51
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Carron EC, Homra S, Rosenberg J, Coffelt SB, Kittrell F, Zhang Y, Creighton CJ, Fuqua SA, Medina D, Machado HL. Macrophages promote the progression of premalignant mammary lesions to invasive cancer. Oncotarget 2017; 8:50731-50746. [PMID: 28881599 PMCID: PMC5584199 DOI: 10.18632/oncotarget.14913] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/15/2016] [Accepted: 12/26/2016] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Breast cancer initiation, progression and metastasis rely on a complex interplay between tumor cells and their surrounding microenvironment. Infiltrating immune cells, including macrophages, promote mammary tumor progression and metastasis; however, less is known about the role of macrophages in early stage lesions. In this study, we utilized a transplantable p53-null model of early progression to characterize the immune cell components of early stage lesions. We show that macrophages are recruited to ductal hyperplasias with a high tumor-forming potential where they are differentiated and polarized toward a tumor-promoting phenotype. These macrophages are a unique subset of macrophages, characterized by pro-inflammatory, anti-inflammatory and immunosuppressive factors. Macrophage ablation studies showed that macrophages are required for both early stage progression and primary tumor formation. These studies suggest that therapeutic targeting of tumor-promoting macrophages may not only be an effective strategy to block tumor progression and metastasis, but may also have critical implications for breast cancer prevention.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emily C Carron
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Tulane School of Medicine, New Orleans, LA, USA
| | - Samuel Homra
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Tulane School of Medicine, New Orleans, LA, USA
| | - Jillian Rosenberg
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Tulane School of Medicine, New Orleans, LA, USA
| | - Seth B Coffelt
- CRUK Beatson Institute and Institute of Cancer Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, UK
| | - Frances Kittrell
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Biology, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX, USA
| | - Yiqun Zhang
- Dan L. Duncan Comprehensive Cancer Center Division of Biostatistics, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX, USA
| | - Chad J Creighton
- Dan L. Duncan Comprehensive Cancer Center Division of Biostatistics, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX, USA
| | - Suzanne A Fuqua
- Lester and Sue Smith Breast Center, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX, USA
| | - Daniel Medina
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Biology, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX, USA
| | - Heather L Machado
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Tulane School of Medicine, New Orleans, LA, USA
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52
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McBryan J, Howlin J. Pubertal Mammary Gland Development: Elucidation of In Vivo Morphogenesis Using Murine Models. Methods Mol Biol 2017; 1501:77-114. [PMID: 27796948 DOI: 10.1007/978-1-4939-6475-8_3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
During the past 25 years, the combination of increasingly sophisticated gene targeting technology with transplantation techniques has allowed researchers to address a wide array of questions about postnatal mammary gland development. These in turn have significantly contributed to our knowledge of other branched epithelial structures. This review chapter highlights a selection of the mouse models exhibiting a pubertal mammary gland phenotype with a focus on how they have contributed to our overall understanding of in vivo mammary morphogenesis. We discuss mouse models that have enabled us to assign functions to particular genes and proteins and, more importantly, have determined when and where these factors are required for completion of ductal outgrowth and branch patterning. The reason for the success of the mouse mammary gland model is undoubtedly the suitability of the postnatal mammary gland to experimental manipulation. The gland itself is very amenable to investigation and the combination of genetic modification with accessibility to the tissue has allowed an impressive number of studies to inform biology. Excision of the rudimentary epithelial structure postnatally allows genetically modified tissue to be readily transplanted into wild type stroma or vice versa, and has thus defined the contribution of each compartment to particular phenotypes. Similarly, whole gland transplantation has been used to definitively discern local effects from indirect systemic effects of various growth factors and hormones. While appreciative of the power of these tools and techniques, we are also cognizant of some of their limitations, and we discuss some shortcomings and future strategies that can overcome them.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jean McBryan
- Department of Molecular Medicine Royal College of Surgeons in Ireland Education and Research Centre, Beaumont Hospital, Dublin, 9, Ireland
| | - Jillian Howlin
- Division of Oncology-Pathology, Lund University Cancer Center/Medicon Village, Building 404:B2, Scheelevägen 2, 223 81, Lund, Sweden.
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Cervelló I, Gil-Sanchis C, Santamaría X, Faus A, Vallvé-Juanico J, Díaz-Gimeno P, Genolet O, Pellicer A, Simón C. Leucine-rich repeat-containing G-protein-coupled receptor 5-positive cells in the endometrial stem cell niche. Fertil Steril 2016; 107:510-519.e3. [PMID: 27887719 DOI: 10.1016/j.fertnstert.2016.10.021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/23/2016] [Revised: 10/13/2016] [Accepted: 10/14/2016] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE To study, isolate and characterize leucine-rich repeat-containing heterotrimeric guanine nucleotide-binding protein-coupled receptor 5 (LGR5)-positive cells from human endometrium to determine their functional relevance. DESIGN Prospective experimental animal study. SETTING University research laboratories. ANIMAL(S) Nonobese diabetic mice (NOD-SCID) (strain code 394; NOD.CB17-Prkdcscid/NcrCrl). INTERVENTION(S) Human LGR5+ cells were labeled with superparamagnetic iron oxide nanoparticles (SPIOs) and injected under the kidney capsule in immunocompromised mice. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURE(S) Epithelial and stromal LGR5+ cells were isolated from human endometrium by means of fluorescence-activated cell sorting, and phenotypic characterization was performed by means of flow cytometry with the use of hematopoietic and mesenchymal markers. Engrafted SPIO-labeled LGR5+ cells were localized with the use of Prussian blue staining and immunohistochemistry against CD9 and Vimentin. Deep transcriptomic profiling of LGR5+ cells was performed with the use of microarrays and RNA sequencing. RESULT(S) The percentage of LGR5+ cells in human endometrium represented 1.08 ± 0.73% and 0.82 ± 0.76% of total cells in the epithelial and stromal compartments, respectively. LGR5+ cells were phenotypically characterized by abundant expression of CD45 hematopoietic marker and no expression of surface markers CD31, CD34, CD133, CD73, and CD90. Coexpression with the macrophage marker CD163 was detected. Xenotransplantation of labeled LGR5+ cells into the kidney capsules of immunocompromised mice resulted in a weak endometrial reconstitution from this cell of origin. Transcriptomic profiling revealed new attributes for LGR5+ cells related to their putative hematopoietic origin. CONCLUSION(S) These data suggest that endometrial LGR5 is not an endogenous stem cell marker. Instead, LGR5+ cells appear to be recruited from blood to be part of the stem cell niche at the perivascular microenvironment to activate the endogenous niche.
