Sexual victimization and health-risk behaviors: a prospective analysis of college women

Intimate partner violence, sexual assault, and reproductive health among university women

Relationships between victimization, termination of pregnancy (ToP), diagnosis of sexually transmitted infection (STI), and emergency contraceptive use were examined using data from a survey of university students in Montreal, Canada. Female students who had been sexually active in the past two years with at least one male partner were included (n=1,812). Victimization experiences were assessed, and logistic regressions were performed to predict the correlates of lifetime use of emergency contraception, ToP, and ever having been diagnosed with an STI. In this sample, 36.1% reported intimate partner violence (IPV), 8.5% reported sexual assault (SA) and 18.9% reported both SA and IPV. Factors statistically associated with emergency contraceptive use, ToP and STI diagnosis were older age, financial hardship, migratory trajectory, early sexual initiation, and dual victimization. These data indicate that the reproductive health needs of female university students experiencing victimization are unmet. Interventions should focus on victimization screening and enhancing reproductive autonomy.

Psychological consequences associated with positive and negative responses to disclosure of sexual assault among college women: a prospective study

A prospective design was utilized to explore the impact of social reactions to sexual assault disclosure among college women who experienced sexual victimization over a 4-month academic quarter. Women completed baseline, 4- and 7-month assessments of symptomatology, beliefs about why sexual assault occurs, victimization, and social reactions to sexual assault disclosure. Accounting for symptomatology or beliefs reported prior to the assault, positive social reactions were not associated with victims' subsequent symptomatology or beliefs. However, accounting for symptomatology or beliefs reported prior to the assault, higher negative social reactions were associated with victims' post-assault reports of hostility, fear, and beliefs about why sexual assault occurs.

Concurrent Administration of Sexual Assault Prevention and Risk Reduction Programming

The present study describes the 4- and 7-month postintervention outcomes of a sexual assault risk reduction program for women, which was part of an evaluation that included a prevention program for men. Relative to the control group, participants evidenced more relational sexual assertiveness and self-protective behavior, and were more likely to indicate that they utilized active verbal and physical self-defense strategies. Whether or not women experienced subsequent victimization did not differ between groups. Relative to control group women who were victimized, program participants who were victimized between the 4- and 7-month follow-up blamed the perpetrator more and evidenced less self-blame.

Gender-based violence against adolescent and young adult women in low- and middle-income countries

PURPOSE

Gender-based violence (GBV) is a global health and human rights issue with individual and social determinants. Youth are considered high risk; national influences include norms, policies and practices. By age, nation, and region, we contrast key GBV indicators, specifically intimate partner violence (IPV) and forced sexual debut among adolescent and young adult women using Demographic and Health Surveys across low- and middle-income countries.

METHODS

National prevalence estimates were generated among adolescents (15-19 years) and young adults (20-24 years) for lifetime and the past-year physical and sexual IPV among ever-married/cohabitating women (30 nations) and forced sexual debut among sexually experienced women (17 nations). Meta-analyses provided regional estimates and cross-national comparisons, and compared the past-year IPV prevalence among adolescent and young adult women to adult women.

RESULTS

An estimated 28% of adolescent and 29% of young adult women reported lifetime physical or sexual IPV, most prevalent in the East and Southern Africa region. Regional and cross-national variation emerged in patterns of violence by age; overall, young adult women demonstrated higher risk for the past-year IPV relative to adult women (meta-analysis odds ratio, 1.20; 95% confidence interval, 1.10-1.37) and adolescents had a comparable risk (meta-analysis odds ratio, 1.07; 95% confidence interval, .91-1.23). Forced sexual debut was estimated at 12% overall, highest in the East and Southern Africa region.

CONCLUSIONS

GBV is pervasive among adolescent and young adult women in low- and middle-income countries. The unique risk to youth varies across nations, suggesting an age-place interaction. Future research is needed to clarify contextual determinants of GBV. Findings provide direction for integrating youth within GBV prevention efforts.

Changing Attitudes About Being a Bystander to Violence

Bystander approaches to reducing sexual violence train community members in prosocial roles to interrupt situations with risk of sexual violence and be supportive community allies after an assault. This study employs a true experimental design to evaluate the effectiveness of Bringing in the Bystander™ through 1-year post-implementation with first-year students from two universities (one rural, primarily residential; one urban, heavily commuter). We found significant change in bystander attitudes for male and female student program participants compared with the control group on both campuses, although the pattern of change depended on the combination of gender and campus.

