Cyanobacterial hydrogenases: diversity, regulation and applications

Anionic metabolite biosynthesis enhanced by potassium under dark, anaerobic conditions in cyanobacteria

Potassium (K(+)) is an essential macronutrient for all living organisms including cyanobacteria. Cyanobacteria are a group of bacteria performing oxygenic photosynthesis, widely studied in basic and applied sciences. The primary metabolism of the unicellular cyanobacterium Synechocystis sp. PCC 6803 is altered by environmental conditions, and it excretes organic acids and hydrogen under dark, anaerobic conditions. Here we demonstrated that K(+) widely changes the primary carbon metabolism of this cyanobacterium. Succinate and lactate excretion from the cells incubated under dark, anaerobic conditions was enhanced in the presence of K(+), while hydrogen production was repressed. The addition of K(+) and the genetic manipulation of acetate kinase AckA and an RNA polymerase sigma factor SigE additively increased succinate and lactate production to 141.0 and 217.6 mg/L, which are 11 and 46 times, compared to the wild-type strain without K(+), respectively. Intracellular levels of 2-oxoglutarate, succinate, fumarate, and malate increased by K(+) under dark, anaerobic conditions. This study provides the evidence of the considerable effect of K(+) on the biosynthesis of anionic metabolites in a unicellular cyanobacterium.

Permanent draft genome of strain ESFC-1: ecological genomics of a newly discovered lineage of filamentous diazotrophic cyanobacteria

The nonheterocystous filamentous cyanobacterium, strain ESFC-1, is a recently described member of the order Oscillatoriales within the Cyanobacteria. ESFC-1 has been shown to be a major diazotroph in the intertidal microbial mat system at Elkhorn Slough, CA, USA. Based on phylogenetic analyses of the 16S RNA gene, ESFC-1 appears to belong to a unique, genus-level divergence; the draft genome sequence of this strain has now been determined. Here we report features of this genome as they relate to the ecological functions and capabilities of strain ESFC-1. The 5,632,035 bp genome sequence encodes 4914 protein-coding genes and 92 RNA genes. One striking feature of this cyanobacterium is the apparent lack of either uptake or bi-directional hydrogenases typically expected within a diazotroph. Additionally, a large genomic island is found that contains numerous low GC-content genes and genes related to extracellular polysaccharide production and cell wall synthesis and maintenance.

[NiFe]-Hydrogenase Maturation

[NiFe]-hydrogenases catalyze the reversible conversion of hydrogen gas into protons and electrons and are vital metabolic components of many species of bacteria and archaea. At the core of this enzyme is a sophisticated catalytic center comprising nickel and iron, as well as cyanide and carbon monoxide ligands, which is anchored to the large hydrogenase subunit through cysteine residues. The production of this multicomponent active site is accomplished by a collection of accessory proteins and can be divided into discrete stages. The iron component is fashioned by the proteins HypC, HypD, HypE, and HypF, which functionalize iron with cyanide and carbon monoxide. Insertion of the iron center signals to the metallochaperones HypA, HypB, and SlyD to selectively deliver the nickel to the active site. A specific protease recognizes the completed metal cluster and then cleaves the C-terminus of the large subunit, resulting in a conformational change that locks the active site in place. Finally, the large subunit associates with the small subunit, and the complete holoenzyme translocates to its final cellular position. Beyond this broad overview of the [NiFe]-hydrogenase maturation process, biochemical and structural studies are revealing the fundamental underlying molecular mechanisms. Here, we review recent work illuminating how the accessory proteins contribute to the maturation of [NiFe]-hydrogenase and discuss some of the outstanding questions that remain to be resolved.

Energetics of Respiration and Oxidative Phosphorylation in Mycobacteria

Mycobacteria inhabit a wide range of intracellular and extracellular environments. Many of these environments are highly dynamic and therefore mycobacteria are faced with the constant challenge of redirecting their metabolic activity to be commensurate with either replicative growth or a non-replicative quiescence. A fundamental feature in this adaptation is the ability of mycobacteria to respire, regenerate reducing equivalents and generate ATP via oxidative phosphorylation. Mycobacteria harbor multiple primary dehydrogenases to fuel the electron transport chain and two terminal respiratory oxidases, an aa3 -type cytochrome c oxidase and cytochrome bd-type menaquinol oxidase, are present for dioxygen reduction coupled to the generation of a protonmotive force. Hypoxia leads to the downregulation of key respiratory complexes, but the molecular mechanisms regulating this expression are unknown. Despite being obligate aerobes, mycobacteria have the ability to metabolize in the absence of oxygen and a number of reductases are present to facilitate the turnover of reducing equivalents under these conditions (e.g. nitrate reductase, succinate dehydrogenase/fumarate reductase). Hydrogenases and ferredoxins are also present in the genomes of mycobacteria suggesting the ability of these bacteria to adapt to an anaerobic-type of metabolism in the absence of oxygen. ATP synthesis by the membrane-bound F1FO-ATP synthase is essential for growing and non-growing mycobacteria and the enzyme is able to function over a wide range of protonmotive force values (aerobic to hypoxic). The discovery of lead compounds that target respiration and oxidative phosphorylation in Mycobacterium tuberculosis highlights the importance of this area for the generation of new front line drugs to combat tuberculosis.

HupO, a Novel Regulator Involved in Thiosulfate-Responsive Control of HupSL [NiFe]-Hydrogenase Synthesis in Thiocapsa roseopersicina

[NiFe]-hydrogenases are regulated by various factors to fulfill their physiological functions in bacterial cells. The photosynthetic purple sulfur bacterium Thiocapsa roseopersicina harbors four functional [NiFe]-hydrogenases: HynSL, HupSL, Hox1, and Hox2. Most of these hydrogenases are functionally linked to sulfur metabolism, and thiosulfate has a central role in this organism. The membrane-associated Hup hydrogenases have been shown to play a role in energy conservation through hydrogen recycling. The expression of Hup-type hydrogenases is regulated by H2 in Rhodobacter capsulatus and Cupriavidus necator; however, it has been shown that the corresponding hydrogen-sensing system is nonfunctional in T. roseopersicina and that thiosulfate is a regulating factor of hup expression. Here, we describe the discovery and analysis of mutants of a putative regulator (HupO) of the Hup hydrogenase in T. roseopersicina. HupO appears to mediate the transcriptional repression of Hup enzyme synthesis under low-thiosulfate conditions. We also demonstrate that the presence of the Hox1 hydrogenase strongly influences Hup enzyme synthesis in that hup expression was decreased significantly in the hox1 mutant. This reduction in Hup synthesis could be reversed by mutation of hupO, which resulted in strongly elevated hup expression, as well as Hup protein levels, and concomitant in vivo hydrogen uptake activity in the hox1 mutant. However, this regulatory control was observed only at low thiosulfate concentrations. Additionally, weak hydrogen-dependent hup expression was shown in the hupO mutant strain lacking the Hox1 hydrogenase. HupO-mediated Hup regulation therefore appears to link thiosulfate metabolism and the hydrogenase network in T. roseopersicina.