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Affiliation(s)
- Irene Cervelló
- Fundación Instituto Valenciano de Infertilidad, Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, School of Medicine, Valencia University and Instituto Universitario IVI/INCLIVA, Valencia, Spain.
| | - Claudia Gil-Sanchis
- Fundación Instituto Valenciano de Infertilidad, Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, School of Medicine, Valencia University and Instituto Universitario IVI/INCLIVA, Valencia, Spain
| | - Xavier Santamaría
- Fundación Instituto Valenciano de Infertilidad, Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, School of Medicine, Valencia University and Instituto Universitario IVI/INCLIVA, Valencia, Spain; IVI Barcelona, Reproductive Medicine Department, Barcelona, Spain; Vall Hebron Institut de Recerca, Biomedical Research Group in Gynecology, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Amparo Faus
- Fundación Instituto Valenciano de Infertilidad, Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, School of Medicine, Valencia University and Instituto Universitario IVI/INCLIVA, Valencia, Spain
| | - Julia Vallvé-Juanico
- IVI Barcelona, Reproductive Medicine Department, Barcelona, Spain; Vall Hebron Institut de Recerca, Biomedical Research Group in Gynecology, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Patricia Díaz-Gimeno
- Fundación Instituto Valenciano de Infertilidad, Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, School of Medicine, Valencia University and Instituto Universitario IVI/INCLIVA, Valencia, Spain
| | - Oriana Genolet
- Fundación Instituto Valenciano de Infertilidad, Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, School of Medicine, Valencia University and Instituto Universitario IVI/INCLIVA, Valencia, Spain
| | - Antonio Pellicer
- Fundación Instituto Valenciano de Infertilidad, Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, School of Medicine, Valencia University and Instituto Universitario IVI/INCLIVA, Valencia, Spain
| | - Carlos Simón
- Fundación Instituto Valenciano de Infertilidad, Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, School of Medicine, Valencia University and Instituto Universitario IVI/INCLIVA, Valencia, Spain; Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford University, Stanford, California
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54
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Huo CW, Huang D, Chew GL, Hill P, Vohora A, Ingman WV, Glynn DJ, Godde N, Henderson MA, Thompson EW, Britt KL. Human glandular organoid formation in murine engineering chambers after collagenase digestion and flow cytometry isolation of normal human breast tissue single cells. Cell Biol Int 2016; 40:1212-1223. [PMID: 27590622 DOI: 10.1002/cbin.10675] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/24/2016] [Accepted: 08/28/2016] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
Abstract
Women with high mammographic density (MD) are at increased risk of breast cancer (BC) after adjustment for age and body mass index. We have developed a murine biochamber model in which both high MD (HMD) and low MD (LMD) tissue can be propagated. Here, we tested whether cells isolated by collagenase digestion and fluorescence-activated cell sorting (FACS) from normal breast can be reconstituted in our biochamber model, which would allow cell-specific manipulations to be tested. Fresh breast tissue was collected from women (n = 7) undergoing prophylactic mastectomy. The tissue underwent collagenase digestion overnight and, in some cases, additional FACS enrichment to obtain mature epithelial, luminal progenitor, mammary stem, and stromal cells. Cells were then transferred bilaterally into biochambers in SCID mice (n = 5-7) and incubated for 6 weeks, before harvesting for histological analyses, and immunohistochemical staining for cytokeratins (CK), vimentin, Ki-67, murine macrophages, and Cleaved Caspase-3. Biochambers inoculated with single cells after collagenase digestion or with flow cytometry contained glandular structures of human origin (human vimentin-positive), which expressed CK-14 and pan-CK, and were proliferating (Ki-67-positive). Glandular structures from the digested tissues were smaller than those in chambers seeded with finely chopped intact mammary tissue. Mouse macrophage infiltration was higher in the chambers arising from digested tissues. Pooled single cells and FACS fractionated cells were viable in the murine biochambers and formed proliferating glandular organoids of human origin. This is among the first report to demonstrate the success of formed human glandular organoids from isolated primary mammary cells in the murine biochamber model.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cecilia W Huo
- Department of Surgery, St. Vincent's Hospital, University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Australia.
| | - Dexing Huang
- St. Vincent's Institute of Medical Research, Melbourne, Australia
| | - Grace L Chew
- Department of Surgery, St. Vincent's Hospital, University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Australia
| | - Prue Hill
- Department of Pathology, St. Vincent's Hospital, Melbourne, Australia
| | - Ambika Vohora
- Department of Surgery, St. Vincent's Hospital, University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Australia
| | - Wendy V Ingman
- School of Medicine at the Queen Elizabeth Hospital, University of Adelaide, Adelaide, Australia.,Robinson Research Institute, University of Adelaide, Adelaide, Australia
| | - Danielle J Glynn
- School of Medicine at the Queen Elizabeth Hospital, University of Adelaide, Adelaide, Australia.,Robinson Research Institute, University of Adelaide, Adelaide, Australia
| | - Nathan Godde
- Cell Cycle and Cancer Genetics Laboratory, Peter MacCallum Cancer Centre, Melbourne, Australia.,The Sir Peter MacCallum Department of Oncology, University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Australia
| | - Michael A Henderson
- Department of Surgery, St. Vincent's Hospital, University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Australia.,Division of Surgery, Peter MacCallum Cancer Centre, Melbourne, Australia
| | - Erik W Thompson
- Department of Surgery, St. Vincent's Hospital, University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Australia.,Institute of Health and Biomedical Innovation, School of Biomedical Sciences, Queensland University of Technology and Translational Research Institute, Brisbane, Australia
| | - Kara L Britt
- The Sir Peter MacCallum Department of Oncology, University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Australia.,Metastasis Research Laboratory, Peter MacCallum Cancer Centre, Melbourne, Australia
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55
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Papi A, Orlandi M. Role of nuclear receptors in breast cancer stem cells. World J Stem Cells 2016; 8:62-72. [PMID: 27022437 PMCID: PMC4807310 DOI: 10.4252/wjsc.v8.i3.62] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/28/2015] [Revised: 12/17/2015] [Accepted: 01/27/2016] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
The recapitulation of primary tumour heterogenity and the existence of a minor sub-population of cancer cells, capable of initiating tumour growth in xenografts on serial passages, led to the hypothesis that cancer stem cells (CSCs) exist. CSCs are present in many tumours, among which is breast cancer. Breast CSCs (BCSCs) are likely to sustain the growth of the primary tumour mass, as well as to be responsible for disease relapse and metastatic spreading. Consequently, BCSCs represent the most significant target for new drugs in breast cancer therapy. Both the hypoxic condition in BCSCs biology and pro-inflammatory cytokine network has gained increasing importance in the recent past. Breast stromal cells are crucial components of the tumours milieu and are a major source of inflammatory mediators. Recently, the anti-inflammatory role of some nuclear receptors ligands has emerged in several diseases, including breast cancer. Therefore, the use of nuclear receptors ligands may be a valid strategy to inhibit BCSCs viability and consequently breast cancer growth and disease relapse.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alessio Papi
- Alessio Papi, Marina Orlandi, Department of Biological, Geological and Environmental Science (BiGea), University of Bologna, 40126 Bologna, Italy
| | - Marina Orlandi
- Alessio Papi, Marina Orlandi, Department of Biological, Geological and Environmental Science (BiGea), University of Bologna, 40126 Bologna, Italy
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56
