wall synthesis so as to resist stress, and a hormone transporter response that regulates transport of the hormone auxin, a regulator of cell expansion. Shape changes in plant tissues affect the pattern of stresses in the tissues, and at the same time, via the cellular stress responses, the pattern of stresses controls cell growth, which in turn changes tissue shape, and stress pattern. This feedback loop controls plant morphogenesis, and explains several previously mysterious aspects of plant growth.
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97
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Abstract
The physical properties of biological materials impact their functions. This is most evident in plants where the cell wall contains each cell's contents and connects each cell to its neighbors irreversibly. Examining the physical properties of the plant cell wall is key to understanding how plant cells, tissues, and organs grow and gain the shapes important for their respective functions. Here, we present an atomic force microscopy-based nanoindentation method for examining the elasticity of plant cells at the subcellular, cellular, and tissue level. We describe the important areas of experimental design to be considered when planning and executing these types of experiments and provide example data as illustration.
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98
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Abstract
The development of plant leaves follows a common basic program that is flexible and is adjusted according to species, developmental stage and environmental circumstances. Leaves initiate from the flanks of the shoot apical meristem and develop into flat structures of variable sizes and forms. This process is regulated by plant hormones, transcriptional regulators and mechanical properties of the tissue. Here, we review recent advances in the understanding of how these factors modulate leaf development to yield a substantial diversity of leaf forms. We discuss these issues in the context of leaf initiation, the balance between morphogenesis and differentiation, and patterning of the leaf margin.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maya Bar
- The Robert H. Smith Institute of Plant Sciences and Genetics in Agriculture and The Otto Warburg Minerva Center for Agricultural Biotechnology, Hebrew University, P.O. Box 12, Rehovot 76100, Israel
| | - Naomi Ori
- The Robert H. Smith Institute of Plant Sciences and Genetics in Agriculture and The Otto Warburg Minerva Center for Agricultural Biotechnology, Hebrew University, P.O. Box 12, Rehovot 76100, Israel
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99
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Sassi M, Traas J. New insights in shoot apical meristem morphogenesis: Isotropy comes into play. PLANT SIGNALING & BEHAVIOR 2015; 10:e1000150. [PMID: 26337646 PMCID: PMC4883928 DOI: 10.1080/15592324.2014.1000150] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/08/2014] [Accepted: 12/14/2014] [Indexed: 06/05/2023]
Abstract
The great complexity and plasticity of aerial plant shapes largely results from the activity of the shoot apical meristem (SAM), a group of undifferentiated cells which produces all the aboveground organs of the plant. Organogenesis at the SAM is regulated by the hormone auxin, which, through an integration of active transport, signalling and transcriptional regulation, determines the positional and temporal information dictating where, when, and how a new organ will be formed. At the cellular level, the information stemming from the regulatory molecular networks influences the growth of the cells within the tissue to give rise to the final organ shape. The growth of plant cells is mainly controlled by the cell wall, a rigid structure mainly made of polysaccharides, which surrounds the cells and links them together in an organismal continuum. Over the years, several lines of evidence have pointed at a role for the regulation of the elasticity of the cell wall, downstream of auxin action, in the formation of organs at the SAM. We have recently shown that auxin also induces a shift toward isotropic growth by modulating the organization of cortical microtubules in peripheral SAM cells, which promotes organ formation. Here, we discuss our results and identify new hypotheses to drive future research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Massimiliano Sassi
- Laboratoire de Reproduction et Développement des Plantes; INRA; CNRS; ENS; UCBL; Lyon, France
| | - Jan Traas
- Laboratoire de Reproduction et Développement des Plantes; INRA; CNRS; ENS; UCBL; Lyon, France
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100
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Sassi M, Ali O, Boudon F, Cloarec G, Abad U, Cellier C, Chen X, Gilles B, Milani P, Friml J, Vernoux T, Godin C, Hamant O, Traas J. An auxin-mediated shift toward growth isotropy promotes organ formation at the shoot meristem in Arabidopsis. Curr Biol 2014; 24:2335-42. [PMID: 25264254 DOI: 10.1016/j.cub.2014.08.036] [Citation(s) in RCA: 117] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/06/2014] [Revised: 07/03/2014] [Accepted: 08/15/2014] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
To control morphogenesis, molecular regulatory networks have to interfere with the mechanical properties of the individual cells of developing organs and tissues, but how this is achieved is not well known. We study this issue here in the shoot meristem of higher plants, a group of undifferentiated cells where complex changes in growth rates and directions lead to the continuous formation of new organs. Here, we show that the plant hormone auxin plays an important role in this process via a dual, local effect on the extracellular matrix, the cell wall, which determines cell shape. Our study reveals that auxin not only causes a limited reduction in wall stiffness but also directly interferes with wall anisotropy via the regulation of cortical microtubule dynamics. We further show that to induce growth isotropy and organ outgrowth, auxin somehow interferes with the cortical microtubule-ordering activity of a network of proteins, including AUXIN BINDING PROTEIN 1 and KATANIN 1. Numerical simulations further indicate that the induced isotropy is sufficient to amplify the effects of the relatively minor changes in wall stiffness to promote organogenesis and the establishment of new growth axes in a robust manner.