Solar energy for electricity and fuels

Solar energy conversion into electricity by photovoltaic modules is now a mature technology. We discuss the need for materials and device developments using conventional silicon and other materials, pointing to the need to use scalable materials and to reduce the energy payback time. Storage of solar energy can be achieved using the energy of light to produce a fuel. We discuss how this can be achieved in a direct process mimicking the photosynthetic processes, using synthetic organic, inorganic, or hybrid materials for light collection and catalysis. We also briefly discuss challenges and needs for large-scale implementation of direct solar fuel technologies.

In silico and wet-lab study revealed cadmium is the potent inhibitor of HupL in Anabaena sp. PC C 7120

The hupL of Anabaena sp. PCC 7120 encodes the large subunit of uptake hydrogenase found in all diazotrophic cyanobacteria and boosts up the nitrogen-fixing potential by catalyzing the removal of the molecular hydrogen produced as a by-product of dinitrogen fixation. Bioinformatics analysis revealed that HupL from Anabaena sp. PCC7120 is a 60.2 kDa, thermostable, glycine-rich protein having highest structural similarity with NiFeSe hydrogenase of Desulfomicrobium baculatumis. Toxicity of selected abiotic stresses like arsenic, cadmium, copper, and salt with HupL was further reconciled by wet-lab approaches like qRT-PCR, hydrogenase and nitrogenase activity assay as hydrogenases unintendedly affect the nitrogenase activity in Anabaena. Down-regulated transcript along with highly inhibited hydrogenase and nitrogenase activities under cadmium stress revealed that cadmium is a potent inhibitor of hydrogenases in Anabaena which indirectly affects its nitrogen-fixing capabilities

The [NiFe]-Hydrogenase of Pyrococcus furiosus Exhibits a New Type of Oxygen Tolerance

We report the first direct electrochemical characterization of the impact of oxygen on the hydrogen oxidation activity of an oxygen-tolerant, group 3, soluble [NiFe]-hydrogenase: hydrogenase I from Pyrococcus furiosus (PfSHI), which grows optimally near 100 °C. Chronoamperometric experiments were used to probe the sensitivity of PfSHI hydrogen oxidation activity to both brief and prolonged exposure to oxygen. For experiments between 15 and 80 °C, following short (<200 s) exposure to 14 μM O2 under oxidizing conditions, PfSHI always maintains some fraction of its initial hydrogen oxidation activity; i.e., it is oxygen-tolerant. Reactivation experiments show that two inactive states are formed by interaction with oxygen and both can be quickly (<150 s) reactivated. Analogous experiments, in which the interval of oxygen exposure is extended to 900 s, reveal that the response is highly temperature-dependent. At 25 °C, under sustained 1% O2/ 99% H2 exposure, the H2oxidation activity drops nearly to zero. However, at 80 °C, up to 32% of the enzyme's oxidation activity is retained. Reactivation of PfSHI following sustained exposure to oxygen occurs on a much longer time scale (tens of minutes), suggesting that a third inactive species predominates under these conditions. These results stand in contrast to the properties of oxygen-tolerant, group 1 [NiFe]-hydrogenases, which form a single state upon reaction with oxygen, and we propose that this new type of hydrogenase should be referred to as oxygen-resilient. Furthermore, PfSHI, like other group 3 [NiFe]-hydrogenases, does not possess the proximal [4Fe3S] cluster associated with the oxygen tolerance of some group 1 enzymes. Thus, a new mechanism is necessary to explain the observed oxygen tolerance in soluble, group 3 [NiFe]-hydrogenases, and we present a model integrating both electrochemical and spectroscopic results to define the relationships of these inactive states.

[NiFe]-hydrogenase is essential for cyanobacterium Synechocystis sp. PCC 6803 aerobic growth in the dark

The cyanobacterium Synechocystis sp. PCC 6803 has a bidirectional [NiFe]-hydrogenase (Hox hydrogenase) which reversibly reduces protons to H₂. This enzyme is composed of a hydrogenase domain and a diaphorase moiety, which is distinctly homologous to the NADH input module of mitochondrial respiratory Complex I. Hox hydrogenase physiological function is still unclear, since it is not required for Synechocystis fitness under standard growth conditions. We analyzed the phenotype under prolonged darkness of three Synechocystis knock-out strains, lacking either Hox hydrogenase (ΔHoxE-H) or one of the proteins responsible for the assembly of its NiFe active site (ΔHypA1 and ΔHypB1). We found that Hox hydrogenase is required for Synechocystis growth under this condition, regardless of the functional status of its catalytic site, suggesting an additional role beside hydrogen metabolism. Moreover, quantitative proteomic analyses revealed that the expression levels of several subunits of the respiratory NADPH/plastoquinone oxidoreductase (NDH-1) are reduced when Synechocystis is grown in the dark. Our findings suggest that the Hox hydrogenase could contribute to electron transport regulation when both photosynthetic and respiratory pathways are down-regulated, and provide a possible explanation for the close evolutionary relationship between mitochondrial respiratory Complex I and cyanobacterial [NiFe]-hydrogenases.

Cyanobacterial hydrogenases and hydrogen metabolism revisited: recent progress and future prospects

Cyanobacteria have garnered interest as potential cell factories for hydrogen production. In conjunction with photosynthesis, these organisms can utilize inexpensive inorganic substrates and solar energy for simultaneous biosynthesis and hydrogen evolution. However, the hydrogen yield associated with these organisms remains far too low to compete with the existing chemical processes. Our limited understanding of the cellular hydrogen production pathway is a primary setback in the potential scale-up of this process. In this regard, the present review discusses the recent insight around ferredoxin/flavodoxin as the likely electron donor to the bidirectional Hox hydrogenase instead of the generally accepted NAD(P)H. This may have far reaching implications in powering solar driven hydrogen production. However, it is evident that a successful hydrogen-producing candidate would likely integrate enzymatic traits from different species. Engineering the [NiFe] hydrogenases for optimal catalytic efficiency or expression of a high turnover [FeFe] hydrogenase in these photo-autotrophs may facilitate the development of strains to reach target levels of biohydrogen production in cyanobacteria. The fundamental advancements achieved in these fields are also summarized in this review.