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Williams CB, Yeh ES, Soloff AC. Tumor-associated macrophages: unwitting accomplices in breast cancer malignancy. NPJ Breast Cancer 2016; 2:15025. [PMID: 26998515 PMCID: PMC4794275 DOI: 10.1038/npjbcancer.2015.25] [Citation(s) in RCA: 326] [Impact Index Per Article: 40.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/18/2015] [Revised: 12/12/2015] [Accepted: 12/15/2015] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Deleterious inflammation is a primary feature of breast cancer. Accumulating evidence demonstrates that macrophages, the most abundant leukocyte population in mammary tumors, have a critical role at each stage of cancer progression. Such tumor-associated macrophages facilitate neoplastic transformation, tumor immune evasion and the subsequent metastatic cascade. Herein, we discuss the dynamic process whereby molecular and cellular features of the tumor microenvironment act to license tissue-repair mechanisms of macrophages, fostering angiogenesis, metastasis and the support of cancer stem cells. We illustrate how tumors induce, then exploit trophic macrophages to subvert innate and adaptive immune responses capable of destroying malignant cells. Finally, we discuss compelling evidence from murine models of cancer and early clinical trials in support of macrophage-targeted intervention strategies with the potential to dramatically reduce breast cancer morbidity and mortality.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carly Bess Williams
- Department of Cell and Molecular Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics, Medical University of South Carolina, Charleston, SC, USA
- Hollings Cancer Center, Medical University of South Carolina, Charleston, SC, USA
| | - Elizabeth S Yeh
- Department of Cell and Molecular Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics, Medical University of South Carolina, Charleston, SC, USA
- Hollings Cancer Center, Medical University of South Carolina, Charleston, SC, USA
| | - Adam C Soloff
- Hollings Cancer Center, Medical University of South Carolina, Charleston, SC, USA
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Medical University of South Carolina, Charleston, SC, USA
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57
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Yang J, Xiong L, Wang R, Yuan Q, Xia Y, Sun J, Horch RE. In vitro expression of cytokeratin 18, 19 and tube formation of adipose-derived stem cells induced by the breast epithelial cell line HBL-100. J Cell Mol Med 2015; 19:2827-31. [PMID: 26416346 PMCID: PMC4687699 DOI: 10.1111/jcmm.12673] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/16/2014] [Accepted: 08/03/2015] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Fat transplantation is increasingly used in breast augmentation; and recently, the issue of safety concerns from a cellular and molecular point of view has been raised. In this study, attentions were paid to the interaction between adipose-derived stem cells (ADSC) and mammary epithelial cells: human breast cancer cell line - 100 (HBL - 100) cells were used to simulate the normal microenvironment in breast tissue, ADSCs were harvest from human and co-cultured with HBL-100 cells. It was found that ADSCs formed tube-like structures in the co-culture with HBL-100 cells in contrast to the normal morphology of ADSCs in the control group. In addition, the immunofluorescence imaging showed that cytokeratin 18 and 19 (CK18 and 19) were significantly expressed in ADSCs after the co-culture with HBL-100 cells. The ultrastructure of those ADSCs also showed epithelial changes. In conclusion, ADSCs are not biological stable when co-cultured with HBL-100 cells. They differentiate into epithelial-like cells with the expression of epithelial surface marks (CK 18, 19) and form tube-like structures. This may offer an important evidence for the further study of clinical application of transplanting ADSCs rich adipose tissue into the breast in the future.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jie Yang
- Department of Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery, Union Hospital, Huazhong Science & Technology University, Wuhan, Hubei, China
| | - Lingyun Xiong
- Department of Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery, Union Hospital, Huazhong Science & Technology University, Wuhan, Hubei, China
| | - Rongrong Wang
- Department of Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery, Union Hospital, Huazhong Science & Technology University, Wuhan, Hubei, China
| | - Quan Yuan
- Department of Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery, Union Hospital, Huazhong Science & Technology University, Wuhan, Hubei, China
| | - Yun Xia
- Department of Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery, Union Hospital, Huazhong Science & Technology University, Wuhan, Hubei, China
| | - Jiaming Sun
- Department of Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery, Union Hospital, Huazhong Science & Technology University, Wuhan, Hubei, China
| | - Raymund E Horch
- Department of Plastic and Hand Surgery and Laboratory for Tissue Engineering and Regenerative Medicine, University Hospital Erlangen, Friedrich Alexander University, Erlangen-Nuernberg, FAU, Germany
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58
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Sousa S, Brion R, Lintunen M, Kronqvist P, Sandholm J, Mönkkönen J, Kellokumpu-Lehtinen PL, Lauttia S, Tynninen O, Joensuu H, Heymann D, Määttä JA. Human breast cancer cells educate macrophages toward the M2 activation status. Breast Cancer Res 2015; 17:101. [PMID: 26243145 PMCID: PMC4531540 DOI: 10.1186/s13058-015-0621-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 268] [Impact Index Per Article: 29.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/24/2015] [Accepted: 07/21/2015] [Indexed: 01/21/2023] Open
Abstract
Introduction The immune system plays a major role in cancer progression. In solid tumors, 5-40 % of the tumor mass consists of tumor-associated macrophages (TAMs) and there is usually a correlation between the number of TAMs and poor prognosis, depending on the tumor type. TAMs usually resemble M2 macrophages. Unlike M1-macrophages which have pro-inflammatory and anti-cancer functions, M2-macrophages are immunosuppressive, contribute to the matrix-remodeling, and hence favor tumor growth. The role of TAMs is not fully understood in breast cancer progression. Methods Macrophage infiltration (CD68) and activation status (HLA-DRIIα, CD163) were evaluated in a large cohort of human primary breast tumors (562 tissue microarray samples), by immunohistochemistry and scored by automated image analysis algorithms. Survival between groups was compared using the Kaplan-Meier life-table method and a Cox multivariate proportional hazards model. Macrophage education by breast cancer cells was assessed by ex vivo differentiation of peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) in the presence or absence of breast cancer cell conditioned media (MDA-MB231, MCF-7 or T47D cell lines) and M1 or M2 inducing cytokines (respectively IFN-γ, IL-4 and IL-10). Obtained macrophages were analyzed by flow cytometry (CD14, CD16, CD64, CD86, CD200R and CD163), ELISA (IL-6, IL-8, IL-10, monocyte colony stimulating factor M-CSF) and zymography (matrix metalloproteinase 9, MMP-9). Results Clinically, we found that high numbers of CD163+ M2-macrophages were strongly associated with fast proliferation, poor differentiation, estrogen receptor negativity and histological ductal type (p<0.001) in the studied cohort of human primary breast tumors. We demonstrated ex vivo that breast cancer cell-secreted factors modulate macrophage differentiation toward the M2 phenotype. Furthermore, the more aggressive mesenchymal-like cell line MDA-MB231, which secretes high levels of M-CSF, skews macrophages toward the more immunosuppressive M2c subtype. Conclusions This study demonstrates that human breast cancer cells influence macrophage differentiation and that TAM differentiation status correlates with recurrence free survival, thus further emphasizing that TAMs can similarly affect therapy efficacy and patient outcome. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s13058-015-0621-0) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sofia Sousa
- School of Pharmacy, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Eastern Finland, Yliopistonranta 1C, P.O. Box 1627, FI-70211, Kuopio, Finland.
| | - Régis Brion
- INSERM, UMR957, Equipe LIGUE 2012, Nantes, F-44035, France. .,Université de Nantes, Nantes atlantique universités, Laboratoire de Physiopathologie de la Résorption Osseuse et Thérapie des Tumeurs Osseuses Primitives, Nantes, F-44035, France. .,CHU de Nantes, Nantes, F-44035, France.
