CRISPR distribution within the Escherichia coli species is not suggestive of immunity-associated diversifying selection

Identical bacterial populations colonize premature infant gut, skin, and oral microbiomes and exhibit different in situ growth rates

The initial microbiome impacts the health and future development of premature infants. Methodological limitations have led to gaps in our understanding of the habitat range and subpopulation complexity of founding strains, as well as how different body sites support microbial growth. Here, we used metagenomics to reconstruct genomes of strains that colonized the skin, mouth, and gut of two hospitalized premature infants during the first month of life. Seven bacterial populations, considered to be identical given whole-genome average nucleotide identity of >99.9%, colonized multiple body sites, yet none were shared between infants. Gut-associated Citrobacter koseri genomes harbored 47 polymorphic sites that we used to define 10 subpopulations, one of which appeared in the gut after 1 wk but did not spread to other body sites. Differential genome coverage was used to measure bacterial population replication rates in situ. In all cases where the same bacterial population was detected in multiple body sites, replication rates were faster in mouth and skin compared to the gut. The ability of identical strains to colonize multiple body sites underscores the habit flexibility of initial colonists, whereas differences in microbial replication rates between body sites suggest differences in host control and/or resource availability. Population genomic analyses revealed microdiversity within bacterial populations, implying initial inoculation by multiple individual cells with distinct genotypes. Overall, however, the overlap of strains across body sites implies that the premature infant microbiome can exhibit very low microbial diversity.

CRISPR-cas loci profiling of Cronobacter sakazakii pathovars

AIM

Cronobacter sakazakii sequence types 1, 4, 8 and 12 are associated with outbreaks of neonatal meningitis and necrotizing enterocolitis infections. However clonality results in strains which are indistinguishable using conventional methods. This study investigated the use of clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats (CRISPR)-cas loci profiling for epidemiological investigations.

MATERIALS & METHODS

Seventy whole genomes of C. sakazakii strains from four clonal complexes which were widely distributed temporally, geographically and origin of source were profiled.

RESULTS & CONCLUSION

All strains encoded the same type I-E subtype CRISPR-cas system with a total of 12 different CRISPR spacer arrays. This study demonstrated the greater discriminatory power of CRISPR spacer array profiling compared with multilocus sequence typing, which will be of use in source attribution during Cronobacter outbreak investigations.

Genetic and life-history traits associated with the distribution of prophages in bacteria

Nearly half of the sequenced bacteria are lysogens and many of their prophages encode adaptive traits. Yet, the variables driving prophage distribution remain undetermined. We identified 2246 prophages in complete bacterial genomes to study the genetic and life-history traits associated with lysogeny. While optimal growth temperatures and average cell volumes were not associated with lysogeny, prophages were more frequent in pathogens and in bacteria with small minimal doubling times. Their frequency also increased with genome size, but only for genomes smaller than 6 Mb. The number of spacers in CRISPR-Cas systems and the frequency of type III systems were anticorrelated with prophage frequency, but lysogens were more likely to encode type I and type II systems. The minimal doubling time was the trait most correlated with lysogeny, followed by genome size and pathogenicity. We propose that bacteria with highly variable growth rates often encounter lower opportunity costs for lysogeny relative to lysis. These results contribute to explain the paucity of temperate phages in certain bacterial clades and of bacterial lysogens in certain environments. They suggest that genetic and life-history traits affect the contributions of temperate phages to bacterial genomes.

Clustered, regularly interspaced short palindromic repeat (CRISPR) diversity and virulence factor distribution in avian Escherichia coli

In order to investigate the diverse characteristics of clustered, regularly interspaced short palindromic repeat (CRISPR) arrays and the distribution of virulence factor genes in avian Escherichia coli, 80 E. coli isolates obtained from chickens with avian pathogenic E. coli (APEC) or avian fecal commensal E. coli (AFEC) were identified. Using the multiplex polymerase chain reaction (PCR), five genes were subjected to phylogenetic typing and examined for CRISPR arrays to study genetic relatedness among the strains. The strains were further analyzed for CRISPR loci and virulence factor genes to determine a possible association between their CRISPR elements and their potential virulence. The strains were divided into five phylogenetic groups: A, B1, B2, D and E. It was confirmed that two types of CRISPR arrays, CRISPR1 and CRISPR2, which contain up to 246 distinct spacers, were amplified in most of the strains. Further classification of the isolates was achieved by sorting them into nine CRISPR clusters based on their spacer profiles, which indicates a candidate typing method for E. coli. Several significant differences in invasion-associated gene distribution were found between the APEC isolates and the AFEC isolates. Our results identified the distribution of 11 virulence genes and CRISPR diversity in 80 strains. It was demonstrated that, with the exception of iucD and aslA, there was no sharp demarcation in the gene distribution between the pathogenic (APEC) and commensal (AFEC) strains, while the total number of indicated CRISPR spacers may have a positive correlation with the potential pathogenicity of the E. coli isolates.

Evolutionary Ecology of Prokaryotic Immune Mechanisms

Bacteria have a range of distinct immune strategies that provide protection against bacteriophage (phage) infections. While much has been learned about the mechanism of action of these defense strategies, it is less clear why such diversity in defense strategies has evolved. In this review, we discuss the short- and long-term costs and benefits of the different resistance strategies and, hence, the ecological conditions that are likely to favor the different strategies alone and in combination. Finally, we discuss some of the broader consequences, beyond resistance to phage and other genetic elements, resulting from the operation of different immune strategies.

Improved traceability of Shiga-toxin-producing Escherichia coli using CRISPRs for detection and typing

Among strains of Shiga-toxin-producing Escherichia coli (STEC), seven serogroups (O26, O45, O103, O111, O121, O145, and O157) are frequently associated with severe clinical illness in humans. The development of methods for their reliable detection from complex samples such as food has been challenging thus far, and is currently based on the PCR detection of the major virulence genes stx1, stx2, and eae, and O-serogroup-specific genes. However, this approach lacks resolution. Moreover, new STEC serotypes are continuously emerging worldwide. For example, in May 2011, strains belonging to the hitherto rarely detected STEC serotype O104:H4 were identified as causative agents of one of the world's largest outbreak of disease with a high incidence of hemorrhagic colitis and hemolytic uremic syndrome in the infected patients. Discriminant typing of pathogens is crucial for epidemiological surveillance and investigations of outbreaks, and especially for tracking and tracing in case of accidental and deliberate contamination of food and water samples. Clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats (CRISPRs) are composed of short, highly conserved DNA repeats separated by unique sequences of similar length. This distinctive sequence signature of CRISPRs can be used for strain typing in several bacterial species including STEC. This review discusses how CRISPRs have recently been used for STEC identification and typing.

CRISPR1 analysis of naturalized surface water and fecal Escherichia coli suggests common origin

Clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats (CRISPRs) are part of an acquired bacterial immune system that functions as a barrier to exogenous genetic elements. Since naturalized Escherichia coli are likely to encounter different genetic elements in aquatic environments compared to enteric strains, we hypothesized that such differences would be reflected within the hypervariable CRISPR alleles of these two populations. Comparison of CRISPR1 alleles from naturalized and fecal phylogroup B1 E. coli strains revealed that the alleles could be categorized into four major distinct groups (designated G6–G9), and all four allele groups were found among naturalized strains and fecal strains. The distribution of CRIPSR G6 and G8 alleles was similar among strains of both ecotypes, while naturalized strains tended to have CRISPR G7 alleles rather than G9 alleles. Since CRISPR G7 alleles were not specific to naturalized strains, they, however, would not be useful as a marker for identifying naturalized strains. Notably, CRISPR alleles from naturalized and fecal strains also had similar spacer repertoires. This indicates a shared history of encounter with mobile genetic elements and suggests that the two populations were derived from common ancestors.