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Affiliation(s)
- Massimiliano Sassi
- Laboratoire de Reproduction et Développement des Plantes, INRA, CNRS, ENS, UCB Lyon 1, 46 Allée d'Italie, 69364 Lyon Cedex 07, France.
| | - Olivier Ali
- Laboratoire de Reproduction et Développement des Plantes, INRA, CNRS, ENS, UCB Lyon 1, 46 Allée d'Italie, 69364 Lyon Cedex 07, France; CIRAD, INRIA, INRA, Virtual Plants INRIA Team, UMR AGAP, Avenue Agropolis, TA 108/02, 34398 Montpellier Cedex 5, France
| | - Frédéric Boudon
- CIRAD, INRIA, INRA, Virtual Plants INRIA Team, UMR AGAP, Avenue Agropolis, TA 108/02, 34398 Montpellier Cedex 5, France
| | - Gladys Cloarec
- Laboratoire de Reproduction et Développement des Plantes, INRA, CNRS, ENS, UCB Lyon 1, 46 Allée d'Italie, 69364 Lyon Cedex 07, France
| | - Ursula Abad
- Laboratoire de Reproduction et Développement des Plantes, INRA, CNRS, ENS, UCB Lyon 1, 46 Allée d'Italie, 69364 Lyon Cedex 07, France
| | - Coralie Cellier
- Laboratoire de Reproduction et Développement des Plantes, INRA, CNRS, ENS, UCB Lyon 1, 46 Allée d'Italie, 69364 Lyon Cedex 07, France
| | - Xu Chen
- Department of Plant Systems Biology, Flanders Institute for Biotechnology (VIB), and Department of Plant Biotechnology and Bioinformatics, Ghent University, Technologiepark 927, 9052 Gent, Belgium; Institute of Science and Technology Austria (IST Austria), Am Campus 1, 3400 Klosterneuburg, Austria
| | - Benjamin Gilles
- Laboratoire d'Informatique, de Robotique et de Microléctronique de Montpellier, CNRS, Université Montpellier 2, 34090 Montpellier, France
| | - Pascale Milani
- Laboratoire de Reproduction et Développement des Plantes, INRA, CNRS, ENS, UCB Lyon 1, 46 Allée d'Italie, 69364 Lyon Cedex 07, France; Laboratoire Joliot Curie, CNRS, ENS Lyon, Université de Lyon, 46 Allée d'Italie, 69364 Lyon Cedex 07, France
| | - Jiří Friml
- Department of Plant Systems Biology, Flanders Institute for Biotechnology (VIB), and Department of Plant Biotechnology and Bioinformatics, Ghent University, Technologiepark 927, 9052 Gent, Belgium; Institute of Science and Technology Austria (IST Austria), Am Campus 1, 3400 Klosterneuburg, Austria
| | - Teva Vernoux
- Laboratoire de Reproduction et Développement des Plantes, INRA, CNRS, ENS, UCB Lyon 1, 46 Allée d'Italie, 69364 Lyon Cedex 07, France
| | - Christophe Godin
- CIRAD, INRIA, INRA, Virtual Plants INRIA Team, UMR AGAP, Avenue Agropolis, TA 108/02, 34398 Montpellier Cedex 5, France
| | - Olivier Hamant
- Laboratoire de Reproduction et Développement des Plantes, INRA, CNRS, ENS, UCB Lyon 1, 46 Allée d'Italie, 69364 Lyon Cedex 07, France; Laboratoire Joliot Curie, CNRS, ENS Lyon, Université de Lyon, 46 Allée d'Italie, 69364 Lyon Cedex 07, France
| | - Jan Traas
- Laboratoire de Reproduction et Développement des Plantes, INRA, CNRS, ENS, UCB Lyon 1, 46 Allée d'Italie, 69364 Lyon Cedex 07, France.
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