| | - Minnamaija Lintunen
- Institute of Biomedicine, Department of Cell Biology and Anatomy, University of Turku, Turku, Finland.
| | - Pauliina Kronqvist
- Institute of Biomedicine, Department of Cell Biology and Anatomy, University of Turku, Turku, Finland.
| | - Jouko Sandholm
- Cell Imaging Core, Turku Centre for Biotechnology, University of Turku, and Åbo Akademi University, Turku, Finland.
| | - Jukka Mönkkönen
- School of Pharmacy, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Eastern Finland, Yliopistonranta 1C, P.O. Box 1627, FI-70211, Kuopio, Finland.
| | | | - Susanna Lauttia
- Laboratory of Molecular Oncology, Biomedicum Helsinki, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland.
| | - Olli Tynninen
- Department of Pathology, Haartman Institute, University of Helsinki and HUSLAB, Helsinki, Finland.
| | - Heikki Joensuu
- Laboratory of Molecular Oncology, Biomedicum Helsinki, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland. .,Comprehensive Cancer Center, Helsinki University Hospital, and Department of Oncology, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland.
| | - Dominique Heymann
- INSERM, UMR957, Equipe LIGUE 2012, Nantes, F-44035, France. .,Université de Nantes, Nantes atlantique universités, Laboratoire de Physiopathologie de la Résorption Osseuse et Thérapie des Tumeurs Osseuses Primitives, Nantes, F-44035, France. .,CHU de Nantes, Nantes, F-44035, France.
| | - Jorma A Määttä
- School of Pharmacy, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Eastern Finland, Yliopistonranta 1C, P.O. Box 1627, FI-70211, Kuopio, Finland. .,Institute of Biomedicine, Department of Cell Biology and Anatomy, University of Turku, Turku, Finland.
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59
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Lahmar Q, Keirsse J, Laoui D, Movahedi K, Van Overmeire E, Van Ginderachter JA. Tissue-resident versus monocyte-derived macrophages in the tumor microenvironment. Biochim Biophys Acta Rev Cancer 2015; 1865:23-34. [PMID: 26145884 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbcan.2015.06.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 73] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/29/2015] [Revised: 06/25/2015] [Accepted: 06/26/2015] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
The tumor-promoting role of macrophages has been firmly established in most cancer types. However, macrophage identity has been a matter of debate, since several levels of complexity result in considerable macrophage heterogeneity. Ontogenically, tissue-resident macrophages derive from yolk sac progenitors which either directly or via a fetal liver monocyte intermediate differentiate into distinct macrophage types during embryogenesis and are maintained throughout life, while a disruption of the steady state mobilizes monocytes and instructs the formation of monocyte-derived macrophages. Histologically, the macrophage phenotype is heavily influenced by the tissue microenvironment resulting in molecularly and functionally distinct macrophages in distinct organs. Finally, a change in the tissue microenvironment as a result of infectious or sterile inflammation instructs different modes of macrophage activation. These considerations are relevant in the context of tumors, which can be considered as sites of chronic sterile inflammation encompassing subregions with distinct environmental conditions (for example, hypoxic versus normoxic). Here, we discuss existing evidence on the role of macrophage subpopulations in steady state tissue and primary tumors of the breast, lung, pancreas, brain and liver.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qods Lahmar
- Myeloid Cell Immunology Lab, VIB, Brussels, Belgium; Lab of Cellular and Molecular Immunology, Vrije Universiteit Brussel, Brussels, Belgium
| | - Jiri Keirsse
- Myeloid Cell Immunology Lab, VIB, Brussels, Belgium; Lab of Cellular and Molecular Immunology, Vrije Universiteit Brussel, Brussels, Belgium
| | - Damya Laoui
- Myeloid Cell Immunology Lab, VIB, Brussels, Belgium; Lab of Cellular and Molecular Immunology, Vrije Universiteit Brussel, Brussels, Belgium
| | - Kiavash Movahedi
- Myeloid Cell Immunology Lab, VIB, Brussels, Belgium; Lab of Cellular and Molecular Immunology, Vrije Universiteit Brussel, Brussels, Belgium
| | - Eva Van Overmeire
- Myeloid Cell Immunology Lab, VIB, Brussels, Belgium; Lab of Cellular and Molecular Immunology, Vrije Universiteit Brussel, Brussels, Belgium
| | - Jo A Van Ginderachter
- Myeloid Cell Immunology Lab, VIB, Brussels, Belgium; Lab of Cellular and Molecular Immunology, Vrije Universiteit Brussel, Brussels, Belgium.
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60
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Cancer stem cells and tumor-associated macrophages: a roadmap for multitargeting strategies. Oncogene 2015; 35:671-82. [PMID: 25961921 DOI: 10.1038/onc.2015.132] [Citation(s) in RCA: 111] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/07/2014] [Revised: 03/16/2015] [Accepted: 03/20/2015] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
The idea that tumor initiation and progression are driven by a subset of cells endowed with stem-like properties was first described by Rudolf Virchow in 1855. 'Cancer stem cells', as they were termed more than a century later, represent a subset of tumor cells that are able to generate all tumorigenic and nontumorigenic cell types within the malignancy. Although their existence was hypothesized >150 years ago, it was only recently that stem-like cells started to be isolated from different neoplastic malignancies. Interestingly, Virchow, in suggesting a correlation between cancer and the inflammatory microenvironment, also paved the way for the 'Seed and Soil' theory proposed by Paget a few years later. Despite the time that has passed since these two important concepts were suggested, the relationships between Virchow's 'stem-like cells' and Paget's 'soil' are far from being fully understood. One emerging topic is the importance of a stem-like niche in modulating the biological properties of stem-like cancer cells and thus in affecting the response of the tumor to drugs. This review aims to summarize the recent molecular data concerning the multilayered relationship between cancer stem cells and tumor-associated macrophages that form a key component of the tumor microenvironment. We also discuss the therapeutic implications of targeting this synergistic interplay.
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61
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Abstract
The immune system, best known as the first line of defense against invading pathogens, is integral to tissue development, homeostasis, and wound repair. In recent years, there has been a growing appreciation that cellular and humoral components of the immune system also contribute to regeneration of damaged tissues, including limbs, skeletal muscle, heart, and the nervous system. Here, we discuss key findings that implicate inflammatory cells and their secreted factors in tissue replacement after injury via stem cells and other reparative mechanisms. We highlight clinical conditions that are amenable to immune-mediated regeneration and suggest immune targeting strategies for tissue regeneration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Arin B Aurora
- Department of Molecular Biology and Center for Regenerative Science and Medicine, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, TX 75390-9148, USA
| | - Eric N Olson
- Department of Molecular Biology and Center for Regenerative Science and Medicine, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, TX 75390-9148, USA.