Evolution of Chromosomal Clostridium botulinum Type E Neurotoxin Gene Clusters: Evidence Provided by Their Rare Plasmid-Borne Counterparts

Analysis of more than 150 Clostridium botulinum Group II type E genomes identified a small fraction (6%) where neurotoxin-encoding genes were located on plasmids. Seven closely related (134–144 kb) neurotoxigenic plasmids of subtypes E1, E3, and E10 were characterized; all carried genes associated with plasmid mobility via conjugation. Each plasmid contained the same 24-kb neurotoxin cluster cassette (six neurotoxin cluster and six flanking genes) that had split a helicase gene, rather than the more common chromosomal rarA. The neurotoxin cluster cassettes had evolved as separate genetic units which had either exited their chromosomal rarA locus in a series of parallel events, inserting into the plasmid-borne helicase gene, or vice versa. A single intact version of the helicase gene was discovered on a nonneurotoxigenic form of this plasmid. The observed low frequency for the plasmid location may reflect one or more of the following: 1) Less efficient recombination mechanism for the helicase gene target, 2) lack of suitable target plasmids, and 3) loss of neurotoxigenic plasmids. Type E1 and E10 plasmids possessed a Clustered Regularly Interspaced Short Palindromic Repeats locus with spacers that recognized C. botulinum Group II plasmids, but not C. botulinum Group I plasmids, demonstrating their long-term separation. Clostridium botulinum Group II type E strains also carry nonneurotoxigenic plasmids closely related to C. botulinum Group II types B and F plasmids. Here, the absence of neurotoxin cassettes may be because recombination requires both a specific mechanism and specific target sequence, which are rarely found together.

Bioinformatics analyses of Shigella CRISPR structure and spacer classification

Clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats (CRISPR) are inheritable genetic elements of a variety of archaea and bacteria and indicative of the bacterial ecological adaptation, conferring acquired immunity against invading foreign nucleic acids. Shigella is an important pathogen for anthroponosis. This study aimed to analyze the features of Shigella CRISPR structure and classify the spacers through bioinformatics approach. Among 107 Shigella, 434 CRISPR structure loci were identified with two to seven loci in different strains. CRISPR-Q1, CRISPR-Q4 and CRISPR-Q5 were widely distributed in Shigella strains. Comparison of the first and last repeats of CRISPR1, CRISPR2 and CRISPR3 revealed several base variants and different stem-loop structures. A total of 259 cas genes were found among these 107 Shigella strains. The cas gene deletions were discovered in 88 strains. However, there is one strain that does not contain cas gene. Intact clusters of cas genes were found in 19 strains. From comprehensive analysis of sequence signature and BLAST and CRISPRTarget score, the 708 spacers were classified into three subtypes: Type I, Type II and Type III. Of them, Type I spacer referred to those linked with one gene segment, Type II spacer linked with two or more different gene segments, and Type III spacer undefined. This study examined the diversity of CRISPR/cas system in Shigella strains, demonstrated the main features of CRISPR structure and spacer classification, which provided critical information for elucidation of the mechanisms of spacer formation and exploration of the role the spacers play in the function of the CRISPR/cas system.

Studying the features of 57 confirmed CRISPR loci in 29 strains of Escherichia coli

Clustered Regularly Interspaced Short Palindromic Repeats (CRISPRs) system is a novel type of innate defense system in prokaryotes for destruction of exogenous elements. To gain further insight into behavior and organization of the system, the extensive analysis of the available sequenced genomes is necessary. The dynamic nature of CRISPR loci is possibly valuable for typing and relative analyses of strains and microbial population. There are a few orderly bioinformatics investigations about the structure of CRISPR sequences in the Escherichia coli strains. In this study, 57 CRISPR loci were selected from 32 Escherichia coli strains to investigate their structural characteristics and potential functions using bioinformatics tools. Our results showed that most strains contained several loci that mainly included conserved direct repeats, while the spacers were highly variable. Moreover, RNA analysis of the sequences indicated that all loci could form stable RNA secondary structures and showed homology mostly with phages compared to plasmids. Only three strains included cas genes around their loci.

Targeted Amplicon Sequencing for Single-Nucleotide-Polymorphism Genotyping of Attaching and Effacing Escherichia coli O26:H11 Cattle Strains via a High-Throughput Library Preparation Technique

Enterohemorrhagic Escherichia coli (EHEC) O26:H11, a serotype within Shiga toxin-producing E. coli (STEC) that causes severe human disease, has been considered to have evolved from attaching and effacing E. coli (AEEC) O26:H11 through the acquisition of a Shiga toxin-encoding gene. Targeted amplicon sequencing using next-generation sequencing technology of 48 phylogenetically informative single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) and three SNPs differentiating Shiga toxin-positive (stx-positive) strains from Shiga toxin-negative (stx-negative) strains were used to infer the phylogenetic relationships of 178 E. coli O26:H11 strains (6 stx-positive strains and 172 stx-negative AEEC strains) from cattle feces to 7 publically available genomes of human clinical strains. The AEEC cattle strains displayed synonymous SNP genotypes with stx2-positive sequence type 29 (ST29) human O26:H11 strains, while stx1 ST21 human and cattle strains clustered separately, demonstrating the close phylogenetic relatedness of these Shiga toxin-negative AEEC cattle strains and human clinical strains. With the exception of seven stx-negative strains, five of which contained espK, three stx-related SNPs differentiated the STEC strains from non-STEC strains, supporting the hypothesis that these AEEC cattle strains could serve as a potential reservoir for new or existing pathogenic human strains. Our results support the idea that targeted amplicon sequencing for SNP genotyping expedites strain identification and genetic characterization of E. coli O26:H11, which is important for food safety and public health.

CRISPR-Based Typing and Next-Generation Tracking Technologies

Bacteria occur ubiquitously in nature and are broadly relevant throughout the food supply chain, with diverse and variable tolerance levels depending on their origin, biological role, and impact on the quality and safety of the product as well as on the health of the consumer. With increasing knowledge of and accessibility to the microbial composition of our environments, food supply, and host-associated microbiota, our understanding of and appreciation for the ratio of beneficial to undesirable bacteria are rapidly evolving. Therefore, there is a need for tools and technologies that allow definite, accurate, and high-resolution identification and typing of various groups of bacteria that include beneficial microbes such as starter cultures and probiotics, innocuous commensals, and undesirable pathogens and spoilage organisms. During the transition from the current molecular biology-based PFGE (pulsed-field gel electrophoresis) gold standard to the increasingly accessible omics-level whole-genome sequencing (WGS) N-gen standard, high-resolution technologies such as CRISPR-based genotyping constitute practical and powerful alternatives that provide valuable insights into genome microevolution and evolutionary trajectories. Indeed, several studies have shown potential for CRISPR-based typing of industrial starter cultures, health-promoting probiotic strains, animal commensal species, and problematic pathogens. Emerging CRISPR-based typing methods open new avenues for high-resolution typing of a broad range of bacteria and constitute a practical means for rapid tracking of a diversity of food-associated microbes.