How close we are to achieving commercially viable large-scale photobiological hydrogen production by cyanobacteria: a review of the biological aspects

Photobiological production of H₂ by cyanobacteria is considered to be an ideal source of renewable energy because the inputs, water and sunlight, are abundant. The products of photobiological systems are H₂ and O₂; the H₂ can be used as the energy source of fuel cells, etc., which generate electricity at high efficiencies and minimal pollution, as the waste product is H₂O. Overall, production of commercially viable algal fuels in any form, including biomass and biodiesel, is challenging, and the very few systems that are operational have yet to be evaluated. In this paper we will: briefly review some of the necessary conditions for economical production, summarize the reports of photobiological H₂ production by cyanobacteria, present our schemes for future production, and discuss the necessity for further progress in the research needed to achieve commercially viable large-scale H₂ production.

Influence of mixotrophic growth on rhythmic oscillations in expression of metabolic pathways in diazotrophic cyanobacterium Cyanothece sp. ATCC 51142

This study investigates the influence of mixotrophy on physiology and metabolism by analysis of global gene expression in unicellular diazotrophic cyanobacterium Cyanothece sp. ATCC 51142 (henceforth Cyanothece 51142). It was found that Cyanothece 51142 continues to oscillate between photosynthesis and respiration in continuous light under mixotrophy with cycle time of ∼ 13 h. Mixotrophy is marked by an extended respiratory phase compared with photoautotrophy. It can be argued that glycerol provides supplementary energy for nitrogen fixation, which is derived primarily from the glycogen reserves during photoautotrophy. The genes of NDH complex, cytochrome c oxidase and ATP synthase are significantly overexpressed in mixotrophy during the day compared to autotrophy with synchronous expression of the bidirectional hydrogenase genes possibly to maintain redox balance. However, nitrogenase complex remains exclusive to nighttime metabolism concomitantly with uptake hydrogenase. This study throws light on interrelations between metabolic pathways with implications in design of hydrogen producer strains.

The Anabaena sp. PCC 7120 Exoproteome: Taking a Peek outside the Box

The interest in examining the subset of proteins present in the extracellular milieu, the exoproteome, has been growing due to novel insights highlighting their role on extracellular matrix organization and biofilm formation, but also on homeostasis and development. The cyanobacterial exoproteome is poorly studied, and the role of cyanobacterial exoproteins on cell wall biogenesis, morphology and even physiology is largely unknown. Here, we present a comprehensive examination of the Anabaena sp. PCC 7120 exoproteome under various growth conditions. Altogether, 139 proteins belonging to 16 different functional categories have been identified. A large fraction (48%) of the identified proteins is classified as "hypothetical", falls into the "other categories" set or presents no similarity to other proteins. The evidence presented here shows that Anabaena sp. PCC 7120 is capable of outer membrane vesicle formation and that these vesicles are likely to contribute to the exoproteome profile. Furthermore, the activity of selected exoproteins associated with oxidative stress has been assessed, suggesting their involvement in redox homeostasis mechanisms in the extracellular space. Finally, we discuss our results in light of other cyanobacterial exoproteome studies and focus on the potential of exploring cyanobacteria as cell factories to produce and secrete selected proteins.

[FeFe]- and [NiFe]-hydrogenase diversity, mechanism, and maturation

The [FeFe]- and [NiFe]-hydrogenases catalyze the formal interconversion between hydrogen and protons and electrons, possess characteristic non-protein ligands at their catalytic sites and thus share common mechanistic features. Despite the similarities between these two types of hydrogenases, they clearly have distinct evolutionary origins and likely emerged from different selective pressures. [FeFe]-hydrogenases are widely distributed in fermentative anaerobic microorganisms and likely evolved under selective pressure to couple hydrogen production to the recycling of electron carriers that accumulate during anaerobic metabolism. In contrast, many [NiFe]-hydrogenases catalyze hydrogen oxidation as part of energy metabolism and were likely key enzymes in early life and arguably represent the predecessors of modern respiratory metabolism. Although the reversible combination of protons and electrons to generate hydrogen gas is the simplest of chemical reactions, the [FeFe]- and [NiFe]-hydrogenases have distinct mechanisms and differ in the fundamental chemistry associated with proton transfer and control of electron flow that also help to define catalytic bias. A unifying feature of these enzymes is that hydrogen activation itself has been restricted to one solution involving diatomic ligands (carbon monoxide and cyanide) bound to an Fe ion. On the other hand, and quite remarkably, the biosynthetic mechanisms to produce these ligands are exclusive to each type of enzyme. Furthermore, these mechanisms represent two independent solutions to the formation of complex bioinorganic active sites for catalyzing the simplest of chemical reactions, reversible hydrogen oxidation. As such, the [FeFe]- and [NiFe]-hydrogenases are arguably the most profound case of convergent evolution. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled: Fe/S proteins: Analysis, structure, function, biogenesis and diseases.

Advances in the function and regulation of hydrogenase in the cyanobacterium Synechocystis PCC6803

In order to use cyanobacteria for the biological production of hydrogen, it is important to thoroughly study the function and the regulation of the hydrogen-production machine in order to better understand its role in the global cell metabolism and identify bottlenecks limiting H2 production. Most of the recent advances in our understanding of the bidirectional [Ni-Fe] hydrogenase (Hox) came from investigations performed in the widely-used model cyanobacterium Synechocystis PCC6803 where Hox is the sole enzyme capable of combining electrons with protons to produce H2 under specific conditions. Recent findings suggested that the Hox enzyme can receive electrons from not only NAD(P)H as usually shown, but also, or even preferentially, from ferredoxin. Furthermore, plasmid-encoded functions and glutathionylation (the formation of a mixed-disulfide between the cysteines residues of a protein and the cysteine residue of glutathione) are proposed as possible new players in the function and regulation of hydrogen production.

Solar powered biohydrogen production requires specific localization of the hydrogenase

Cyanobacteria contain a bidirectional [NiFe] hydrogenase which transiently produces hydrogen upon exposure of anoxic cells to light, potentially acting as a "valve" releasing excess electrons from the electron transport chain. However, its interaction with the photosynthetic electron transport chain remains unclear. By GFP-tagging the HoxF diaphorase subunit we show that the hydrogenase is thylakoid associated, comprising a population dispersed uniformly through the thylakoids and a subpopulation localized to discrete puncta in the distal thylakoid. Thylakoid localisation of both the HoxH and HoxY hydrogenase subunits is confirmed by immunogold electron microscopy. The diaphorase HoxE subunit is essential for recruitment to the dispersed thylakoid population, potentially anchoring the hydrogenase to the membrane, but aggregation to puncta occurs through a distinct HoxE-independent mechanism. Membrane association does not require NDH-1. Localization is dynamic on a scale of minutes, with anoxia and high light inducing a significant redistribution between these populations in favour of puncta. Since HoxE is essential for access to its electron donor, electron supply to the hydrogenase depends on a physiologically controlled localization, potentially offering a new avenue to enhance photosynthetic hydrogen production by exploiting localization/aggregation signals.