Prevalence and Health Impact of Intimate Partner Violence and Non-partner Sexual Violence Among Female Adolescents Aged 15-19 Years in Vulnerable Urban Environments: A Multi-Country Study

PURPOSE

Globally, adolescent women are at risk for gender-based violence (GBV) including sexual violence and intimate partner violence (IPV). Those in economically distressed settings are considered uniquely vulnerable.

METHODS

Female adolescents aged 15-19 from Baltimore, Maryland, USA; New Delhi, India; Ibadan, Nigeria; Johannesburg, South Africa; and Shanghai, China (n = 1,112) were recruited via respondent-driven sampling to participate in a cross-sectional survey. We describe the prevalence of past-year physical and sexual IPV, and lifetime and past-year non-partner sexual violence. Logistic regression models evaluated associations of GBV with substance use, sexual and reproductive health, mental health, and self-rated health.

RESULTS

Among ever-partnered women, past-year IPV prevalence ranged from 10.2% in Shanghai to 36.6% in Johannesburg. Lifetime non-partner sexual violence ranged from 1.2% in Shanghai to 12.6% in Johannesburg. Where sufficient cases allowed additional analyses (Baltimore and Johannesburg), both IPV and non-partner sexual violence were associated with poor health across domains of substance use, sexual and reproductive health, mental health, and self-rated health; associations varied across study sites.

CONCLUSIONS

Significant heterogeneity was observed in the prevalence of IPV and non-partner sexual violence among adolescent women in economically distressed urban settings, with upwards of 25% of ever-partnered women experiencing past-year IPV in Baltimore, Ibadan, and Johannesburg, and more than 10% of adolescent women in Baltimore and Johannesburg reporting non-partner sexual violence. Findings affirm the negative health influence of GBV even in disadvantaged urban settings that present a range of competing health threats. A multisectoral response is needed to prevent GBV against young women, mitigate its health impact, and hold perpetrators accountable.

Female Sexual Victimization Among College Students: Assault Severity, Health Risk Behaviors, and Sexual Functioning

The purpose of the present study was to examine the relationship between college women's sexual victimization experiences, health risk behaviors, and sexual functioning. A sample of 309 college women at a mid-sized Midwestern university completed measures assessing sexual victimization, sexual risk taking, substance use behaviors, sexual desire, sexual functioning, prior sexual experiences, and social desirability. Severity of sexual victimization was measured using a multi-item, behaviorally specific, gender-neutral measure, which was divided into four categories based on severity (none, sexual contact, sexual coercion, rape). Within the sample, 72.8% (n = 225) of women reported at least one experience of sexual victimization since age 16. Results from MANCOVAs and a multinomial logistic regression, controlling for social desirability and prior sexual experience, revealed that sexual victimization among female students was related to increased drug use, problematic drinking behaviors, sexual risk taking, sexual dysfunction, and dyadic sexual desire. In addition, findings indicated that women exposed to more severe forms of sexual victimization (i.e., rape) were most likely to report these risk-taking behaviors and sexual functioning issues. Implications for sexual assault risk reduction programming and treatment are discussed.

Adolescent relationship violence: help-seeking and help-giving behaviors among peers

Young people tend to disclose relationship violence experiences to their peers, if they disclose at all, yet little is known about the nature and frequency of adolescent help-seeking and help-giving behaviors. Conducted within a sample of 1,312 young people from four New York City high schools, this is the first paper to ask adolescent help-givers about the various forms of help they provide and among the first to examine how ethnicity and nativity impact help-seeking behaviors. Relationship violence victims who had ever disclosed (61%) were more likely to choose their friends for informal support. Ethnicity was predictive of adolescent disclosure outlets, whereas gender and nativity were not. Latinos were significantly less likely than non-Latinos to ever disclose to only friends, as compared to disclosing to at least one adult. The likelihood of a young person giving help to their friend in a violent relationship is associated with gender, ethnicity, and nativity, with males being significantly less likely than females to give all forms of help to their friends (talking to their friends about the violence, suggesting options, and taking action). Foreign-born adolescents are less likely to talk or suggest options to friends in violent relationships. This study also found that Latinos were significantly more likely than non-Latinos to report taking action with or on behalf of a friend in a violent relationship. This research shows that adolescents often rely on each other to address relationship violence, underlining the importance of adolescents' receipt of training and education on how to support their friends, including when to seek help from more formal services. To further understand the valuable role played by adolescent peers of victims, future research should explore both which forms of help are perceived by the victim to be most helpful and which are associated with more positive outcomes.