Polymorphism of CRISPR shows separated natural groupings of Shigella subtypes and evidence of horizontal transfer of CRISPR

Clustered, regularly interspaced, short palindromic repeats (CRISPR) act as an adaptive RNA-mediated immune mechanism in bacteria. They can also be used for identification and evolutionary studies based on polymorphisms within the CRISPR locus. We amplified and analyzed 6 CRISPR loci from 237 Shigella strains belonging to the 4 species groups, as well as 13 Escherichia coli strains. The CRISPR-associated (cas) gene sequence arrays of these strains were screened and compared. The CRISPR sequences from Shigella were conserved among subtypes, suggesting that CRISPR may represent a new identification tool for the detection and discrimination of Shigella species. Secondary structure analysis showed a different stem-loop structure at the terminal repeat, suggesting a distinct recognition mechanism in the formation of crRNA. In addition, the presence of "self-target" spacers and polymorphisms within CRISPR in Shigella indicated a selective pressure for inhibition of this system, which has the potential to damage "self DNA." Homology analysis of spacers showed that CRISPR might be involved in the regulation of virulence transmission. Phylogenetic analysis based on CRISPR sequences from Shigella and E. coli indicated that although phenotypic properties maintain convergent evolution, the 4 Shigella species do not represent natural groupings. Surprisingly, comparative analysis of Shigella repeats with other species provided new evidence for CRISPR horizontal transfer. Our results suggested that CRISPR analysis is applicable for the detection of Shigella species and for investigation of evolutionary relationships.

The diversity and host interactions of Propionibacterium acnes bacteriophages on human skin

The viral population, including bacteriophages, is an important component of the human microbiota, yet is poorly understood. We aim to determine whether bacteriophages modulate the composition of the bacterial populations, thus potentially playing a role in health or disease. We investigated the diversity and host interactions of the bacteriophages of Propionibacterium acnes, a major human skin commensal implicated in acne pathogenesis. By sequencing 48 P. acnes phages isolated from acne patients and healthy individuals and by analyzing the P. acnes phage populations in healthy skin metagenomes, we revealed that P. acnes phage populations in the skin microbial community are often dominated by one strain. We also found phage strains shared among both related and unrelated individuals, suggesting that a pool of common phages exists in the human population and that transmission of phages may occur between individuals. To better understand the bacterium-phage interactions in the skin microbiota, we determined the outcomes of 74 genetically defined Propionibacterium strains challenged by 15 sequenced phages. Depending on the Propionibacterium lineage, phage infection can result in lysis, pseudolysogeny, or resistance. In type II P. acnes strains, we found that encoding matching clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeat spacers is insufficient to confer phage resistance. Overall, our findings suggest that the prey-predator relationship between bacteria and phages may have a role in modulating the composition of the microbiota. Our study also suggests that the microbiome structure of an individual may be an important factor in the design of phage-based therapy.

DNA Repair Is Associated with Information Content in Bacteria, Archaea, and DNA Viruses

The concept of a "proteomic constraint" proposes that DNA repair capacity is positively correlated with the information content of a genome, which can be approximated to the size of the proteome (P). This in turn implies that DNA repair genes are more likely to be present in genomes with larger values of P. This stands in contrast to the common assumption that informational genes have a core function and so are evenly distributed across organisms. We examined the presence/absence of 18 DNA repair genes in bacterial genomes. A positive relationship between gene presence and P was observed for 17 genes in the total dataset, and 16 genes when only nonintracellular bacteria were examined. A marked reduction of DNA repair genes was observed in intracellular bacteria, consistent with their reduced value of P. We also examined archaeal and DNA virus genomes, and show that the presence of DNA repair genes is likewise related to a larger value of P. In addition, the products of the bacterial genes mutY, vsr, and ndk, involved in the correction of GC/AT mutations, are strongly associated with reduced genome GC content. We therefore propose that a reduction in information content leads to a loss of DNA repair genes and indirectly to a reduction in genome GC content in bacteria by exposure to the underlying AT mutation bias. The reduction in P may also indirectly lead to the increase in substitution rates observed in intracellular bacteria via loss of DNA repair genes.

CRISPR Content Correlates with the Pathogenic Potential of Escherichia coli

Guide RNA molecules (crRNA) produced from clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeat (CRISPR) arrays, altogether with effector proteins (Cas) encoded by cognate cas (CRISPR associated) genes, mount an interference mechanism (CRISPR-Cas) that limits acquisition of foreign DNA in Bacteria and Archaea. The specificity of this action is provided by the repeat intervening spacer carried in the crRNA, which upon hybridization with complementary sequences enables their degradation by a Cas endonuclease. Moreover, CRISPR arrays are dynamic landscapes that may gain new spacers from infecting elements or lose them for example during genome replication. Thus, the spacer content of a strain determines the diversity of sequences that can be targeted by the corresponding CRISPR-Cas system reflecting its functionality. Most Escherichia coli strains possess either type I-E or I-F CRISPR-Cas systems. To evaluate their impact on the pathogenicity of the species, we inferred the pathotype and pathogenic potential of 126 strains of this and other closely related species and analyzed their repeat content. Our results revealed a negative correlation between the number of I-E CRISPR units in this system and the presence of pathogenicity traits: the median number of repeats was 2.5-fold higher for commensal isolates (with 29.5 units, range 0-53) than for pathogenic ones (12.0, range 0-42). Moreover, the higher the number of virulence factors within a strain, the lower the repeat content. Additionally, pathogenic strains of distinct ecological niches (i.e., intestinal or extraintestinal) differ in repeat counts. Altogether, these findings support an evolutionary connection between CRISPR and pathogenicity in E. coli.

The Contribution of Genetic Recombination to CRISPR Array Evolution

CRISPR (clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats) is a microbial immune system against foreign DNA. Recognition sequences (spacers) encoded within the CRISPR array mediate the immune reaction in a sequence-specific manner. The known mechanisms for the evolution of CRISPR arrays include spacer acquisition from foreign DNA elements at the time of invasion and array erosion through spacer deletion. Here, we consider the contribution of genetic recombination between homologous CRISPR arrays to the evolution of spacer repertoire. Acquisition of spacers from exogenic arrays via recombination may confer the recipient with immunity against unencountered antagonists. For this purpose, we develop a novel method for the detection of recombination in CRISPR arrays by modeling the spacer order in arrays from multiple strains from the same species. Because the evolutionary signal of spacer recombination may be similar to that of pervasive spacer deletions or independent spacer acquisition, our method entails a robustness analysis of the recombination inference by a statistical comparison to resampled and perturbed data sets. We analyze CRISPR data sets from four bacterial species: two Gammaproteobacteria species harboring CRISPR type I and two Streptococcus species harboring CRISPR type II loci. We find that CRISPR array evolution in Escherichia coli and Streptococcus agalactiae can be explained solely by vertical inheritance and differential spacer deletion. In Pseudomonas aeruginosa, we find an excess of single spacers potentially incorporated into the CRISPR locus during independent acquisition events. In Streptococcus thermophilus, evidence for spacer acquisition by recombination is present in 5 out of 70 strains. Genetic recombination has been proposed to accelerate adaptation by combining beneficial mutations that arose in independent lineages. However, for most species under study, we find that CRISPR evolution is shaped mainly by spacer acquisition and loss rather than recombination. Since the evolution of spacer content is characterized by a rapid turnover, it is likely that recombination is not beneficial for improving phage resistance in the strains under study, or that it cannot be detected in the resolution of intraspecies comparisons.