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62
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Castellana D, Paus R, Perez-Moreno M. Macrophages contribute to the cyclic activation of adult hair follicle stem cells. PLoS Biol 2014; 12:e1002002. [PMID: 25536657 PMCID: PMC4275176 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pbio.1002002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 114] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/28/2014] [Accepted: 10/10/2014] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Castellana, Paus, and Perez-Moreno discover that skin resident macrophages signal to skin stem cells via Wnt ligands to activate the hair follicle life cycle. Skin epithelial stem cells operate within a complex signaling milieu that orchestrates their lifetime regenerative properties. The question of whether and how immune cells impact on these stem cells within their niche is not well understood. Here we show that skin-resident macrophages decrease in number because of apoptosis before the onset of epithelial hair follicle stem cell activation during the murine hair cycle. This process is linked to distinct gene expression, including Wnt transcription. Interestingly, by mimicking this event through the selective induction of macrophage apoptosis in early telogen, we identify a novel involvement of macrophages in stem cell activation in vivo. Importantly, the macrophage-specific pharmacological inhibition of Wnt production delays hair follicle growth. Thus, perifollicular macrophages contribute to the activation of skin epithelial stem cells as a novel, additional cue that regulates their regenerative activity. This finding may have translational implications for skin repair, inflammatory skin diseases and cancer. The cyclic life of hair follicles consists of recurring phases of growth, decay, and rest. Previous studies have identified signals that prompt a new phase of hair growth through the activation of resting hair follicle stem cells (HF-SCs). In addition to these signals, recent findings have shown that cues arising from the neighboring skin environment, in which hair follicles dwell, also participate in controlling hair follicle growth. Here we show that skin resident macrophages surround and signal to resting HF-SCs, regulating their entry into a new phase of hair follicle growth. This process involves the death and activation of a fraction of resident macrophages— resulting in Wnt ligand release —that in turn activate HF-SCs. These findings reveal additional mechanisms controlling endogenous stem cell pools that are likely to be relevant for modulating stem cell regenerative capabilities. The results provide new insights that may have implications for the development of technologies with potential applications in regeneration, aging, and cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Donatello Castellana
- Epithelial Cell Biology Group, BBVA Foundation-CNIO Cancer Cell Biology Programme, Spanish National Cancer Research Centre (CNIO), Madrid, Spain
| | - Ralf Paus
- Institute of Inflammation and Repair, University of Manchester, Manchester, United Kingdom
- Department of Dermatology, University of Münster, Münster, Germany
| | - Mirna Perez-Moreno
- Epithelial Cell Biology Group, BBVA Foundation-CNIO Cancer Cell Biology Programme, Spanish National Cancer Research Centre (CNIO), Madrid, Spain
- * E-mail:
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63
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Keightley MC, Wang CH, Pazhakh V, Lieschke GJ. Delineating the roles of neutrophils and macrophages in zebrafish regeneration models. Int J Biochem Cell Biol 2014; 56:92-106. [DOI: 10.1016/j.biocel.2014.07.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 58] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/16/2014] [Revised: 06/18/2014] [Accepted: 07/14/2014] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
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64
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Lu H, Clauser KR, Tam WL, Fröse J, Ye X, Eaton EN, Reinhardt F, Donnenberg VS, Bhargava R, Carr SA, Weinberg RA. A breast cancer stem cell niche supported by juxtacrine signalling from monocytes and macrophages. Nat Cell Biol 2014; 16:1105-17. [PMID: 25266422 DOI: 10.1038/ncb3041] [Citation(s) in RCA: 328] [Impact Index Per Article: 32.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/01/2014] [Accepted: 08/21/2014] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
The cell-biological program termed the epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) confers on cancer cells mesenchymal traits and an ability to enter the cancer stem cell (CSC) state. However, the interactions between CSCs and their surrounding microenvironment are poorly understood. Here we show that tumour-associated monocytes and macrophages (TAMs) create a CSC niche through juxtacrine signalling with CSCs. We performed quantitative proteomic profiling and found that the EMT program upregulates the expression of CD90, also known as Thy1, and EphA4, which mediate the physical interactions of CSCs with TAMs by directly binding with their respective counter-receptors on these cells. In response, the EphA4 receptor on the carcinoma cells activates Src and NF-κB. In turn, NF-κB in the CSCs induces the secretion of a variety of cytokines that serve to sustain the stem cell state. Indeed, admixed macrophages enhance the CSC activities of carcinoma cells. These findings underscore the significance of TAMs as important components of the CSC niche.
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Affiliation(s)
- Haihui Lu
- 1] Whitehead Institute for Biomedical Research, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02142, USA [2] MIT Ludwig Center for Molecular Oncology, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, USA
| | - Karl R Clauser
- Broad Institute of Massachusetts Institute of Technology and Harvard, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02142, USA
| | - Wai Leong Tam
- 1] Whitehead Institute for Biomedical Research, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02142, USA [2] MIT Ludwig Center for Molecular Oncology, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, USA [3] Genome Institute of Singapore, 60 Biopolis Street Singapore 138672, Singapore
| | - Julia Fröse
- 1] Whitehead Institute for Biomedical Research, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02142, USA [2] German Cancer Research Center (DKFZ), 69120 Heidelberg, Germany [3] University of Heidelberg, 69120 Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Xin Ye
- Whitehead Institute for Biomedical Research, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02142, USA
| | - Elinor Ng Eaton
- Whitehead Institute for Biomedical Research, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02142, USA
| | - Ferenc Reinhardt
- Whitehead Institute for Biomedical Research, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02142, USA
| | - Vera S Donnenberg
- 1] Hillman Cancer Center, University of Pittsburgh Cancer Institute, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania 15213, USA [2] Department of Cardiothoracic Surgery, University of Pittsburgh, School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania 15213, USA
| | - Rohit Bhargava
- Magee-Womens Hospital, University of Pittsburgh, School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania 15213, USA
| | - Steven A Carr
- Broad Institute of Massachusetts Institute of Technology and Harvard, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02142, USA
| | - Robert A Weinberg
- 1] Whitehead Institute for Biomedical Research, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02142, USA [2] MIT Ludwig Center for Molecular Oncology, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, USA [3] Department of Biology, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02142, USA
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65
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Macrophages in cardiac homeostasis, injury responses and progenitor cell mobilisation. Stem Cell Res 2014; 13:705-14. [PMID: 25087895 DOI: 10.1016/j.scr.2014.06.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 62] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/03/2014] [Accepted: 06/26/2014] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Macrophages are an immune cell type found in every organ of the body. Classically, macrophages are recognised as housekeeping cells involved in the detection of foreign antigens and danger signatures, and the clearance of tissue debris. However, macrophages are increasingly recognised as a highly versatile cell type with a diverse range of functions that are important for tissue homeostasis and injury responses. Recent research findings suggest that macrophages contribute to tissue regeneration and may play a role in the activation and mobilisation of stem cells. This review describes recent advances in our understanding of the role played by macrophages in cardiac tissue maintenance and repair following injury. We examine the involvement of exogenous and resident tissue macrophages in cardiac inflammatory responses and their potential activity in regulating cardiac regeneration.