Human rights violations and smoking status among South African adults enrolled in the South Africa Stress and Health (SASH) study

Despite South Africa's history of violent political conflict, and the link between stressful experiences and smoking in the literature, no public health study has examined South Africans' experiences of human rights violations and smoking. Using data from participants in the nationally representative cross-sectional South Africa Stress and Health study (SASH), this analysis examined the association between respondent smoking status and both human rights violations experienced by the respondent and violations experienced by the respondents' close friends and family members. SAS-Callable SUDAAN was used to construct separate log-binomial models by political affiliation during apartheid (government or liberation supporters). In comparison to those who reported no violations, in adjusted analyses, government supporters who reported violations of themselves but not others (RR = 1.76, 95% CI: 1.25-2.46) had a significantly higher smoking prevalence. In comparison to liberation supporters who reported no violations, those who reported violations of self only (RR = 1.56, 95%CI: 1.07-2.29), close others only (RR = 1.97, 95%CI: 1.12-3.47), or violations of self and close others due to close others' political beliefs and the respondent's political beliefs (RR = 2.86, 95%CI: 1.70-4.82) had a significantly higher prevalence of smoking. The results of this analysis suggest that a relationship may exist between human rights violations and smoking among South Africa adults. Future research should use longitudinal data to assess causality, test the generalizability of these findings, and consider how to apply these findings to smoking cessation interventions.

College men's and women's respective perceptions of risk to perpetrate or experience sexual assault: the role of alcohol use and expectancies

The present study examines alcohol use, expectancies (i.e., beliefs about the outcomes of alcohol consumption), and college men's (n = 127) and women's (n = 191) respective perceptions of risk to perpetrate/experience sexual violence. Interactions between alcohol consumption and expectancies were examined. Alcohol expectancies regarding assertiveness increased women's perceived risk for sexual intercourse via alcohol/drugs. Among women reporting high alcohol use, global expectancies were positively associated with perceived risk for sexual intercourse via alcohol/drugs. Furthermore, among women reporting low alcohol use, expectancies regarding assertiveness were positively associated with perceived risk for coerced sexual contact. Implications are discussed.

Variation in Criminal Justice Policy-Making

Variation in Sex Offender Registration and Community Notification (SORCN) policies may suggest differences in public fears of sexual crimes as well as differences in state-level policy-making. This study explored the standardization of SORCN policies across a sample of five midwestern states. A thematic content analysis showed that states varied in how registrants were defined, what information was selected for public notification, and how sex offender laws are maintained. A typology of revisions emerged, which may inform our understanding about policy-making. Ultimately, existing research provides limited explanations for these results, serving as an impetus for future research on context and process of criminal justice policy change.

Competing Discourses about Youth Sexual Exploitation in Canadian News Media

Media holds the power to create, maintain, or break down stigmatizing attitudes, which affect policies, funding, and services. To understand how Canadian news media depicts the commercial sexual exploitation of children and youth, we examined 835 Canadian newspaper articles from 1989-2008 using a mixed methods critical discourse analysis approach, comparing representations to existing research about sexually exploited youth. Despite research evidence that equal rates of boys and girls experience exploitation, Canadian news media depicted exploited youth predominantly as heterosexual girls, and described them alternately as victims or workers in a trade, often both in the same story. News media mentioned exploiters far less often than victims, and portrayed them almost exclusively as male, most often called 'customers' or 'consumers,' and occasionally 'predators'; in contrast, research has documented the majority of sexually exploited boys report female exploiters. Few news stories over the past two decades portrayed the diversity of victims, perpetrators, and venues of exploitation reported in research. The focus on victims but not exploiters helps perpetuate stereotypes of sexual exploitation as business or a 'victimless crime,' maintains the status quo, and blurs responsibility for protecting youth under the UN Convention on the Rights of the Child. Health care providers and researchers can be advocates for accuracy in media coverage about sexual exploitation; news reporters and editors should focus on exploiters more than victims, draw on existing research evidence to avoid perpetuating stereotypes, and use accurate terms, such as commercial sexual exploitation, rather than terms related to business or trade.