Analysis of the type II-A CRISPR-Cas system of Streptococcus agalactiae reveals distinctive features according to genetic lineages

CRISPR-Cas systems (clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats/CRISPR-associated proteins) are found in 90% of archaea and about 40% of bacteria. In this original system, CRISPR arrays comprise short, almost unique sequences called spacers that are interspersed with conserved palindromic repeats. These systems play a role in adaptive immunity and participate to fight non-self DNA such as integrative and conjugative elements, plasmids, and phages. In Streptococcus agalactiae, a bacterium implicated in colonization and infections in humans since the 1960s, two CRISPR-Cas systems have been described. A type II-A system, characterized by proteins Cas9, Cas1, Cas2, and Csn2, is ubiquitous, and a type I–C system, with the Cas8c signature protein, is present in about 20% of the isolates. Unlike type I–C, which appears to be non-functional, type II-A appears fully functional. Here we studied type II-A CRISPR-cas loci from 126 human isolates of S. agalactiae belonging to different clonal complexes that represent the diversity of the species and that have been implicated in colonization or infection. The CRISPR-cas locus was analyzed both at spacer and repeat levels. Major distinctive features were identified according to the phylogenetic lineages previously defined by multilocus sequence typing, especially for the sequence type (ST) 17, which is considered hypervirulent. Among other idiosyncrasies, ST-17 shows a significantly lower number of spacers in comparison with other lineages. This characteristic could reflect the peculiar virulence or colonization specificities of this lineage.

When Competing Viruses Unify: Evolution, Conservation, and Plasticity of Genetic Identities

In the early 1970s, Manfred Eigen and colleagues developed the quasispecies model (qs) for the population-based origin of RNAs representing the early genetic code. The Eigen idea is basically that a halo of mutants is generated by error-prone replication around the master fittest type which will behave similarly as a biological population. But almost from the start, very interesting and unexpected observations were made regarding competition versus co-operation which suggested more complex interactions. It thus became increasingly clear that although viruses functioned similar to biological species, their behavior was much more complex than the original theory could explain, especially adaptation without changing the consensus involving minority populations. With respect to the origin of natural codes, meaning, and code-use in interactions (communication), it also became clear that individual fittest type-based mechanisms were likewise unable to explain the origin of natural codes such as the genetic code with their context- and consortia-dependence (pragmatic nature). This, instead, required the participation of groups of agents competent in the code and able to edit code because natural codes do not code themselves. Three lines of inquiry, experimental virology, quasispecies theory, and the study of natural codes converged to indicate that consortia of co-operative RNA agents such as viruses must be involved in the fitness of RNA and its involvement in communication, i.e., code-competent interactions. We called this co-operative form quasispecies consortia (qs-c). They are the essential agents that constitute the possibility of evolution of biological group identity. Finally, the basic interactional motifs for the emergence of group identity, communication, and co-operation-together with its opposing functions-are explained by the "Gangen" hypothesis.

CRISPR Diversity in E. coli Isolates from Australian Animals, Humans and Environmental Waters

Seventy four SNP genotypes and 54 E. coli genomes from kangaroo, Tasmanian devil, reptile, cattle, dog, horse, duck, bird, fish, rodent, human and environmental water sources were screened for the presence of the CRISPR 2.1 loci flanked by cas2 and iap genes. CRISPR 2.1 regions were found in 49% of the strains analysed. The majority of human E. coli isolates lacked the CRISPR 2.1 locus. We described 76 CRISPR 2.1 positive isolates originating from Australian animals and humans, which contained a total of 764 spacer sequences. CRISPR arrays demonstrated a long history of phage attacks especially in isolates from birds (up to 40 spacers). The most prevalent spacer (1.6%) was an ancient spacer found mainly in human, horse, duck, rodent, reptile and environmental water sources. The sequence of this spacer matched the intestinal P7 phage and the pO111 plasmid of E. coli.

Characterization and evolution of Salmonella CRISPR-Cas systems

Prokaryotic CRISPR-Cas (clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats and CRISPR-associated genes) systems provide adaptive immunity from invasive genetic elements and encompass three essential features: (i) cas genes, (ii) a CRISPR array composed of spacers and direct repeats and (iii) an AT-rich leader sequence upstream of the array. We performed in-depth sequence analysis of the CRISPR-Cas systems in >600 Salmonella, representing four clinically prevalent serovars. Each CRISPR-Cas feature is extremely conserved in the Salmonella, and the CRISPR1 locus is more highly conserved than CRISPR2. Array composition is serovar-specific, although no convincing evidence of recent spacer acquisition against exogenous nucleic acids exists. Only 12 % of spacers match phage and plasmid sequences and self-targeting spacers are associated with direct repeat variants. High nucleotide identity (>99.9 %) exists across the cas operon among isolates of a single serovar and in some cases this conservation extends across divergent serovars. These observations reflect historical CRISPR-Cas immune activity, showing that this locus has ceased undergoing adaptive events. Intriguingly, the high level of conservation across divergent serovars shows that the genetic integrity of these inactive loci is maintained over time, contrasting with the canonical view that inactive CRISPR loci degenerate over time. This thorough characterization of Salmonella CRISPR-Cas systems presents new insights into Salmonella CRISPR evolution, particularly with respect to cas gene conservation, leader sequences, organization of direct repeats and protospacer matches. Collectively, our data suggest that Salmonella CRISPR-Cas systems are no longer immunogenic; rather, their impressive conservation indicates they may have an alternative function in Salmonella.

Type II toxin-antitoxin systems are unevenly distributed among Escherichia coli phylogroups

Type II toxin-antitoxin systems (TAs) are bicistronic operons ubiquitous in prokaryotic genomes, displaying multilevel association with cell physiology. Various possible functions have been assigned to TAs, ranging from beneficial for their hosts, such as a stress response, dormancy and protection against genomic parasites, to detrimental or useless functions, such as selfish alleles. As there is a link between several Escherichia coli features (e.g. virulence, lifestyle) and the phylogeny of this species, we hypothesized a similar association with TAs. Using PCR we studied the distribution of 15 chromosomal and plasmidic type II TA loci in 84 clinical E. coli isolates in relation to their main phylogenetic groups (A, B1, B2 and D). In addition, we performed in silico searching of these TA loci in 60 completely sequenced E. coli genomes deposited in GenBank. The highest number of TA loci per strain was observed in group A (mean 8.2, range 5-12) and the lowest in group B2 (mean 4.2, range 2-8). Moreover, significant differences in the prevalence of nine chromosomal TAs among E. coli phylogroups were noted. In conclusion, the presence of some chromosomal TAs in E. coli is phylogroup-related rather than a universal feature of the species. In addition, their limited collection in group B2 clearly distinguish it from the other E. coli phylogroups.

CRISPR-Cas systems in the marine actinomycete Salinispora: linkages with phage defense, microdiversity and biogeography

BACKGROUND

Prokaryotic CRISPR-Cas systems confer resistance to viral infection and thus mediate bacteria-phage interactions. However, the distribution and functional diversity of CRISPRs among environmental bacteria remains largely unknown. Here, comparative genomics of 75 Salinispora strains provided insight into the diversity and distribution of CRISPR-Cas systems in a cosmopolitan marine actinomycete genus.

RESULTS

CRISPRs were found in all Salinispora strains, with the majority containing multiple loci and different Cas array subtypes. Of the six subtypes identified, three have not been previously described. A lower prophage frequency in S. arenicola was associated with a higher fraction of spacers matching Salinispora prophages compared to S. tropica, suggesting differing defensive capacities between Salinispora species. The occurrence of related prophages in strains from distant locations, as well as spacers matching those prophages inserted throughout spacer arrays, indicate recurring encounters with widely distributed phages over time. Linkages of CRISPR features with Salinispora microdiversity pointed to subclade-specific contacts with mobile genetic elements (MGEs). This included lineage-specific spacer deletions or insertions, which may reflect weak selective pressures to maintain immunity or distinct temporal interactions with MGEs, respectively. Biogeographic patterns in spacer and prophage distributions support the concept that Salinispora spp. encounter localized MGEs. Moreover, the presence of spacers matching housekeeping genes suggests that CRISPRs may have functions outside of viral defense.