The effects of different light-dark cycles on the metabolism of the diazotrophic, unicellular cyanobacteria Cyanothece sp. ATCC 51142, and Cyanothecesp. PCC 7822

The diazotrophic unicellular cyanobacterium Cyanothece sp. ATCC 51142 demonstrates circadian patterns in nitrogenase activity, H2 production and glycogen storage when grown under nitrogen-fixing, 12:12 light:dark (L:D) conditions. In this study, we grew Cyanothece sp. ATCC 51142, and another strain in this genus, Cyanothece sp. PCC 7822, under long-day (16:8 L:D) and short-day (8:16 L:D) nitrogen-fixing conditions to determine if they continued to display circadian rhythms. Both strains demonstrated similar circadian patterns for all three metabolic parameters when grown under long-day conditions. However, the strains responded differently to short-day growth conditions. Cyanothece sp. ATCC 51142 retained reasonable circadian patterns under 8:16 L:D conditions, whereas Cyanothece sp. PCC 7822 had quite damped patterns without a clear circadian pattern. In particular, glycogen storage changed very little throughout the day and we ascribe this to the difference in the type of glycogen granules in Cyanothece sp. PCC 7822 which has small β-granules, compared to the large, starch-like granules in Cyanothece sp. ATCC 51142. The results suggested that both mechanistic and regulatory processes play a role in establishing the basis for these metabolic oscillations.

Growth of nitrite-oxidizing bacteria by aerobic hydrogen oxidation

The bacterial oxidation of nitrite to nitrate is a key process of the biogeochemical nitrogen cycle. Nitrite-oxidizing bacteria are considered a highly specialized functional group, which depends on the supply of nitrite from other microorganisms and whose distribution strictly correlates with nitrification in the environment and in wastewater treatment plants. On the basis of genomics, physiological experiments, and single-cell analyses, we show that Nitrospira moscoviensis, which represents a widely distributed lineage of nitrite-oxidizing bacteria, has the genetic inventory to utilize hydrogen (H2) as an alternative energy source for aerobic respiration and grows on H2 without nitrite. CO2 fixation occurred with H2 as the sole electron donor. Our results demonstrate a chemolithoautotrophic lifestyle of nitrite-oxidizing bacteria outside the nitrogen cycle, suggesting greater ecological flexibility than previously assumed.

Hydrogen photoproduction by immobilized n2-fixing cyanobacteria: understanding the role of the uptake hydrogenase in the long-term process

We have investigated two approaches to enhance and extend H2 photoproduction yields in heterocystous, N2-fixing cyanobacteria entrapped in thin alginate films. In the first approach, periodic CO2 supplementation was provided to alginate-entrapped, N-deprived cells. N deprivation led to the inhibition of photosynthetic activity in vegetative cells and the attenuation of H2 production over time. Our results demonstrated that alginate-entrapped ΔhupL cells were considerably more sensitive to high light intensity, N deficiency, and imbalances in C/N ratios than wild-type cells. In the second approach, Anabaena strain PCC 7120, its ΔhupL mutant, and Calothrix strain 336/3 films were supplemented with N2 by periodic treatments of air, or air plus CO2. These treatments restored the photosynthetic activity of the cells and led to a high level of H2 production in Calothrix 336/3 and ΔhupL cells (except for the treatment air plus CO2) but not in the Anabaena PCC 7120 strain (for which H2 yields did not change after air treatments). The highest H2 yield was obtained by the air treatment of ΔhupL cells. Notably, the supplementation of CO2 under an air atmosphere led to prominent symptoms of N deficiency in the ΔhupL strain but not in the wild-type strain. We propose that uptake hydrogenase activity in heterocystous cyanobacteria not only supports nitrogenase activity by removing excess O2 from heterocysts but also indirectly protects the photosynthetic apparatus of vegetative cells from photoinhibition, especially under stressful conditions that cause an imbalance in the C/N ratio in cells.

Three different [NiFe] hydrogenases confer metabolic flexibility in the obligate aerobe Mycobacterium smegmatis

Mycobacterium smegmatis is an obligate aerobe that harbours three predicted [NiFe] hydrogenases, Hyd1 (MSMEG_2262–2263), Hyd2 (MSMEG_2720-2719) and Hyd3 (MSMEG_3931-3928). We show here that these three enzymes differ in their phylogeny, regulation and catalytic activity. Phylogenetic analysis revealed that Hyd1 groups with hydrogenases that oxidize H2 produced by metabolic processes, and Hyd2 is homologous to a novel group of putative high-affinity hydrogenases. Hyd1 and Hyd2 respond to carbon and oxygen limitation, and, in the case of Hyd1, hydrogen supplementation. Hydrogen consumption measurements confirmed that both enzymes can oxidize hydrogen. In contrast, the phylogenetic analysis and activity measurements of Hyd3 are consistent with the enzyme evolving hydrogen. Hyd3 is controlled by DosR, a regulator that responds to hypoxic conditions. The strict dependence of hydrogen oxidation of Hyd1 and Hyd2 on oxygen suggests that the enzymes are oxygen tolerant and linked to the respiratory chain. This unique combination of hydrogenases allows M. smegmatis to oxidize hydrogen at high (Hyd1) and potentially tropospheric (Hyd2) concentrations, as well as recycle reduced equivalents by evolving hydrogen (Hyd3). The distribution of these hydrogenases throughout numerous soil and marine species of actinomycetes suggests that oxic hydrogen metabolism provides metabolic flexibility in environments with changing nutrient fluxes.

Diel nitrogen fixation pattern of Trichodesmium: the interactive control of light and Ni

Trichodesmium, a nonheterocystous cyanobacterium widely abundant in the surface water of the tropical and subtropical ocean, fixes dinitrogen under high light conditions while concurrently undergoing photosynthesis. The new production considerably influences the cycling of nitrogen and carbon in the ocean. Here, we investigated how light intensity and nickel (Ni) availability interplay to control daily rates and diel patterns of N₂ fixation in Trichodesmium. We found that increasing Ni concentration increased N₂ fixation rates by up to 30-fold in the high light treatment. Cultures subjected to high Ni and light levels fixed nitrogen throughout most of the 24 H light:dark regime with the highest rate coinciding with the end of the 12 H light period. Our study demonstrates the importance of Ni on nitrogen fixation rates for Trichodesmium under high light conditions.