Social reactions to disclosure of sexual victimization and adjustment among survivors of sexual assault

How a support provider responds to disclosure of sexual victimization has important implications for the process of recovery. The present study examines the associations between various positive and negative social reactions to sexual assault disclosure and psychological distress, coping behavior, social support, and self-esteem in a sample of college women (N = 374). Social reactions to assault disclosure that attempted to control the survivor's decisions were associated with increased symptoms of posttraumatic stress, depression, and anxiety and lower perceptions of reassurance of worth from others. Blaming social reactions were associated with less self-esteem and engagement in coping via problem solving. Social reactions that provided emotional support to the survivor were associated with increased coping by seeking emotional support. Contrary to expectations, social reactions that treated the survivor differently were associated with higher self-esteem. Implications are discussed.

Educational and skills-based interventions for preventing relationship and dating violence in adolescents and young adults

BACKGROUND

Educational and skills-based interventions are often used to prevent relationship and dating violence among young people.

OBJECTIVES

To assess the efficacy of educational and skills-based interventions designed to prevent relationship and dating violence in adolescents and young adults.

SEARCH METHODS

We searched the Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials (CENTRAL), MEDLINE, EMBASE, CINAHL, PsycINFO, six other databases and a trials register on 7 May 2012. We handsearched the references lists of key articles and two journals (Journal of Interpersonal Violence and Child Abuse and Neglect). We also contacted researchers in the field.

SELECTION CRITERIA

Randomised, cluster-randomised and quasi-randomised studies comparing an educational or skills-based intervention to prevent relationship or dating violence among adolescents and young adults with a control.

DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS

Two review authors independently assessed study eligibility and risk of bias. For each study included in the meta-analysis, data were extracted independently by GF and one other review author (either CH, JN, SH or DS). We conducted meta-analyses for the following outcomes: episodes of relationship violence, behaviours, attitudes, knowledge and skills.

MAIN RESULTS

We included 38 studies (15,903 participants) in this review, 18 of which were cluster-randomised trials (11,995 participants) and two were quasi-randomised trials (399 participants). We included 33 studies in the meta-analyses. We included eight studies (3405 participants) in the meta-analysis assessing episodes of relationship violence. There was substantial heterogeneity (I(2) = 57%) for this outcome. The risk ratio was 0.77 (95% confidence interval (CI) 0.53 to 1.13). We included 22 studies (5256 participants) in the meta-analysis assessing attitudes towards relationship violence. The standardised mean difference (SMD) was 0.06 (95% CI -0.01 to 0.15). We included four studies (887 participants) in the meta-analysis assessing behaviour related to relationship violence; the SMD was -0.07 (95% CI -0.31 to 0.16). We included 10 studies (6206 participants) in the meta-analysis assessing knowledge related to relationship violence; the results showed an increase in knowledge in favour of the intervention (SMD 0.44, 95% CI 0.28 to 0.60) but there was substantial heterogeneity (I(2) = 52%). We included seven studies (1369 participants) in the meta-analysis assessing skills related to relationship violence. The SMD was 0.03 (95% CI -0.11 to 0.17). None of the included studies assessed physical health, psychosocial health or adverse outcomes. Subgroup analyses showed no statistically significant differences by intervention setting or type of participants. The quality of evidence for all outcomes included in our meta-analysis was moderate due to an unclear risk of selection and detection bias and a high risk of performance bias in most studies.

AUTHORS' CONCLUSIONS

Studies included in this review showed no evidence of effectiveness of interventions on episodes of relationship violence or on attitudes, behaviours and skills related to relationship violence. We found a small increase in knowledge but there was evidence of substantial heterogeneity among studies. Further studies with longer-term follow-up are required, and study authors should use standardised and validated measurement instruments to maximise comparability of results.