CONCLUSIONS

This study provides a comprehensive examination of CRISPR-Cas systems in a broadly distributed group of environmental bacteria. The ubiquity and diversity of CRISPRs in Salinispora suggests that CRISPR-mediated interactions with MGEs represent a major force in the ecology and evolution of this cosmopolitan marine actinomycete genus.

Evolutionary causes and consequences of diversified CRISPR immune profiles in natural populations

Host-pathogen co-evolution is a significant force which shapes the ecology and evolution of all types of organisms, and such interactions are driven by resistance and immunity mechanisms of the host. Diversity of resistance and immunity can affect the co-evolutionary trajectory of both host and pathogen. The microbial CRISPR (clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats)-Cas (CRISPR-associated) system is one host immunity mechanism which offers a tractable model for examining the dynamics of diversity in an immune system. In the present article, we review CRISPR variation observed in a variety of natural populations, examine the forces which can push CRISPRs towards high or low diversity, and investigate the consequences of various levels of diversity on microbial populations.

The subtype I-F CRISPR-Cas system influences pathogenicity island retention in Pectobacterium atrosepticum via crRNA generation and Csy complex formation

CRISPR (clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats) arrays and Cas (CRISPR-associated) proteins confer acquired resistance against mobile genetic elements in a wide range of bacteria and archaea. The phytopathogen Pectobacterium atrosepticum SCRI1043 encodes a single subtype I-F CRISPR system, which is composed of three CRISPR arrays and the cas operon encoding Cas1, Cas3 (a Cas2-Cas3 fusion), Csy1, Csy2, Csy3 and Cas6f (Csy4). The CRISPR arrays are transcribed into pre-crRNA (CRISPR RNA) and then processed by Cas6f to generate crRNAs. Furthermore, the formation of Cas protein complexes has been implicated in both the interference and acquisition stages of defence. In the present paper, we discuss the development of tightly controlled 'programmable' CRISPR arrays as tools to investigate CRISPR-Cas function and the effects of chromosomal targeting. Finally, we address how chromosomal targeting by CRISPR-Cas can cause large-scale genome deletions, which can ultimately influence bacterial evolution and pathogenicity.

Abundant and diverse clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeat spacers in Clostridium difficile strains and prophages target multiple phage types within this pathogen

Clostridium difficile is an important human-pathogenic bacterium causing antibiotic-associated nosocomial infections worldwide. Mobile genetic elements and bacteriophages have helped shape C. difficile genome evolution. In many bacteria, phage infection may be controlled by a form of bacterial immunity called the clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats/CRISPR-associated (CRISPR/Cas) system. This uses acquired short nucleotide sequences (spacers) to target homologous sequences (protospacers) in phage genomes. C. difficile carries multiple CRISPR arrays, and in this paper we examine the relationships between the host- and phage-carried elements of the system. We detected multiple matches between spacers and regions in 31 C. difficile phage and prophage genomes. A subset of the spacers was located in prophage-carried CRISPR arrays. The CRISPR spacer profiles generated suggest that related phages would have similar host ranges. Furthermore, we show that C. difficile strains of the same ribotype could either have similar or divergent CRISPR contents. Both synonymous and nonsynonymous mutations in the protospacer sequences were identified, as well as differences in the protospacer adjacent motif (PAM), which could explain how phages escape this system. This paper illustrates how the distribution and diversity of CRISPR spacers in C. difficile, and its prophages, could modulate phage predation for this pathogen and impact upon its evolution and pathogenicity.

IMPORTANCE

Clostridium difficile is a significant bacterial human pathogen which undergoes continual genome evolution, resulting in the emergence of new virulent strains. Phages are major facilitators of genome evolution in other bacterial species, and we use sequence analysis-based approaches in order to examine whether the CRISPR/Cas system could control these interactions across divergent C. difficile strains. The presence of spacer sequences in prophages that are homologous to phage genomes raises an extra level of complexity in this predator-prey microbial system. Our results demonstrate that the impact of phage infection in this system is widespread and that the CRISPR/Cas system is likely to be an important aspect of the evolutionary dynamics in C. difficile.

NilD CRISPR RNA contributes to Xenorhabdus nematophila colonization of symbiotic host nematodes

The bacterium Xenorhabdus nematophila is a mutualist of entomopathogenic Steinernema carpocapsae nematodes and facilitates infection of insect hosts. X. nematophila colonizes the intestine of S. carpocapsae which carries it between insects. In the X. nematophila colonization-defective mutant nilD6::Tn5, the transposon is inserted in a region lacking obvious coding potential. We demonstrate that the transposon disrupts expression of a single CRISPR RNA, NilD RNA. A variant NilD RNA also is expressed by X. nematophila strains from S. anatoliense and S. websteri nematodes. Only nilD from the S. carpocapsae strain of X. nematophila rescued the colonization defect of the nilD6::Tn5 mutant, and this mutant was defective in colonizing all three nematode host species. NilD expression depends on the presence of the associated Cas6e but not Cas3, components of the Type I-E CRISPR-associated machinery. While cas6e deletion in the complemented strain abolished nematode colonization, its disruption in the wild-type parent did not. Likewise, nilD deletion in the parental strain did not impact colonization of the nematode, revealing that the requirement for NilD is evident only in certain genetic backgrounds. Our data demonstrate that NilD RNA is conditionally necessary for mutualistic host colonization and suggest that it functions to regulate endogenous gene expression.

CRISPR/Cas9-mediated phage resistance is not impeded by the DNA modifications of phage T4

Bacteria rely on two known DNA-level defenses against their bacteriophage predators: restriction-modification and Clustered Regularly Interspaced Short Palindromic Repeats (CRISPR)-CRISPR-associated (Cas) systems. Certain phages have evolved countermeasures that are known to block endonucleases. For example, phage T4 not only adds hydroxymethyl groups to all of its cytosines, but also glucosylates them, a strategy that defeats almost all restriction enzymes. We sought to determine whether these DNA modifications can similarly impede CRISPR-based defenses. In a bioinformatics search, we found naturally occurring CRISPR spacers that potentially target phages known to modify their DNA. Experimentally, we show that the Cas9 nuclease from the Type II CRISPR system of Streptococcus pyogenes can overcome a variety of DNA modifications in Escherichia coli. The levels of Cas9-mediated phage resistance to bacteriophage T4 and the mutant phage T4 gt, which contains hydroxymethylated but not glucosylated cytosines, were comparable to phages with unmodified cytosines, T7 and the T4-like phage RB49. Our results demonstrate that Cas9 is not impeded by N6-methyladenine, 5-methylcytosine, 5-hydroxymethylated cytosine, or glucosylated 5-hydroxymethylated cytosine.

CRP represses the CRISPR/Cas system in Escherichia coli: evidence that endogenous CRISPR spacers impede phage P1 replication

The CRISPR/Cas system is an important aspect in bacterial immunology. The anti-phage activity of the CRISPR system has been established using synthetic CRISPR spacers, but in vivo studies of endogenous CRISPR spacers are relatively scarce. Here, we showed that bacteriophage P1 titre in Escherichia coli decreased in the glucose-containing medium compared with that in the absence of glucose. This glucose effect of E. coli against phage P1 infection disappeared in cse3 deletion mutants. The effect on the susceptibility to phage P1 was associated with cAMP receptor protein (CRP)-mediated repression of cas genes transcription and crRNA maturation. Analysis of the regulatory element in the cse1 promoter region revealed a novel CRP binding site, which overlapped with a LeuO binding site. Furthermore, the limited sequence identity between endogenous spacers and the phage P1 genome was necessary and sufficient for CRISPR-mediated repression of phage P1 replication. Trans-expression of the third and seventh spacers in the CRISPR I region or third and sixth spacers in the CRISPR II region effectively reduced phage P1 titres in the CRISPR deletion mutants. These results demonstrate a novel regulatory mechanism for cas repression by CRP and provide evidence that endogenous spacers can repress phage P1 replication in E. coli.