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66
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Sun X, Ingman WV. Cytokine networks that mediate epithelial cell-macrophage crosstalk in the mammary gland: implications for development and cancer. J Mammary Gland Biol Neoplasia 2014; 19:191-201. [PMID: 24924120 DOI: 10.1007/s10911-014-9319-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/04/2014] [Accepted: 05/19/2014] [Indexed: 01/28/2023] Open
Abstract
Dynamic interactions between the hormone responsive mammary gland epithelium and surrounding stromal macrophage populations are critical for normal development and function of the mammary gland. Macrophages are versatile cells capable of diverse roles in mammary gland development and maintenance of homeostasis, and their function is highly dependent on signals within the local cytokine microenvironment. The mammary epithelium secretes a number of cytokines, including colony stimulating factor 1 (CSF1), transforming growth factor beta 1 (TGFB1), and chemokine ligand 2 (CCL2) that affect the abundance, phenotype and function of macrophages. However, aberrations in these interactions have been found to increase the risk of tumour formation, and utilisation of stromal macrophage support by tumours can increase the invasive and metastatic potential of the cancer. Studies utilising genetically modified mouse models have shed light on the significance of epithelial cell-macrophage crosstalk, and the cytokines that mediate this communication, in mammary gland development and tumourigenesis. This article reviews the current status of our understanding of the roles of epithelial cell-derived cytokines in mammary gland development and cancer, with a focus on the crosstalk between epithelial cells and the local macrophage population.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xuan Sun
- School of Paediatrics and Reproductive Health, University of Adelaide, Adelaide, Australia
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67
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Unsworth A, Anderson R, Britt K. Stromal fibroblasts and the immune microenvironment: partners in mammary gland biology and pathology? J Mammary Gland Biol Neoplasia 2014; 19:169-82. [PMID: 24984900 DOI: 10.1007/s10911-014-9326-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/05/2014] [Accepted: 06/25/2014] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
The microenvironment of a tumor has emerged recently as a critical contributor to the development of cancer. Within this environment, fibroblasts and immune cells are the cell lineages that seem to be active mediators of tumour development. The activated fibroblasts that are also present during wound healing and chronic inflammation have been studied extensively. Their activation leads to altered gene expression profiles that markedly increase growth factor and cytokine secretion, leading to major alterations in the immune cell microenvironment. To better understand normal tissue development, wound healing and the chronic inflammation that leads to cancer, we review here information available on the role of fibroblasts and immune cells in normal breast development and in cancer. We also discuss the immunogenicity of breast cancer compared to other cancers and the contribution of the immune microenvironment to the initiation, progression and metastasis of tumors. Also reviewed is the limited knowledge on the role of immune cells and fibroblasts in normal development and whether the risk of cancer increases when their control is not tightly regulated.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ashleigh Unsworth
- Peter MacCallum Cancer Centre, 7 St Andrews Place East, Melbourne, 3002, Australia
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68
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Tumor-associated macrophages promote cancer stem cell-like properties via transforming growth factor-beta1-induced epithelial-mesenchymal transition in hepatocellular carcinoma. Cancer Lett 2014; 352:160-8. [PMID: 24892648 DOI: 10.1016/j.canlet.2014.05.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 311] [Impact Index Per Article: 31.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/26/2014] [Revised: 04/04/2014] [Accepted: 05/11/2014] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Tumor-associated macrophages (TAMs), a crucial component of immune cells infiltrated in tumor microenvironment, have been found to be associated with progression and metastasis of hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC). In this study, we aimed to clarify the mechanism underlying the crosstalk between TAMs and cancer stem cells (CSCs) in HCC. Mouse macrophage cell line RAW264.7 cells were used to investigate the effects of TAMs on mouse hepatoma cell line Hepa1-6 cells in vivo and vitro. A total of 90 clinical samples had pathology-proven HCC were used to evaluate the distribution of TAMs and CSCs and analyze their value in predicting the prognosis. In the study, we have found that the number of TAMs has a positive correlation with the density of CSCs in the marginal of human HCC. Our results show that, cocultured with TAM-conditioned medium (CM) promoted CSC-like properties in Hepa1-6 cells, which underwent EMT and gained higher invasive capability. TAMs secreted more transforming growth factor- beta1 (TGF-beta1) than other phenotypes of macrophage. Furthermore, depletion of TGF-beta1 blocked acquisition of CSC-like properties by inhibition of TGF-beta1-induced EMT. High expression of CD68 in the EpCAM positive expression HCC tissues was strongly associated with both poor cancer-free survival and overall survival in patients. Our results indicate that the TAMs promote CSC-like properties via TGF-beta1-induced EMT and they may contribute to investigate the prognosis of HCC.
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69
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Comparison of stem/progenitor cell number and transcriptomic profile in the mammary tissue of dairy and beef breed heifers. J Appl Genet 2014; 55:383-95. [PMID: 24748329 PMCID: PMC4102771 DOI: 10.1007/s13353-014-0213-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/04/2013] [Revised: 03/26/2014] [Accepted: 03/28/2014] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
Bovine mammary stem cells (MaSC) are a source of ductal and lobulo-alveolar tissue during the development of the mammary gland and its remodeling in repeating lactation cycles. We hypothesize that the number of MaSC, their molecular properties, and interactions with their niche may be essential in order to determine the mammogenic potential in heifers. To verify this hypothesis, we compared the number of MaSC and the transcriptomic profile in the mammary tissue of 20-month-old, non-pregnant dairy (Holstein-Friesian, HF) and beef (Limousin, LM) heifers. For the identification and quantification of putative stem/progenitor cells in mammary tissue sections, scanning cytometry was used with a combination of MaSC molecular markers: stem cell antigen-1 (Sca-1) and fibronectin type III domain containing 3B (FNDC3B) protein. Cytometric analysis revealed a significantly higher number of Sca-1posFNDC3Bpos cells in HF (2.94 ± 0.35 %) than in LM (1.72 ± 0.20 %) heifers. In HF heifers, a higher expression of intramammary hormones, growth factors, cytokines, chemokines, and transcription regulators was observed. The model of mammary microenvironment favorable for MaSC was associated with the regulation of genes involved in MaSC maintenance, self-renewal, proliferation, migration, differentiation, mammary tissue remodeling, angiogenesis, regulation of adipocyte differentiation, lipid metabolism, and steroid and insulin signaling. In conclusion, the mammogenic potential in postpubertal dairy heifers is facilitated by a higher number of MaSC and up-regulation of mammary auto- and paracrine factors representing the MaSC niche.