Integration of hydrogenase expression and hydrogen sensing in bacterial cell physiology

Hydrogenases are ubiquitous in ecosystems and widespread in microorganisms. In bacteria, hydrogen metabolism is a facultative trait that is tightly regulated in response to both external factors (e.g. gas concentrations) and internal factors (e.g. redox state). Here we consider how environmental and pathogenic bacteria regulate [NiFe]-hydrogenases to adapt to chemical changes and meet physiological needs. We introduce this concept by exploring how Ralstonia eutropha switches between heterotrophic and lithotrophic growth modes by sensing hydrogen and electron availability. The regulation and integration of hydrogen metabolism in the virulence of Salmonella enterica and Helicobacter pylori, persistence of mycobacteria and streptomycetes, and differentiation of filamentous cyanobacteria are subsequently discussed. We also consider how these findings are extendable to other systems.

A soil actinobacterium scavenges atmospheric H2 using two membrane-associated, oxygen-dependent [NiFe] hydrogenases

In the Earth's lower atmosphere, H2 is maintained at trace concentrations (0.53 ppmv/0.40 nM) and rapidly turned over (lifetime ≤ 2.1 y(-1)). It is thought that soil microbes, likely actinomycetes, serve as the main global sink for tropospheric H2. However, no study has ever unambiguously proven that a hydrogenase can oxidize this trace gas. In this work, we demonstrate, by using genetic dissection and sensitive GC measurements, that the soil actinomycete Mycobacterium smegmatis mc(2)155 constitutively oxidizes subtropospheric concentrations of H2. We show that two membrane-associated, oxygen-dependent [NiFe] hydrogenases mediate this process. Hydrogenase-1 (Hyd1) (MSMEG_2262-2263) is well-adapted to rapidly oxidize H2 at a range of concentrations [Vmax(app) = 12 nmol⋅g⋅dw(-1)⋅min(-1); Km(app) = 180 nM; threshold = 130 pM in the Δhyd23 (Hyd1 only) strain], whereas Hyd2 (MSMEG_2719-2720) catalyzes a slower-acting, higher-affinity process [Vmax(app) = 2.5 nmol⋅g⋅dw(-1)⋅min(-1); Km(app) = 50 nM; threshold = 50 pM in the Δhyd13 (Hyd2 only) strain]. These observations strongly support previous studies that have linked group 5 [NiFe] hydrogenases (e.g., Hyd2) to the oxidation of tropospheric H2 in soil ecosystems. We further reveal that group 2a [NiFe] hydrogenases (e.g., Hyd1) can contribute to this process. Hydrogenase expression and activity increases in carbon-limited cells, suggesting that scavenging of trace H2 helps to sustain dormancy. Distinct physiological roles for Hyd1 and Hyd2 during the adaptation to this condition are proposed. Soil organisms harboring high-affinity hydrogenases may be especially competitive, given that they harness a highly dependable fuel source in otherwise unstable environments.

Comparative genomics of Cylindrospermopsis raciborskii strains with differential toxicities

BACKGROUND

Cylindrospermopsis raciborskii is an invasive filamentous freshwater cyanobacterium, some strains of which produce toxins. Sporadic toxicity may be the result of gene deletion events, the horizontal transfer of toxin biosynthesis gene clusters, or other genomic variables, yet the evolutionary drivers for cyanotoxin production remain a mystery. Through examining the genomes of toxic and non-toxic strains of C. raciborskii, we hoped to gain a better understanding of the degree of similarity between these strains of common geographical origin, and what the primary differences between these strains might be. Additionally, we hoped to ascertain why some cyanobacteria possess the cylindrospermopsin biosynthesis (cyr) gene cluster and produce toxin, while others do not. It has been hypothesised that toxicity or lack thereof might confer a selective advantage to cyanobacteria under certain environmental conditions.

RESULTS

In order to examine the fundamental differences between toxic and non-toxic C. raciborskii strains, we sequenced the genomes of two closely related isolates, CS-506 (CYN+) and CS-509 (CYN-) sourced from different lakes in tropical Queensland, Australia. These genomes were then compared to a third (reference) genome from C. raciborskii CS-505 (CYN+). Genome sizes were similar across all three strains and their G + C contents were almost identical. At least 2,767 genes were shared among all three strains, including the taxonomically important rpoc1, ssuRNA, lsuRNA, cpcA, cpcB, nifB and nifH, which exhibited 99.8-100% nucleotide identity. Strains CS-506 and CS-509 contained at least 176 and 101 strain-specific (or non-homologous) genes, respectively, most of which were associated with DNA repair and modification, nutrient uptake and transport, or adaptive measures such as osmoregulation. However, the only significant genetic difference observed between the two strains was the presence or absence of the cylindrospermopsin biosynthesis gene cluster. Interestingly, we also identified a cryptic secondary metabolite gene cluster in strain CS-509 (CYN-) and a second cryptic cluster common to CS-509 and the reference strain, CS-505 (CYN+).

CONCLUSIONS

Our results confirm that the most important factor contributing to toxicity in C. raciborskii is the presence or absence of the cyr gene cluster. We did not identify any other distally encoded genes or gene clusters that correlate with CYN production. The fact that the additional genomic differences between toxic and non-toxic strains were primarily associated with stress and adaptation genes suggests that CYN production may be linked to these physiological processes.

Exploring metabolic engineering design principles for the photosynthetic production of lactic acid by Synechocystis sp. PCC6803

BACKGROUND

Molecular engineering of the intermediary physiology of cyanobacteria has become important for the sustainable production of biofuels and commodity compounds from CO2 and sunlight by "designer microbes." The chemical commodity product L-lactic acid can be synthesized in one step from a key intermediary metabolite of these organisms, pyruvate, catalyzed by a lactate dehydrogenase. Synthetic biology engineering to make "designer microbes" includes the introduction and overexpression of the product-forming biochemical pathway. For further optimization of product formation, modifications in the surrounding biochemical network of intermediary metabolism have to be made.

RESULTS

To improve light-driven L-lactic acid production from CO2, we explored several metabolic engineering design principles, using a previously engineered L-lactic acid producing mutant strain of Synechocystis sp. PCC6803 as the benchmark. These strategies included: (i) increasing the expression level of the relevant product-forming enzyme, lactate dehydrogenase (LDH), for example, via expression from a replicative plasmid; (ii) co-expression of a heterologous pyruvate kinase to increase the flux towards pyruvate; and (iii) knockdown of phosphoenolpyruvate carboxylase to decrease the flux through a competing pathway (from phosphoenolpyruvate to oxaloacetate). In addition, we tested selected lactate dehydrogenases, some of which were further optimized through site-directed mutagenesis to improve the enzyme's affinity for the co-factor nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NADPH). The carbon partitioning between biomass and lactic acid was increased from about 5% to over 50% by strain optimization.