Degenerate target sites mediate rapid primed CRISPR adaptation

Prokaryotes encode adaptive immune systems, called CRISPR-Cas (clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats-CRISPR associated), to provide resistance against mobile invaders, such as viruses and plasmids. Host immunity is based on incorporation of invader DNA sequences in a memory locus (CRISPR), the formation of guide RNAs from this locus, and the degradation of cognate invader DNA (protospacer). Invaders can escape type I-E CRISPR-Cas immunity in Escherichia coli K12 by making point mutations in the seed region of the protospacer or its adjacent motif (PAM), but hosts quickly restore immunity by integrating new spacers in a positive-feedback process termed "priming." Here, by using a randomized protospacer and PAM library and high-throughput plasmid loss assays, we provide a systematic analysis of the constraints of both direct interference and subsequent priming in E. coli. We have defined a high-resolution genetic map of direct interference by Cascade and Cas3, which includes five positions of the protospacer at 6-nt intervals that readily tolerate mutations. Importantly, we show that priming is an extremely robust process capable of using degenerate target regions, with up to 13 mutations throughout the PAM and protospacer region. Priming is influenced by the number of mismatches, their position, and is nucleotide dependent. Our findings imply that even outdated spacers containing many mismatches can induce a rapid primed CRISPR response against diversified or related invaders, giving microbes an advantage in the coevolutionary arms race with their invaders.

A new group of phage anti-CRISPR genes inhibits the type I-E CRISPR-Cas system of Pseudomonas aeruginosa

CRISPR-Cas systems are one of the most widespread phage resistance mechanisms in prokaryotes. Our lab recently identified the first examples of phage-borne anti-CRISPR genes that encode protein inhibitors of the type I-F CRISPR-Cas system of Pseudomonas aeruginosa. A key question arising from this work was whether there are other types of anti-CRISPR genes. In the current work, we address this question by demonstrating that some of the same phages carrying type I-F anti-CRISPR genes also possess genes that mediate inhibition of the type I-E CRISPR-Cas system of P. aeruginosa. We have discovered four distinct families of these type I-E anti-CRISPR genes. These genes do not inhibit the type I-F CRISPR-Cas system of P. aeruginosa or the type I-E system of Escherichia coli. Type I-E and I-F anti-CRISPR genes are located at the same position in the genomes of a large group of related P. aeruginosa phages, yet they are found in a variety of combinations and arrangements. We have also identified functional anti-CRISPR genes within nonprophage Pseudomonas genomic regions that are likely mobile genetic elements. This work emphasizes the potential importance of anti-CRISPR genes in phage evolution and lateral gene transfer and supports the hypothesis that more undiscovered families of anti-CRISPR genes exist. Finally, we provide the first demonstration that the type I-E CRISPR-Cas system of P. aeruginosa is naturally active without genetic manipulation, which contrasts with E. coli and other previously characterized I-E systems. IMPORTANCE The CRISPR-Cas system is an adaptive immune system possessed by the majority of prokaryotic organisms to combat potentially harmful foreign genetic elements. This study reports the discovery of bacteriophage-encoded anti-CRISPR genes that mediate inhibition of a well-studied subtype of CRISPR-Cas system. The four families of anti-CRISPR genes described here, which comprise only the second group of anti-CRISPR genes to be identified, encode small proteins that bear no sequence similarity to previously studied phage or bacterial proteins. Anti-CRISPR genes represent a newly discovered and intriguing facet of the ongoing evolutionary competition between phages and their bacterial hosts.

CRISPR-Cas systems: beyond adaptive immunity

The discovery of CRISPR-Cas (clustered, regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats-CRISPR-associated proteins) adaptive immune systems in prokaryotes has been one of the most exciting advances in microbiology in the past decade. Their role in host protection against mobile genetic elements is now well established, but there is mounting evidence that these systems modulate other processes, such as the genetic regulation of group behaviour and virulence, DNA repair and genome evolution. In this Progress article, we discuss recent studies that have provided insights into these unconventional CRISPR-Cas functions and consider their potential evolutionary implications. Understanding the role of CRISPR-Cas in these processes will improve our understanding of the evolution and maintenance of CRISPR-Cas systems in prokaryotic genomes.

The role of CRISPR-Cas systems in virulence of pathogenic bacteria

Clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats (CRISPR) and CRISPR-associated (Cas) genes are present in many bacterial and archaeal genomes. Since the discovery of the typical CRISPR loci in the 1980s, well before their physiological role was revealed, their variable sequences have been used as a complementary typing tool in diagnostic, epidemiologic, and evolutionary analyses of prokaryotic strains. The discovery that CRISPR spacers are often identical to sequence fragments of mobile genetic elements was a major breakthrough that eventually led to the elucidation of CRISPR-Cas as an adaptive immunity system. Key elements of this unique prokaryotic defense system are small CRISPR RNAs that guide nucleases to complementary target nucleic acids of invading viruses and plasmids, generally followed by the degradation of the invader. In addition, several recent studies have pointed at direct links of CRISPR-Cas to regulation of a range of stress-related phenomena. An interesting example concerns a pathogenic bacterium that possesses a CRISPR-associated ribonucleoprotein complex that may play a dual role in defense and/or virulence. In this review, we describe recently reported cases of potential involvement of CRISPR-Cas systems in bacterial stress responses in general and bacterial virulence in particular.

Bacterial genome instability

Bacterial genomes are remarkably stable from one generation to the next but are plastic on an evolutionary time scale, substantially shaped by horizontal gene transfer, genome rearrangement, and the activities of mobile DNA elements. This implies the existence of a delicate balance between the maintenance of genome stability and the tolerance of genome instability. In this review, we describe the specialized genetic elements and the endogenous processes that contribute to genome instability. We then discuss the consequences of genome instability at the physiological level, where cells have harnessed instability to mediate phase and antigenic variation, and at the evolutionary level, where horizontal gene transfer has played an important role. Indeed, this ability to share DNA sequences has played a major part in the evolution of life on Earth. The evolutionary plasticity of bacterial genomes, coupled with the vast numbers of bacteria on the planet, substantially limits our ability to control disease.

To acquire or resist: the complex biological effects of CRISPR-Cas systems

Prokaryotic CRISPR-Cas (clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeat-CRISPR associated) systems provide a sophisticated adaptive immune system that offers protection against foreign DNA. These systems are widely distributed in prokaryotes and exert an important influence on bacterial behavior and evolution. However, interpreting the biological effects of a CRISPR-Cas system within a given species can be complicated because the outcome of rejecting foreign DNA does not always provide a fitness advantage, as foreign DNA uptake is sometimes beneficial. To address these issues, here we review data pertaining to the potential in vivo costs and benefits of CRISPR-Cas systems, novel functions for these systems, and how they may be inactivated.

Association of clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeat (CRISPR) elements with specific serotypes and virulence potential of shiga toxin-producing Escherichia coli

Shiga toxin-producing Escherichia coli (STEC) strains (n = 194) representing 43 serotypes and E. coli K-12 were examined for clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeat (CRISPR) arrays to study genetic relatedness among STEC serotypes. A subset of the strains (n = 81) was further analyzed for subtype I-E cas and virulence genes to determine a possible association of CRISPR elements with potential virulence. Four types of CRISPR arrays were identified. CRISPR1 and CRISPR2 were present in all strains tested; 1 strain also had both CRISPR3 and CRISPR4, whereas 193 strains displayed a short, combined array, CRISPR3-4. A total of 3,353 spacers were identified, representing 528 distinct spacers. The average length of a spacer was 32 bp. Approximately one-half of the spacers (54%) were unique and found mostly in strains of less common serotypes. Overall, CRISPR spacer contents correlated well with STEC serotypes, and identical arrays were shared between strains with the same H type (O26:H11, O103:H11, and O111:H11). There was no association identified between the presence of subtype I-E cas and virulence genes, but the total number of spacers had a negative correlation with potential pathogenicity (P < 0.05). Fewer spacers were found in strains that had a greater probability of causing outbreaks and disease than in those with lower virulence potential (P < 0.05). The relationship between the CRISPR-cas system and potential virulence needs to be determined on a broader scale, and the biological link will need to be established.