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70
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Spike BT, Kelber JA, Booker E, Kalathur M, Rodewald R, Lipianskaya J, La J, He M, Wright T, Klemke R, Wahl GM, Gray PC. CRIPTO/GRP78 signaling maintains fetal and adult mammary stem cells ex vivo. Stem Cell Reports 2014; 2:427-39. [PMID: 24749068 PMCID: PMC3986630 DOI: 10.1016/j.stemcr.2014.02.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/21/2013] [Revised: 02/22/2014] [Accepted: 02/24/2014] [Indexed: 01/16/2023] Open
Abstract
Little is known about the extracellular signaling factors that govern mammary stem cell behavior. Here, we identify CRIPTO and its cell-surface receptor GRP78 as regulators of stem cell behavior in isolated fetal and adult mammary epithelial cells. We develop a CRIPTO antagonist that promotes differentiation and reduces self-renewal of mammary stem cell-enriched populations cultured ex vivo. By contrast, CRIPTO treatment maintains the stem cell phenotype in these cultures and yields colonies with enhanced mammary gland reconstitution capacity. Surface expression of GRP78 marks CRIPTO-responsive, stem cell-enriched fetal and adult mammary epithelial cells, and deletion of GRP78 from adult mammary epithelial cells blocks their mammary gland reconstitution potential. Together, these findings identify the CRIPTO/GRP78 pathway as a developmentally conserved regulator of fetal and adult mammary stem cell behavior ex vivo, with implications for the stem-like cells found in many cancers. CRIPTO/GRP78 signaling activates PI3K/AKT in fetal mammary epithelial cells ex vivo Cell-surface GRP78 marks a CRIPTO-responsive adult mammary stem cell population An antagonist, ALK4L75A-Fc, blocks soluble CRIPTO growth-factor-like activity CRIPTO promotes and ALK4L75A-Fc inhibits mammary stem cell maintenance ex vivo
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Affiliation(s)
- Benjamin T Spike
- Gene Expression Laboratory, The Salk Institute for Biological Studies, La Jolla, CA 92037, USA
| | - Jonathan A Kelber
- Department of Pathology, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92037, USA
| | - Evan Booker
- Clayton Foundation Laboratories for Peptide Biology, The Salk Institute for Biological Studies, La Jolla, CA 92037, USA
| | - Madhuri Kalathur
- Clayton Foundation Laboratories for Peptide Biology, The Salk Institute for Biological Studies, La Jolla, CA 92037, USA
| | - Rose Rodewald
- Gene Expression Laboratory, The Salk Institute for Biological Studies, La Jolla, CA 92037, USA
| | - Julia Lipianskaya
- Gene Expression Laboratory, The Salk Institute for Biological Studies, La Jolla, CA 92037, USA
| | - Justin La
- Gene Expression Laboratory, The Salk Institute for Biological Studies, La Jolla, CA 92037, USA
| | - Marielle He
- Clayton Foundation Laboratories for Peptide Biology, The Salk Institute for Biological Studies, La Jolla, CA 92037, USA
| | - Tracy Wright
- Department of Pathology, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92037, USA
| | - Richard Klemke
- Department of Pathology, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92037, USA
| | - Geoffrey M Wahl
- Gene Expression Laboratory, The Salk Institute for Biological Studies, La Jolla, CA 92037, USA
| | - Peter C Gray
- Clayton Foundation Laboratories for Peptide Biology, The Salk Institute for Biological Studies, La Jolla, CA 92037, USA
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71
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Campbell JJ, Botos LA, Sargeant TJ, Davidenko N, Cameron RE, Watson CJ. A 3-D in vitro co-culture model of mammary gland involution. Integr Biol (Camb) 2014; 6:618-26. [DOI: 10.1039/c3ib40257f] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
An in vitro model of mammary gland supporting 3D cell–cell and cell–matrix interactions demonstrates complete in vivo-like neo-tissue formation and remodelling processes (involution) under hormonal control.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | - Ruth E. Cameron
- Department of Materials Science and Metallurgy
- Cambridge CB3 0FS, UK
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72
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Hodson LJ, Chua AC, Evdokiou A, Robertson SA, Ingman WV. Macrophage Phenotype in the Mammary Gland Fluctuates over the Course of the Estrous Cycle and Is Regulated by Ovarian Steroid Hormones1. Biol Reprod 2013; 89:65. [DOI: 10.1095/biolreprod.113.109561] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
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73
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Makarem M, Spike BT, Dravis C, Kannan N, Wahl GM, Eaves CJ. Stem cells and the developing mammary gland. J Mammary Gland Biol Neoplasia 2013; 18:209-19. [PMID: 23624881 PMCID: PMC4161372 DOI: 10.1007/s10911-013-9284-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/12/2013] [Accepted: 04/16/2013] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
The mammary gland undergoes dynamic changes throughout life. In the mouse, these begin with initial morphogenesis of the gland in the mid-gestation embryo followed by hormonally regulated changes during puberty and later in adulthood. The adult mammary gland contains a hierarchy of cell types with varying potentials for self-maintenance and differentiation. These include cells able to produce complete, functional mammary glands in vivo and that contain daughter cells with the same remarkable regenerative potential, as well as cells with more limited clonogenic activity in vitro. Here we review how applying in vitro and in vivo methods for quantifying these cells in adult mammary tissue to fetal mammary cells has enabled the first cells fulfilling the functional criteria of transplantable, isolated mammary stem cells to be identified a few days before birth. Thereafter, the number of these cells increases rapidly. Populations containing these fetal stem cells display growth and gene expression programs that differ from their adult counterparts but share signatures characteristic of certain types of breast cancer. Such observations reinforce growing evidence of important differences between tissue-specific fetal and adult cells with stem cell properties and emphasize the merits of investigating their molecular basis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maisam Makarem
- Terry Fox Laboratory, British Columbia Cancer Agency, 675 West 10th Avenue, Vancouver, BC V5Z 1L3, Canada
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74
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Macrophage biology in development, homeostasis and disease. Nature 2013; 496:445-55. [PMID: 23619691 DOI: 10.1038/nature12034] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3107] [Impact Index Per Article: 282.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/18/2012] [Accepted: 02/20/2013] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
Macrophages, the most plastic cells of the haematopoietic system, are found in all tissues and show great functional diversity. They have roles in development, homeostasis, tissue repair and immunity. Although tissue macrophages are anatomically distinct from one another, and have different transcriptional profiles and functional capabilities, they are all required for the maintenance of homeostasis. However, these reparative and homeostatic functions can be subverted by chronic insults, resulting in a causal association of macrophages with disease states. In this Review, we discuss how macrophages regulate normal physiology and development, and provide several examples of their pathophysiological roles in disease. We define the 'hallmarks' of macrophages according to the states that they adopt during the performance of their various roles, taking into account new insights into the diversity of their lineages, identities and regulation. It is essential to understand this diversity because macrophages have emerged as important therapeutic targets in many human diseases.