CONCLUSION

An efficient photosynthetic microbial cell factory will display a high rate and extent of conversion of substrate (CO2) into product (here: L-lactic acid). In the existing CO2-based cyanobacterial cell factories that have been described in the literature, by far most of the control over product formation resides in the genetically introduced fermentative pathway. Here we show that a strong promoter, in combination with increased gene expression, can take away a significant part of the control of this step in lactic acid production from CO2. Under these premises, modulation of the intracellular precursor, pyruvate, can significantly increase productivity. Additionally, production enhancement is achieved by protein engineering to increase co-factor specificity of the heterologously expressed LDH.

Comparative genomic analyses of the cyanobacterium, Lyngbya aestuarii BL J, a powerful hydrogen producer

The filamentous, non-heterocystous cyanobacterium Lyngbya aestuarii is an important contributor to marine intertidal microbial mats system worldwide. The recent isolate L. aestuarii BL J, is an unusually powerful hydrogen producer. Here we report a morphological, ultrastructural, and genomic characterization of this strain to set the basis for future systems studies and applications of this organism. The filaments contain circa 17 μm wide trichomes, composed of stacked disk-like short cells (2 μm long), encased in a prominent, laminated exopolysaccharide sheath. Cellular division occurs by transversal centripetal growth of cross-walls, where several rounds of division proceed simultaneously. Filament division occurs by cell self-immolation of one or groups of cells (necridial cells) at the breakage point. Short, sheath-less, motile filaments (hormogonia) are also formed. Morphologically and phylogenetically L. aestuarii belongs to a clade of important cyanobacteria that include members of the marine Trichodesmiun and Hydrocoleum genera, as well as terrestrial Microcoleus vaginatus strains, and alkalyphilic strains of Arthrospira. A draft genome of strain BL J was compared to those of other cyanobacteria in order to ascertain some of its ecological constraints and biotechnological potential. The genome had an average GC content of 41.1%. Of the 6.87 Mb sequenced, 6.44 Mb was present as large contigs (>10,000 bp). It contained 6515 putative protein-encoding genes, of which, 43% encode proteins of known functional role, 26% corresponded to proteins with domain or family assignments, 19.6% encode conserved hypothetical proteins, and 11.3% encode apparently unique hypothetical proteins. The strain's genome reveals its adaptations to a life of exposure to intense solar radiation and desiccation. It likely employs the storage compounds, glycogen, and cyanophycin but no polyhydroxyalkanoates, and can produce the osmolytes, trehalose, and glycine betaine. According to its genome, BL J strain also has the potential to produce a plethora of products of biotechnological interest such as Curacin A, Barbamide, Hemolysin-type calcium-binding toxin, the suncreens scytonemin, and mycosporines, as well as heptadecane and pentadecane alkanes. With respect to hydrogen production, initial comparisons of the genetic architecture and sequence of relevant genes and loci, and a comparative model of protein structure of the NiFe bidirectional hydrogenase, did not reveal conspicuous differences that could explain its unusual hydrogen producing capacity.

The uptake hydrogenase in the unicellular diazotrophic cyanobacterium Cyanothece sp. strain PCC 7822 protects nitrogenase from oxygen toxicity

Cyanothece sp. strain PCC 7822 is a unicellular, diazotrophic cyanobacterium that can produce large quantities of H2 when grown diazotrophically. This strain is also capable of genetic manipulations and can represent a good model for improving H2 production from cyanobacteria. To this end, a knockout mutation was made in the hupL gene (ΔhupL), and we determined how this would affect the amount of H2 produced. The ΔhupL mutant demonstrated virtually no nitrogenase activity or H2 production when grown under N2-fixing conditions. To ensure that this mutation only affected the hupL gene, a complementation strain was constructed readily with wild-type properties; this indicated that the original insertion was only in hupL. The mutant had no uptake hydrogenase activity but had increased bidirectional hydrogenase (Hox) activity. Western blotting and immunocytochemistry under the electron microscope indicated that the mutant had neither HupL nor NifHDK, although the nif genes were transcribed. Interestingly, biochemical analysis demonstrated that both HupL and NifH could be membrane associated. The results indicated that the nif genes were transcribed but that NifHDK was either not translated or was translated but rapidly degraded. We hypothesized that the Nif proteins were made but were unusually susceptible to O2 damage. Thus, we grew the mutant cells under anaerobic conditions and found that they grew well under N2-fixing conditions. We conclude that in unicellular diazotrophs, like Cyanothece sp. strain PCC 7822, the HupLS complex helps remove oxygen from the nitrogenase, and that this is a more important function than merely oxidizing the H2 produced by the nitrogenase.

Pleiotropic effect of sigE over-expression on cell morphology, photosynthesis and hydrogen production in Synechocystis sp. PCC 6803

Over-expression of sigE, a gene encoding an RNA polymerase sigma factor in the unicellular cyanobacterium Synechocystis sp. PCC 6803, is known to activate sugar catabolism and bioplastic production. In this study, we investigated the effects of sigE over-expression on cell morphology, photosynthesis and hydrogen production in this cyanobacterium. Transmission electron and scanning probe microscopic analyses revealed that sigE over-expression increased the cell size, possibly as a result of aberrant cell division. Over-expression of sigE reduced respiration and photosynthesis activities via changes in gene expression and chlorophyll fluorescence. Hydrogen production under micro-oxic conditions is enhanced in sigE over-expressing cells. Despite these pleiotropic phenotypes, the sigE over-expressing strain showed normal cell viability under both nitrogen-replete and nitrogen-depleted conditions. These results provide insights into the inter-relationship among metabolism, cell morphology, photosynthesis and hydrogen production in this unicellular cyanobacterium.