CRISPR-Cas functional module exchange in Escherichia coli

Clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats (CRISPR) and CRISPR-associated (cas) genes constitute the CRISPR-Cas systems found in the Bacteria and Archaea domains. At least in some strains they provide an efficient barrier against transmissible genetic elements such as plasmids and viruses. Two CRISPR-Cas systems have been identified in Escherichia coli, pertaining to subtypes I-E (cas-E genes) and I-F (cas-F genes), respectively. In order to unveil the evolutionary dynamics of such systems, we analyzed the sequence variations in the CRISPR-Cas loci of a collection of 131 E. coli strains. Our results show that the strain grouping inferred from these CRISPR data slightly differs from the phylogeny of the species, suggesting the occurrence of recombinational events between CRISPR arrays. Moreover, we determined that the primary cas-E genes of E. coli were altogether replaced with a substantially different variant in a minor group of strains that include K-12. Insertion elements play an important role in this variability. This result underlines the interchange capacity of CRISPR-Cas constituents and hints that at least some functional aspects documented for the K-12 system may not apply to the vast majority of E. coli strains.

IMPORTANCE

Escherichia coli is a model microorganism for the study of diverse aspects such as microbial evolution and is a component of the human gut flora that may have a direct impact in everyday life. This work was undertaken with the purpose of elucidating the evolutionary pathways that have led to the present situation of its significantly different CRISPR-Cas subtypes (I-E and I-F) in several strains of E. coli. In doing so, this information offers a novel and wider understanding of the variety and relevance of these regions within the species. Therefore, this knowledge may provide clues helping researchers better understand these systems for typing purposes and make predictions of their behavior in strains that, depending on their particular genetic dotation, would result in different levels of immunity to foreign genetic elements.

The evolutionary divergence of Shiga toxin-producing Escherichia coli is reflected in clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeat (CRISPR) spacer composition

The Shiga toxin-producing Escherichia coli (STEC) strains, including those of O157:H7 and the "big six" serogroups (i.e., serogroups O26, O45, O103, O111, O121, and O145), are a group of pathogens designated food adulterants in the United States. The relatively conserved nature of clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats (CRISPRs) in phylogenetically related E. coli strains makes them potential subtyping markers for STEC detection, and a quantitative PCR (qPCR)-based assay was previously developed for O26:H11, O45:H2, O103:H2, O111:H8, O121:H19, O145:H28, and O157:H7 isolates. To better evaluate the sensitivity and specificity of this qPCR method, the CRISPR loci of 252 O157 and big-six STEC isolates were sequenced and analyzed along with 563 CRISPR1 and 624 CRISPR2 sequences available in GenBank. General conservation of spacer content and order was observed within each O157 and big-six serogroup, validating the qPCR method. Meanwhile, it was found that spacer deletion, the presence of an insertion sequence, and distinct alleles within a serogroup are sources of false-negative reactions. Conservation of CRISPR arrays among isolates expressing the same flagellar antigen, specifically, H7, H2, and H11, suggested that these isolates share an ancestor and provided an explanation for the false positives previously observed in the qPCR results. An analysis of spacer distribution across E. coli strains provided limited evidence for temporal spacer acquisition. Conversely, comparison of CRISPR sequences between strains along the stepwise evolution of O157:H7 from its O55:H7 ancestor revealed that, over this ∼7,000-year span, spacer deletion was the primary force generating CRISPR diversity.

Reassortment of CRISPR repeat-spacer loci in Sulfolobus islandicus

Virus-host interactions are a key factor shaping population dynamics of microbial species. The CRISPR-Cas adaptive immune system confers sequence-specific immunity to viral infection and has the potential to dramatically shape coevolutionary interactions between viruses and their microbial hosts. To assess evolutionary dynamics of CRISPR loci, we have sampled a population of closely related Sulfolobus islandicus strains from Kamchatka, Russia at two time points, 10 years apart. Sequence analysis of the conserved trailer sequences reveals that alleles are reassorted among three CRISPR spacer loci into combinatorial genotypes. Reassortment provides the evolutionary independence of CRISPR loci from one another as demonstrated by the differential change in allele frequencies between two time points. Genome sequences of 12 strains from this population also reveal very recent horizontal gene transfer of novel, divergent cas gene cassettes. The evolutionary independence of CRISPR loci from each other and of the cas genes that control their function are consistent with the evolutionary expectation that reassortment increases the efficiency of adaptation at these loci that are likely under strong selection by lytic viruses.

CRISPR-spacer integration reporter plasmids reveal distinct genuine acquisition specificities among CRISPR-Cas I-E variants of Escherichia coli

Prokaryotes immunize themselves against transmissible genetic elements by the integration (acquisition) in clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats (CRISPR) loci of spacers homologous to invader nucleic acids, defined as protospacers. Following acquisition, mono-spacer CRISPR RNAs (termed crRNAs) guide CRISPR-associated (Cas) proteins to degrade (interference) protospacers flanked by an adjacent motif in extrachomosomal DNA. During acquisition, selection of spacer-precursors adjoining the protospacer motif and proper orientation of the integrated fragment with respect to the leader (sequence leading transcription of the flanking CRISPR array) grant efficient interference by at least some CRISPR-Cas systems. This adaptive stage of the CRISPR action is poorly characterized, mainly due to the lack of appropriate genetic strategies to address its study and, at least in Escherichia coli, the need of Cas overproduction for insertion detection. In this work, we describe the development and application in Escherichia coli strains of an interference-independent assay based on engineered selectable CRISPR-spacer integration reporter plasmids. By using this tool without the constraint of interference or cas overexpression, we confirmed fundamental aspects of this process such as the critical requirement of Cas1 and Cas2 and the identity of the CTT protospacer motif for the E. coli K12 system. In addition, we defined the CWT motif for a non-K12 CRISPR-Cas variant, and obtained data supporting the implication of the leader in spacer orientation, the preferred acquisition from plasmids harboring cas genes and the occurrence of a sequential cleavage at the insertion site by a ruler mechanism.

RcsB-BglJ-mediated activation of Cascade operon does not induce the maturation of CRISPR RNAs in E. coli K12

Prokaryotic immunity against foreign nucleic acids mediated by clustered, regularly interspaced, short palindromic repeats (CRISPR) depends on the expression of the CRISPR-associated (Cas) proteins and the formation of small CRISPR RNAs (crRNAs). The crRNA-loaded Cas ribonucleoprotein complexes convey the specific recognition and inactivation of target nucleic acids. In E. coli K12, the maturation of crRNAs and the interference with target DNA is performed by the Cascade complex. The transcription of the Cascade operon is tightly repressed through H-NS-dependent inhibition of the Pcas promoter. Elevated levels of the LysR-type regulator LeuO induce the Pcas promoter and concomitantly activate the CRISPR-mediated immunity against phages. Here, we show that the Pcas promoter can also be induced by constitutive expression of the regulator BglJ. This activation is LeuO-dependent as heterodimers of BglJ and RcsB activate leuO transcription. Each transcription factor, LeuO or BglJ, induced the transcription of the Cascade genes to comparable amounts. However, the maturation of the crRNAs was activated in LeuO but not in BglJ-expressing cells. Studies on CRISPR promoter activities, transcript stabilities, crRNA processing and Cascade protein levels were performed to answer the question why crRNA maturation is defective in BglJ-expressing cells. Our results demonstrate that the activation of Cascade gene transcription is necessary but not sufficient to turn on the CRISPR-mediated immunity and suggest a more complex regulation of the type I-E CRISPR-Cas system in E. coli.