College women's experiences with rape disclosure: a national study

Disclosure of a rape to informal support sources (e.g., friends) is a relatively common experience, but it is not well understood. This study expands our limited knowledge of the characteristics and life experiences of disclosure recipients among a national sample of 2,000 female college students. Over 40% of respondents reported having received a rape disclosure, and more than two thirds of these recipients encouraged victims to formally report their rapes to the police or other authorities. Correlates of disclosure receipt and encouragement of reporting, including personal assault history, mental health history, and substance use, are presented and discussed.

Factors associated with college women's labeling of sexual victimization

Despite high rates of sexual assault among college women, most victims do not label the experience as sexual assault or rape. Prior research examining labeling of sexual victimization has focused on women's characterization of rape experiences as either not victimization or victimization. This study extends prior research by exploring factors associated with labeling various forms of sexual victimization as "not victimization," a "serious miscommunication," or a "sexual assault, date rape, rape, or crime." A sample of 1,060 college women reported on their experiences of sexual victimization since the age of 14 years. Women who reported experiences of prior sexual victimization (n = 371) indicated their level of acquaintance with the assailant, assault disclosure, substance use at time of assault, attributions of self- and perpetrator-blame for the assault, and labeling of the experience. Most women who reported experiences of sexual victimization did not self-identify as victims, and 38% labeled sexual victimization as a serious miscommunication. Greater acquaintance with the perpetrator, higher behavioral self-blame, and victim substance use at the time of the assault were associated with labeling sexual assault experiences as a serious miscommunication. Implications are discussed.

Factors associated with the sexual assault of students: an exploratory study of victims treated at hospital-based sexual assault treatment centers

Research suggests that students experience high levels of sexual assault, but studies addressing how they differ in their experiences from other sexual assault victims are virtually nonexistent. To address this gap, information was collected from consecutive individuals, aged 16 years or older, presenting to one of 7 hospital-based sexual assault treatment centers in Ontario from 2005 to 2007. Of the 882 victims seen during the study period, 32% were students. Relative to other sexual assault victims, students were more likely to be aged 16 to 18 years and 19 to 24 years versus 25 years and older. They were more likely to be living alone, with family of origin, a partner or spouse, or a nonrelative than on the street or in a shelter or institution. They were also more likely to report having consumed over-the-counter medication in the 72 hours prior to examination. Student victims were less likely than nonstudent victims to report having a disability and having used street drugs. Implications for research, education, and practice are discussed.

Sexual and dating violence among adolescents and young adults in Chile: a review of findings from a survey of university students

This paper synthesises and discusses results from the 2005 Survey of Student Well-Being, a closed-ended questionnaire administered to students attending general education courses at a major public university in Santiago (n = 484 women, 466 men). The survey included questions on sexual violence (SV) and dating violence (DV), public health problems that have received little attention in Chile and other Latin-American countries. This paper highlights key findings from a series of papers based on these data, noting lessons learned in the Chilean context that may be useful for other Latin-American countries. Important gaps in the international literature on SV and DV are also discussed. A central finding is the high prevalence of SV and DV in this sample of university students, warranting further public health attention to these problems. Potentially, the findings will contribute to changes in awareness, policy and practice along similar lines to efforts that transformed the US landscape regarding SV and DV on college campuses in the 1980s.

Developmental Associations Between Adolescent Alcohol Use and Dating Aggression

While numerous studies have established a link between alcohol use and partner violence in adulthood, little research has examined this relation during adolescence. The current study used multivariate growth models to examine relations between alcohol use and dating aggression across grades 8 through 12 controlling for shared risk factors (common causes) that predict both behaviors. Associations between trajectories of alcohol use and dating aggression were reduced substantially when common causes were controlled. Concurrent associations between the two behaviors were significant across nearly all grades but no evidence was found for prospective connections from prior alcohol use to subsequent dating aggression or vice versa. Findings suggest that prevention efforts should target common causes of alcohol use and dating aggression.

Dating violence victimization across the teen years: abuse frequency, number of abusive partners, and age at first occurrence

Background

Prior longitudinal studies have shown high cumulative dating violence exposure rates among U.S adolescents, with 36 percent of males and 44 percent to 88 percent of females experiencing victimization across adolescence/young adulthood. Despite promising information characterizing adolescents’ dating violence experiences longitudinally, prior studies tended to concentrate on physical and sexual types of violence only, and did not report information on the number of times dating violence was experienced across multiple abusive partners. We used a method similar to the timeline follow-back interview to query adolescents about dating violence victimization from age 13 to 19—including dating violence types (physical, sexual, and psychological), frequency, age at first occurrence, and number of abusive partners.