Synechocystis sp. PCC6803 metabolic models for the enhanced production of hydrogen

In the present economy, difficulties to access energy sources are real drawbacks to maintain our current lifestyle. In fact, increasing interests have been gathered around efficient strategies to use energy sources that do not generate high CO2 titers. Thus, science-funding agencies have invested more resources into research on hydrogen among other biofuels as interesting energy vectors. This article reviews present energy challenges and frames it into the present fuel usage landscape. Different strategies for hydrogen production are explained and evaluated. Focus is on biological hydrogen production; fermentation and photon-fuelled hydrogen production are compared. Mathematical models in biology can be used to assess, explore and design production strategies for industrially relevant metabolites, such as biofuels. We assess the diverse construction and uses of genome-scale metabolic models of cyanobacterium Synechocystis sp. PCC6803 to efficiently obtain biofuels. This organism has been studied as a potential photon-fuelled production platform for its ability to grow from carbon dioxide, water and photons, on simple culture media. Finally, we review studies that propose production strategies to weigh this organism's viability as a biofuel production platform. Overall, the work presented in this review unveils the industrial capabilities of cyanobacterium Synechocystis sp. PCC6803 to evolve interesting metabolites as a clean biofuel production platform.

Dissolved hydrogen and nitrogen fixation in the oligotrophic North Pacific Subtropical Gyre

The production of hydrogen (H2) is an inherent component of biological dinitrogen (N2) fixation, and there have been several studies quantifying H2 production relative to N2 fixation in cultures of diazotrophs. However, conducting the relevant measurements for a field population is more complex as shown by this study of N2 fixation, H2 consumption and dissolved H2 concentrations in the oligotrophic North Pacific Ocean. Measurements of H2 oxidation revealed microbial consumption of H2 was equivalent to 1-7% of ethylene produced during the acetylene reduction assay and 11-63% of (15)N2 assimilation on a molar scale. Varying abundances of Crocosphaera and Trichodesmium as revealed by nifH gene abundances broadly corresponded with diel changes observed in both N2 fixation and H2 oxidation. However, no corresponding changes were observed in the dissolved H2 concentrations which remained consistently supersaturated (147-560%) relative to atmospheric equilibrium. The results from this field study allow the efficiency of H2 cycling by natural populations of diazotrophs to be compared to cultured representatives. The findings indicate that dissolved H2 concentrations may depend not only on the community composition of diazotrophs but also upon relevant environmental parameters such as light intensity or the presence of other H2-metabolizing microorganisms.

The human gut and groundwater harbor non-photosynthetic bacteria belonging to a new candidate phylum sibling to Cyanobacteria

Cyanobacteria were responsible for the oxygenation of the ancient atmosphere; however, the evolution of this phylum is enigmatic, as relatives have not been characterized. Here we use whole genome reconstruction of human fecal and subsurface aquifer metagenomic samples to obtain complete genomes for members of a new candidate phylum sibling to Cyanobacteria, for which we propose the designation 'Melainabacteria'. Metabolic analysis suggests that the ancestors to both lineages were non-photosynthetic, anaerobic, motile, and obligately fermentative. Cyanobacterial light sensing may have been facilitated by regulators present in the ancestor of these lineages. The subsurface organism has the capacity for nitrogen fixation using a nitrogenase distinct from that in Cyanobacteria, suggesting nitrogen fixation evolved separately in the two lineages. We hypothesize that Cyanobacteria split from Melainabacteria prior or due to the acquisition of oxygenic photosynthesis. Melainabacteria remained in anoxic zones and differentiated by niche adaptation, including for symbiosis in the mammalian gut. DOI:http://dx.doi.org/10.7554/eLife.01102.001.

Dual organism design cycle reveals small subunit substitutions that improve [NiFe] hydrogenase hydrogen evolution

Background

Photosynthetic microorganisms that directly channel solar energy to the production of molecular hydrogen are a potential future biofuel system. Building such a system requires installation of a hydrogenase in the photosynthetic organism that is both tolerant to oxygen and capable of hydrogen production. Toward this end, we have identified the [NiFe] hydrogenase from the marine bacterium Alteromonas macleodii “Deep ecotype” that is able to be heterologously expressed in cyanobacteria and has tolerance to partial oxygen. The A. macleodii enzyme shares sequence similarity with the uptake hydrogenases that favor hydrogen uptake activity over hydrogen evolution. To improve hydrogen evolution from the A. macleodii hydrogenase, we examined the three Fe-S clusters found in the small subunit of many [NiFe] uptake hydrogenases that presumably act as a molecular wire to guide electrons to or from the active site of the enzyme. Studies by others altering the medial cluster of a Desulfovibrio fructosovorans hydrogenase from 3Fe-4S to 4Fe-4S resulted in two-fold improved hydrogen evolution activity.

Results

We adopted a strategy of screening for improved hydrogenase constructs using an Escherichia coli expression system before testing in slower growing cyanobacteria. From the A. macleodii enzyme, we created a mutation in the gene encoding the hydrogenase small subunit that in other systems is known to convert the 3Fe-4S medial cluster to 4Fe-4S. The medial cluster substitution did not improve the hydrogen evolution activity of our hydrogenase. However, modifying both the medial cluster and the ligation of the distal Fe-S cluster improved in vitro hydrogen evolution activity relative to the wild type hydrogenase by three- to four-fold. Other properties of the enzyme including thermostability and tolerance to partial oxygen did not appear to be affected by the substitutions.

Conclusions

Our results show that substitution of amino acids altering the ligation of Fe-S clusters in the A. macleodii [NiFe] uptake hydrogenase resulted in increased hydrogen evolution activity. This activity can be recapitulated in multiple host systems and with purified protein. These results validate the approach of using an E. coli-cyanobacteria shuttle system for enzyme expression and improvement.

Trends in biohydrogen production: major challenges and state-of-the-art developments

Hydrogen has shown enormous potential to be an alternative fuel of the future. Hydrogen production technology has gained much attention in the last few decades due to advantages such as its high conversion efficiency, recyclability and non-polluting nature. Over the last few decades, biological hydrogen production has shown great promise for generating large scale sustainable energy to meet ever increasing global energy demands. Various microorganisms, namely bacteria, cyanobacteria, and algae which are capable of producing hydrogen from water, solar energy, and a variety of organic substrates, are explored and studied in detail. Current biohydrogen production technologies, however, face two major challenges such as low-yield and high production cost. Advances have been made in recent years in biohydrogen research to improve the hydrogen yield through process modifications, physiological manipulations, through metabolic and genetic engineering. Recently, cell immobilization such as microbes trapping with nanoparticles within the bioreactor has shown an increase in hydrogen production. This review critically evaluated various biological hydrogen production technologies, key challenges, and recent advancements in biohydrogen research and development.