Cytotoxic chromosomal targeting by CRISPR/Cas systems can reshape bacterial genomes and expel or remodel pathogenicity islands

In prokaryotes, clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats (CRISPRs) and their associated (Cas) proteins constitute a defence system against bacteriophages and plasmids. CRISPR/Cas systems acquire short spacer sequences from foreign genetic elements and incorporate these into their CRISPR arrays, generating a memory of past invaders. Defence is provided by short non-coding RNAs that guide Cas proteins to cleave complementary nucleic acids. While most spacers are acquired from phages and plasmids, there are examples of spacers that match genes elsewhere in the host bacterial chromosome. In Pectobacterium atrosepticum the type I-F CRISPR/Cas system has acquired a self-complementary spacer that perfectly matches a protospacer target in a horizontally acquired island (HAI2) involved in plant pathogenicity. Given the paucity of experimental data about CRISPR/Cas-mediated chromosomal targeting, we examined this process by developing a tightly controlled system. Chromosomal targeting was highly toxic via targeting of DNA and resulted in growth inhibition and cellular filamentation. The toxic phenotype was avoided by mutations in the cas operon, the CRISPR repeats, the protospacer target, and protospacer-adjacent motif (PAM) beside the target. Indeed, the natural self-targeting spacer was non-toxic due to a single nucleotide mutation adjacent to the target in the PAM sequence. Furthermore, we show that chromosomal targeting can result in large-scale genomic alterations, including the remodelling or deletion of entire pre-existing pathogenicity islands. These features can be engineered for the targeted deletion of large regions of bacterial chromosomes. In conclusion, in DNA-targeting CRISPR/Cas systems, chromosomal interference is deleterious by causing DNA damage and providing a strong selective pressure for genome alterations, which may have consequences for bacterial evolution and pathogenicity.

The CRISPR-associated gene cas2 of Legionella pneumophila is required for intracellular infection of amoebae

Recent studies have shown that the clustered regularly interspaced palindromic repeats (CRISPR) array and its associated (cas) genes can play a key role in bacterial immunity against phage and plasmids. Upon analysis of the Legionella pneumophila strain 130b chromosome, we detected a subtype II-B CRISPR-Cas locus that contains cas9, cas1, cas2, cas4, and an array with 60 repeats and 58 unique spacers. Reverse transcription (RT)-PCR analysis demonstrated that the entire CRISPR-Cas locus is expressed during 130b extracellular growth in both rich and minimal media as well as during intracellular infection of macrophages and aquatic amoebae. Quantitative reverse transcription-PCR (RT-PCR) further showed that the levels of cas transcripts, especially those of cas1 and cas2, are elevated during intracellular growth relative to exponential-phase growth in broth. Mutants lacking components of the CRISPR-Cas locus were made and found to grow normally in broth and on agar media. cas9, cas1, cas4, and CRISPR array mutants also grew normally in macrophages and amoebae. However, cas2 mutants, although they grew typically in macrophages, were significantly impaired for infection of both Hartmannella and Acanthamoeba species. A complemented cas2 mutant infected the amoebae at wild-type levels, confirming that cas2 is required for intracellular infection of these host cells.

IMPORTANCE

Given that infection of amoebae is critical for L. pneumophila persistence in water systems, our data indicate that cas2 has a role in the transmission of Legionnaires' disease. Because our experiments were done in the absence of added phage, plasmid, or nucleic acid, the event that is facilitated by Cas2 is uniquely distinct from current dogma concerning CRISPR-Cas function.

Memory of viral infections by CRISPR-Cas adaptive immune systems: acquisition of new information

Multiple organisms face the threat of viral infections. To combat phage invasion, bacteria and archaea have evolved an adaptive mechanism of protection against exogenic mobile genetic elements, called CRISPR-Cas. In this defense strategy, phage infection is memorized via acquisition of a short invader sequence, called a spacer, into the CRISPR locus of the host genome. Upon repeated infection, the 'vaccinated' host expresses the spacer as a precursor RNA, which is processed into a mature CRISPR RNA (crRNA) that guides an endonuclease to the matching invader for its ultimate destruction. Recent efforts have uncovered molecular details underlying the crRNA biogenesis and interference steps. However, until recently the step of adaptation had remained largely uninvestigated. In this minireview, we focus on recent publications that have begun to reveal molecular insights into the adaptive step of CRISPR-Cas immunity, which is required for the development of the heritable memory of the host against viruses.

Use of clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeat sequence polymorphisms for specific detection of enterohemorrhagic Escherichia coli strains of serotypes O26:H11, O45:H2, O103:H2, O111:H8, O121:H19, O145:H28, and O157:H7 by real-time PCR

We explored the genetic diversity of the clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeat (CRISPR) regions of enterohemorrhagic Escherichia coli (EHEC) to design simplex real-time PCR assays for each of the seven most important EHEC serotypes worldwide. A panel of 958 E. coli strains investigated for their CRISPR loci by high-throughput real-time PCR showed that CRISPR polymorphisms in E. coli strongly correlated with both O:H serotypes and the presence of EHEC virulence factors (stx and eae genes). The CRISPR sequences chosen for simplex real-time PCR amplification of EHEC strains belonging to the top 7 EHEC serogroups differentiated clearly between EHEC and non-EHEC strains. Specificity estimates for the CRISPR PCR assays varied from 97.5% to 100%. Sensitivity estimates for the assays ranged from 95.7% to 100%. The assays targeting EHEC O145:H28, O103:H2, and O45:H2 displayed 100% sensitivity. The combined usage of two simplex PCR assays targeting different sequences of the O26 CRISPR locus allowed detection of EHEC O26:H11 with 100% sensitivity. By combining two simplex PCR assays targeting different sequences of the EHEC O157 CRISPR locus, EHEC O157:H7 was detected with 99.56% sensitivity. EHEC O111:H8 and EHEC O121:H19 were detected with 95.9% and 95.7% sensitivity, respectively. This study demonstrates that the identification of EHEC serotype-specific CRISPR sequences is more specific than the mere identification of O-antigen gene sequences, as is used in current PCR protocols for detection of EHEC strains.

Shigella sonnei genome sequencing and phylogenetic analysis indicate recent global dissemination from Europe

Shigella are human-adapted Escherichia coli that have gained the ability to invade the human gut mucosa and cause dysentery(1,2), spreading efficiently via low-dose fecal-oral transmission(3,4). Historically, S. sonnei has been predominantly responsible for dysentery in developed countries but is now emerging as a problem in the developing world, seeming to replace the more diverse Shigella flexneri in areas undergoing economic development and improvements in water quality(4-6). Classical approaches have shown that S. sonnei is genetically conserved and clonal(7). We report here whole-genome sequencing of 132 globally distributed isolates. Our phylogenetic analysis shows that the current S. sonnei population descends from a common ancestor that existed less than 500 years ago and that diversified into several distinct lineages with unique characteristics. Our analysis suggests that the majority of this diversification occurred in Europe and was followed by more recent establishment of local pathogen populations on other continents, predominantly due to the pandemic spread of a single, rapidly evolving, multidrug-resistant lineage.