Methods

A total of 730 subjects were randomly sampled from university registrar records and invited to complete an online survey, which utilized methods similar to the timeline follow-back interview, to retrospectively assess relationship histories and dating violence victimization from age 13 to 19 (eight questions adapted from widely-used surveys covering physical, sexual, and psychological abuse). Then, for each dating violence type, we asked about the number of occurrences, number of abusive partners, and age at first occurrence. Of 341 subjects who completed the survey, we included 297 (64 percent females; 36 percent males) who had a dating partner from age 13 to 19.

Results

Fully 64.7 percent of females and 61.7 percent of males reported dating violence victimization between age 13 and 19, with most experiencing multiple occurrences. More than one-third of abused females had two or more abusive partners: controlling behavior (35.6 percent); put downs/name calling (37.0); pressured sex (42.9); insults (44.3); slapped/hit (50.0); and threats (62.5). Males also had two or more abusive partners, as follows: controlling behavior (42.1 percent); insults (51.2); put downs (53.3); threats (55.6); and unwanted calls/texts/visits (60.7). Among abused females, 44.7 percent first experienced controlling behavior between age 13 and 15, whereas the majority (62.5 percent) first experienced pressured sex between age 16 and 17. Among males, for most abuse types, 16 percent to 30 percent of victimization began before age 15.

Conclusions

Our study adds information to a substantial, but still growing, body of literature about dating violence frequency, age of occurrence, and number of abusive partners among adolescents.

Prospective risk factors for subsequent exposure to potentially traumatic events

In a sample of 1528 college students, we examined (1) whether several risk factors prospectively predicted exposure to potentially traumatic events (PTEs) over a 2-month period and (2) whether dependent events (i.e., those more likely to depend upon one's behavior or characteristics) and independent events were predicted by different risk factors. Logistic regression analyses indicated that overall subsequent PTE exposure was higher for women, those with more previous PTEs, and those who engaged in more binge drinking. Female gender and previous PTE exposure also predicted exposure to independent events. Subsequent dependent PTE exposure was predicted by more previous PTEs and binge drinking, and was somewhat higher in ethnic minority students. Implications for prevention efforts are discussed.

Correlates of alcohol-related regretted sex among college students

The prevalence of alcohol-related regretted sex in college students warrants a better understanding of the characteristics of students who report such experiences. Therefore, the present study examined correlates of regretted sexual experiences involving alcohol use among 2 specific high-risk college student samples: students mandated to alcohol intervention (n = 522) and volunteer 1st-year students transitioning to college (n = 481). Results indicated that alcohol-related regretted sex occurred at similar rates in mandated and volunteer students, with approximately 25% of the students reporting at least 1 occurrence in the past month. Women were more likely to report alcohol-related regretted sex compared with men. The belief that alcohol use would result in "liquid courage" was associated with alcohol-related regretted sex among college students, even after accounting for greater alcohol use and problem alcohol use behaviors. These findings have significant implications for intervention efforts and future research.

College students' social reactions to the victim in a hypothetical sexual assault scenario: the role of victim and perpetrator alcohol use

College students' responses to a hypothetical sexual assault scenario involving alcohol use by the victim and/or perpetrator were examined (N = 295). Participants reported on victim/perpetrator responsibility, the extent to which the scenario would be considered rape, and their likelihood of providing positive or negative responses to the victim. Compared to women, men indicated that they would provide more negative and less positive social reactions to the victim, were less likely to identify the scenario as rape, and endorsed less perpetrator responsibility. When the victim was drinking, participants endorsed greater victim responsibility and lower perpetrator responsibility for the assault. Participants indicated that they would provide the victim with less emotional support when only the perpetrator was drinking, compared to when both the individuals were drinking.