Isolation and characterization of the small subunit of the uptake hydrogenase from the cyanobacterium Nostoc punctiforme

In nitrogen-fixing cyanobacteria, hydrogen evolution is associated with hydrogenases and nitrogenase, making these enzymes interesting targets for genetic engineering aimed at increased hydrogen production. Nostoc punctiforme ATCC 29133 is a filamentous cyanobacterium that expresses the uptake hydrogenase HupSL in heterocysts under nitrogen-fixing conditions. Little is known about the structural and biophysical properties of HupSL. The small subunit, HupS, has been postulated to contain three iron-sulfur clusters, but the details regarding their nature have been unclear due to unusual cluster binding motifs in the amino acid sequence. We now report the cloning and heterologous expression of Nostoc punctiforme HupS as a fusion protein, f-HupS. We have characterized the anaerobically purified protein by UV-visible and EPR spectroscopies. Our results show that f-HupS contains three iron-sulfur clusters. UV-visible absorption of f-HupS has bands ∼340 and 420 nm, typical for iron-sulfur clusters. The EPR spectrum of the oxidized f-HupS shows a narrow g = 2.023 resonance, characteristic of a low-spin (S = &frac12;) [3Fe-4S] cluster. The reduced f-HupS presents complex EPR spectra with overlapping resonances centered on g = 1.94, g = 1.91, and g = 1.88, typical of low-spin (S = &frac12;) [4Fe-4S] clusters. Analysis of the spectroscopic data allowed us to distinguish between two species attributable to two distinct [4Fe-4S] clusters, in addition to the [3Fe-4S] cluster. This indicates that f-HupS binds [4Fe-4S] clusters despite the presence of unusual coordinating amino acids. Furthermore, our expression and purification of what seems to be an intact HupS protein allows future studies on the significance of ligand nature on redox properties of the iron-sulfur clusters of HupS.

Proteome analyses of strains ATCC 51142 and PCC 7822 of the diazotrophic cyanobacterium Cyanothece sp. under culture conditions resulting in enhanced H₂ production

Cultures of the cyanobacterial genus Cyanothece have been shown to produce high levels of biohydrogen. These strains are diazotrophic and undergo pronounced diurnal cycles when grown under N(2)-fixing conditions in light-dark cycles. We seek to better understand the way in which proteins respond to these diurnal changes, and we performed quantitative proteome analysis of Cyanothece sp. strains ATCC 51142 and PCC 7822 grown under 8 different nutritional conditions. Nitrogenase expression was limited to N(2)-fixing conditions, and in the absence of glycerol, nitrogenase gene expression was linked to the dark period. However, glycerol induced expression of nitrogenase during part of the light period, together with cytochrome c oxidase (Cox), glycogen phosphorylase (Glp), and glycolytic and pentose phosphate pathway (PPP) enzymes. This indicated that nitrogenase expression in the light was facilitated via higher levels of respiration and glycogen breakdown. Key enzymes of the Calvin cycle were inhibited in Cyanothece ATCC 51142 in the presence of glycerol under H(2)-producing conditions, suggesting a competition between these sources of carbon. However, in Cyanothece PCC 7822, the Calvin cycle still played a role in cofactor recycling during H(2) production. Our data comprise the first comprehensive profiling of proteome changes in Cyanothece PCC 7822 and allow an in-depth comparative analysis of major physiological and biochemical processes that influence H(2) production in both strains. Our results revealed many previously uncharacterized proteins that may play a role in nitrogenase activity and in other metabolic pathways and may provide suitable targets for genetic manipulation that would lead to improvement of large-scale H(2) production.

Coagulation of peptides and proteins produced by Microcystis aeruginosa: Interaction mechanisms and the effect of Fe-peptide/protein complexes formation

This paper focuses on elucidation of the mechanisms involved in the coagulation of peptides and proteins contained in cellular organic matter (COM) of cyanobacterium Microcystis aeruginosa by ferric coagulant. Furthermore, coagulation inhibition due to the formation of Fe-peptide/protein surface complexes was evaluated. The results of coagulation testing imply that removability of peptides and proteins is highly dependent on pH value which determines charge characteristics of coagulation system compounds and therefore the mechanisms of interactions between them. The highest peptide/protein removal was obtained in the pH range of 4-6 owing to charge neutralization of peptide/protein negative surface by positively charged hydrolysis products of ferric coagulant. At low COM/Fe ratio (COM/Fe <0.33), adsorption of peptides/proteins onto ferric oxide-hydroxide particles, described as electrostatic patch model, enables the coagulation at pH 6-8. On the contrary, steric stabilization reduces coagulation at pH 6-8 if the ratio COM/Fe is high (COM/Fe >0.33). Coagulation of peptides and proteins is disturbed at pH 6-7 as a consequence of Fe-peptide/protein complexes formation. The maximum ability of peptides/proteins to form soluble complexes with Fe was found just at pH 6, when peptides/proteins bind 1.38 mmol Fe per 1 g of peptide/protein DOC. Complex forming peptides and proteins of relative molecular weights of 1, 2.8, 6, 8, 8.5, 10 and 52 kDa were isolated by affinity chromatography.

Inactivation of uptake hydrogenase leads to enhanced and sustained hydrogen production with high nitrogenase activity under high light exposure in the cyanobacterium Anabaena siamensis TISTR 8012

BACKGROUND

Biohydrogen from cyanobacteria has attracted public interest due to its potential as a renewable energy carrier produced from solar energy and water. Anabaena siamensis TISTR 8012, a novel strain isolated from rice paddy field in Thailand, has been identified as a promising cyanobacterial strain for use as a high-yield hydrogen producer attributed to the activities of two enzymes, nitrogenase and bidirectional hydrogenase. One main obstacle for high hydrogen production by A. siamensis is a light-driven hydrogen consumption catalyzed by the uptake hydrogenase. To overcome this and in order to enhance the potential for nitrogenase based hydrogen production, we engineered a hydrogen uptake deficient strain by interrupting hupS encoding the small subunit of the uptake hydrogenase.

RESULTS

An engineered strain lacking a functional uptake hydrogenase (∆hupS) produced about 4-folds more hydrogen than the wild type strain. Moreover, the ∆hupS strain showed long term, sustained hydrogen production under light exposure with 2-3 folds higher nitrogenase activity compared to the wild type. In addition, HupS inactivation had no major effects on cell growth and heterocyst differentiation. Gene expression analysis using RT-PCR indicates that electrons and ATP molecules required for hydrogen production in the ∆hupS strain may be obtained from the electron transport chain associated with the photosynthetic oxidation of water in the vegetative cells. The ∆hupS strain was found to compete well with the wild type up to 50 h in a mixed culture, thereafter the wild type started to grow on the relative expense of the ∆hupS strain.

CONCLUSIONS

Inactivation of hupS is an effective strategy for improving biohydrogen production, in rates and specifically in total yield, in nitrogen-fixing cultures of the cyanobacterium Anabaena siamensis TISTR 8012.