Gender differences in sexual assault victimization among college students

College students are at particular risk for sexual assault victimization, yet research tends to focus on women as victims and men as perpetrators. The purpose of this study was to investigate gender differences in the prevalence, context, and predictors of sexual assault victimization among college students. Results showed that women were significantly more likely to have been sexually assaulted in a 2-month time period, but the context of victimization varied little by gender. Victimization was predicted by sexual orientation, time spent socializing and partying, and severe dating violence victimization for men and by year in school, time spent on the Internet, drinking and using drugs, and being a stalking and dating violence victim for women. Results are discussed in the context of routine activities theory and implications for prevention and future research.

Sexual abuse in childhood and adolescence and the risk of early pregnancy among women ages 18-22

PURPOSE

This clinic- and community-based study of young women investigated the relationship between previous sexual abuse and early pregnancy, examining the effect of the developmental period in which sexual abuse occurred and type of sexual abuse, while also providing methodological advances in the assessment of distinctive sexual abuse and its sequelae.

METHODS

Secondary data analysis using Cox proportional hazards models was conducted to determine the association between sexual abuse in childhood, in adolescence, or both, and risk of early pregnancy among 1,790 young women. In addition, this study examined the type of sexual abuse that occurred during each period.

RESULTS

As compared with women with no history of sexual abuse, women who experienced sexual abuse only in childhood had a 20% greater hazard of pregnancy; women who experienced sexual abuse only in adolescence had a 30% greater hazard of pregnancy; and women who experienced sexual abuse in both childhood and adolescence had an 80% greater hazard of pregnancy. Across these periods, attempted rape and rape were associated with an increased hazard of pregnancy. The association between sexual abuse and pregnancy was mediated by age at first intercourse and moderated by a woman's education level.

CONCLUSION

This study provides evidence that both the developmental timing and the type of sexual abuse contributes to an increased risk for early pregnancy. The study findings indicate that sexual abuse leads to an earlier age of first sexual intercourse, which in turn increases the likelihood of an early pregnancy. Women with higher educational attainment are less likely to experience early pregnancy as a result of abuse.

Evaluation of Green Dot: an active bystander intervention to reduce sexual violence on college campuses

Using a cross-sectional survey of a random sample of 7,945 college undergraduates, we report on the association between having received Green Dot active bystander behavior training and the frequency of actual and observed self-reported active bystander behaviors as well as violence acceptance norms. Of 2,504 students aged 18 to 26 who completed the survey, 46% had heard a Green Dot speech on campus, and 14% had received active bystander training during the past 2 years. Trained students had significantly lower rape myth acceptance scores than did students with no training. Trained students also reported engaging in significantly more bystander behaviors and observing more self-reported active bystander behaviors when compared with nontrained students. When comparing self-reported active bystander behavior scores of students trained with students hearing a Green Dot speech alone, the training was associated with significantly higher active bystander behavior scores. Those receiving bystander training appeared to report more active bystander behaviors than those simply hearing a Green Dot speech, and both intervention groups reported more observed and active bystander behaviors than nonexposed students.

Preventing Sexual Aggression Among College Men: An Evaluation of a Social Norms and Bystander Intervention Program

Men and women living in randomly selected 1st-year dormitories participated in tailored single-sex sexual assault prevention or risk-reduction programs, respectively. An evaluation of the men’s project is presented ( N = 635). The program incorporated social norms and bystander intervention education and had an impact on self-reported sexual aggression and an effect on men’s perceptions that their peers would intervene when they encountered inappropriate behavior in others. Relative to the control group, participants also reported less reinforcement for engaging in sexually aggressive behavior, reported fewer associations with sexually aggressive peers, and indicated less exposure to sexually explicit media.

Preventing Sexual Aggression Among College Men: An Evaluation of a Social Norms and Bystander Intervention Program

Men and women living in randomly selected 1st-year dormitories participated in tailored single-sex sexual assault prevention or risk-reduction programs, respectively. An evaluation of the men’s project is presented ( N = 635). The program incorporated social norms and bystander intervention education and had an impact on self-reported sexual aggression and an effect on men’s perceptions that their peers would intervene when they encountered inappropriate behavior in others. Relative to the control group, participants also reported less reinforcement for engaging in sexually aggressive behavior, reported fewer associations with sexually aggressive peers, and indicated less exposure to sexually explicit media.

College- or university-based sexual assault prevention programs: a review of program outcomes, characteristics, and recommendations

This article examines literature reviews of research articles and dissertations focused on the effectiveness of college- or university-based sexual violence prevention programs. Literature reviews were eligible for inclusion in this article if they examined empirical published peer-reviewed research articles or dissertation research that reported original data; focused on examining the effectiveness of programs that were developed to reduce sexual violence that occurred in college or university settings; offered recommendations for developing and implementing effective college- or university-based sexual assault prevention programs; and reviewed studies that occurred in the United States. Eight review articles met the inclusion criteria. The results suggest that the effectiveness of college- or university-based sexual violence prevention programs varies depending on the type of audience, facilitator, format, and program content. Recommendations from existing reviews of empirical research concerning these program characteristics should be considered by college or university administrators when designing and implementing their own programs on campus.

Longitudinal research with sexual assault survivors: a methodological review

Longitudinal research designs are relatively rare in the academic literature on rape and sexual assault despite their tremendous methodological rigor and scientific utility. In the interest of promoting wider use of such methods, we conducted a methodological review of projects that have used prospective longitudinal designs to study the occurrence of sexual victimization throughout the lifespan and/or the process of change during rape recovery (N = 32 projects). Five questions were examined: (a) What were the substantive foci of these longitudinal studies? (b) How were survivors recruited? (c) What participation rates were typical? (d) How long were participants followed over time and with what success rates? and (e) What incentives were used to increase participation? Most studies focused on postassault sequelae and recruited survivors from hospital emergency departments and other first-response help-seeking sites with highly variable participation rates. Retention rates were comparable across studies (approximately 70%).

Cumulative victimization, psychological distress, and high-risk behavior among substance-involved women

This research addressed two questions: (a) What is the relationship between different patterns of cumulative victimization and psychological distress? And (b) How does the pattern of cumulative victimization and psychological distress influence women's engagement in substance- and sex-related risk behavior? Data were analyzed from interviews with 149 sexually active, crack-using women who completed a follow-up interview after participating in the Kentucky National Institute on Drug Abuse (NIDA) AIDS Cooperative Agreement. Findings from the multivariate analyses indicated that victimization accounted for 5% and 39% of the variance in psychological distress and high-risk behavior, respectively; cumulative victimization and psychological distress accounted for 6% to 11% of the variance in the high-risk behaviors. Results highlight the affects of childhood and adult victimization on psychological distress and the associations between different types of psychological distress and risk behavior.

The influence of running away on the risk of female sexual assault in the subsequent year

This study explores the sexual risk trajectories of female youths and sheds light on the long-term effects of running away. It evaluates whether running away increases the risk of sexual assault in the following year, which is after runaways return home. The sample consists of 5,387 heterosexual females between the ages of 11 and 18 years from the Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health. Nearly one quarter (23%) of runaways report a previous sexual assault in contrast to 5% of nonrunaways. In a logistic regression model, childhood neglect increases the risk of sexual assault between Waves 1 and 2 by nearly two times. Poor mental health is statistically significant. Alcohol use doubles the odds of sexual assault. The risk of sexual assault is approximately three-fold for girls with a history of sexual onset and sexual touching in a romantic relationship. Running away increases the risk by nearly two and a half times. There is evidence that alcohol use and sexual onset partially mediates the relationship between running away and sexual assault.

The relation between interpersonal violence and substance use among a sample of university students: examination of the role of victim and perpetrator substance use

OBJECTIVE

To examine the relation between interpersonal violence and substance use and to describe the role of victim and perpetrator substance use within such incidents among university students.

METHODS

A random sample of students (N=1197) participating in this cross-sectional study completed an online survey. Logistic regression models assessed the relation between substance use and sexual and physical victimization. Victim and perpetrator substance use at the time of incident were described.

RESULTS

Females were more likely to report sexual violence compared to males, whereas males were more likely to report physical victimization (p's<0.05). In logistic regression models, all forms of substance use were significantly associated with physical victimization among males (OR's=2.0-5.1). Among females, most forms of substance use were associated with sexual victimization (OR's=2.4-4.7). Both males and females reported high rates of perpetrator and own substance use during victimization incidents.

CONCLUSIONS

Findings suggest that previous documentation among victimization studies of a relation between substance use and subsequent risk for victimization may also be attributable to the substance use behavior of the perpetrator.