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75
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Macrophage biology in development, homeostasis and disease. Nature 2013. [DOI: 10.1038/nature12034 and 21=21] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
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76
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Saclier M, Yacoub-Youssef H, Mackey AL, Arnold L, Ardjoune H, Magnan M, Sailhan F, Chelly J, Pavlath GK, Mounier R, Kjaer M, Chazaud B. Differentially Activated Macrophages Orchestrate Myogenic Precursor Cell Fate During Human Skeletal Muscle Regeneration. Stem Cells 2013; 31:384-96. [DOI: 10.1002/stem.1288] [Citation(s) in RCA: 273] [Impact Index Per Article: 24.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/11/2012] [Accepted: 10/28/2012] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
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77
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Yang J, Liao D, Chen C, Liu Y, Chuang TH, Xiang R, Markowitz D, Reisfeld RA, Luo Y. Tumor-Associated Macrophages Regulate Murine Breast Cancer Stem Cells Through a Novel Paracrine EGFR/Stat3/Sox-2 Signaling Pathway. Stem Cells 2013; 31:248-58. [DOI: 10.1002/stem.1281] [Citation(s) in RCA: 211] [Impact Index Per Article: 19.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/30/2012] [Accepted: 10/28/2012] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
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78
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Sun X, Robertson SA, Ingman WV. Regulation of epithelial cell turnover and macrophage phenotype by epithelial cell-derived transforming growth factor beta1 in the mammary gland. Cytokine 2013; 61:377-88. [PMID: 23290315 DOI: 10.1016/j.cyto.2012.12.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/11/2012] [Revised: 11/07/2012] [Accepted: 12/04/2012] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
Transforming growth factor beta1 (TGFB1) is a multi-functional cytokine that regulates cell proliferation, apoptosis and immune system responses. In the breast, the mammary epithelium is the primary source of TGFB1 and increased expression is associated with increased breast cancer risk. This study was conducted to investigate the roles of epithelial cell-derived TGFB1 in regulation of epithelial cell activity and macrophage phenotype in the mammary gland. Tgfb1 null mutant and wildtype mammary epithelium was transplanted into contra-lateral sides of the cleared mammary gland of TGFB1 replete scid mice. Transplanted tissue was analysed for markers of proliferation and apoptosis to determine the effect of Tgfb1 null mutation on epithelial cell turnover, and was analysed by immunohistochemistry to investigate the location, abundance and phenotype of macrophages. The number of proliferating and dying ductal epithelial cells, determined by BrdU and TUNEL, was increased by 35% and 3.3-fold respectively in mammary gland transplanted with Tgfb1 null epithelium compared to wildtype epithelium (p<0.05). Abundance of F4/80+ macrophages in between Tgfb1 null epithelial cells compared to wildtype epithelial cells was increased by 50%. The number of iNOS+ and CCR7+ cells in the stroma surrounding Tgfb1 null alveolar epithelium was increased by 78% and 2-fold respectively, and dendriform MHC class II+ cells within ductal epithelium were decreased by 30%. We conclude that epithelial cell-derived TGFB1 in the mammary gland has two functions: (1) regulation of cellular turnover of epithelial cells, and (2) regulation of local macrophage phenotype. These findings shed new light on the diversity of roles of TGFB1 in the mammary gland which are likely to impact on breast cancer risk.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xuan Sun
- School of Paediatrics and Reproductive Health, University of Adelaide, Australia.
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79
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Abstract
Mammary glands are crucial to the reproductive strategy of mammals, and the milk of domesticated ruminants serves as an important source of nutrients for the human population. The majority of mammary gland development occurs postnatally, and the mammary gland undergoes cyclical periods of growth, differentiation, lactation, and regression that are coordinated to provide nutrients for offspring or are driven by strategies to manage reproduction and milk production of domesticated species. Growth and maintenance of the mammary epithelium depends on the function of mammary stem cells and progenitor cells. In this review, we provide an overview of postnatal mammary gland development, cyclical phases of mammary gland regression (regression during lactation and between successive lactations), and mammary stem cells and progenitor cells. Where possible, these processes are related to animal production and compared across species, particularly bovine, porcine, murine, and human.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anthony V Capuco
- Bovine Functional Genomics Laboratory, US Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, Beltsville, Maryland 20705;
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80
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Mantovani A, Biswas SK, Galdiero MR, Sica A, Locati M. Macrophage plasticity and polarization in tissue repair and remodelling. J Pathol 2012. [DOI: 10.1002/path.4133 or 1=1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Alberto Mantovani
- Humanitas Clinical and Research Center; Via Manzoni 56 20089 Rozzano Milan Italy
- Department of Biotechnology and Translational Medicine; University of Milan; Italy
| | - Subhra K Biswas
- Singapore Immunology Network (SIgN), Agency for Science, Technology and Research (A*STAR); Singapore
| | - Maria Rosaria Galdiero
- Humanitas Clinical and Research Center; Via Manzoni 56 20089 Rozzano Milan Italy
- Division of Clinical Immunology and Allergy; University of Naples Federico II; Naples Italy
| | - Antonio Sica
- Humanitas Clinical and Research Center; Via Manzoni 56 20089 Rozzano Milan Italy
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences; Università del Piemonte Orientale ‘Amedeo Avogadro’; Novara Italy
| | - Massimo Locati
- Humanitas Clinical and Research Center; Via Manzoni 56 20089 Rozzano Milan Italy
- Department of Biotechnology and Translational Medicine; University of Milan; Italy
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81
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Mantovani A, Biswas SK, Galdiero MR, Sica A, Locati M. Macrophage plasticity and polarization in tissue repair and remodelling. J Pathol 2012. [DOI: 10.1002/path.4133\] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Alberto Mantovani
- Humanitas Clinical and Research Center; Via Manzoni 56 20089 Rozzano Milan Italy
- Department of Biotechnology and Translational Medicine; University of Milan; Italy
| | - Subhra K Biswas
- Singapore Immunology Network (SIgN), Agency for Science, Technology and Research (A*STAR); Singapore
| | - Maria Rosaria Galdiero
- Humanitas Clinical and Research Center; Via Manzoni 56 20089 Rozzano Milan Italy
- Division of Clinical Immunology and Allergy; University of Naples Federico II; Naples Italy
| | - Antonio Sica
- Humanitas Clinical and Research Center; Via Manzoni 56 20089 Rozzano Milan Italy
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences; Università del Piemonte Orientale ‘Amedeo Avogadro’; Novara Italy
| | - Massimo Locati
- Humanitas Clinical and Research Center; Via Manzoni 56 20089 Rozzano Milan Italy
- Department of Biotechnology and Translational Medicine; University of Milan; Italy
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82
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Mantovani A, Biswas SK, Galdiero MR, Sica A, Locati M. Macrophage plasticity and polarization in tissue repair and remodelling. J Pathol 2012; 229:176-85. [PMID: 23096265 DOI: 10.1002/path.4133] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1647] [Impact Index Per Article: 137.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/07/2012] [Revised: 10/04/2012] [Accepted: 10/05/2012] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Mononuclear phagocyte plasticity includes the expression of functions related to the resolution of inflammation, tissue repair and remodelling, particularly when these cells are set in an M2 or an M2-like activation mode. Macrophages are credited with an essential role in remodelling during ontogenesis. In extraembryonic life, under homeostatic conditions, the macrophage trophic and remodelling functions are recapitulated in tissues such as bone, mammary gland, decidua and placenta. In pathology, macrophages are key components of tissue repair and remodelling that occur during wound healing, allergy, parasite infection and cancer. Interaction with cells bearing stem or progenitor cell properties is likely an important component of the role of macrophages in repair and remodelling. These properties of cells of the monocyte-macrophage lineage may represent a tool and a target for therapeutic exploitation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alberto Mantovani
- Humanitas Clinical and Research Center, Via Manzoni 56, 20089, Rozzano, Milan, Italy.
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83
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Fleming JM, Miller TC, Kidacki M, Ginsburg E, Stuelten CH, Stewart DA, Troester MA, Vonderhaar BK. Paracrine interactions between primary human macrophages and human fibroblasts enhance murine mammary gland humanization in vivo. Breast Cancer Res 2012; 14:R97. [PMID: 22731827 PMCID: PMC3446360 DOI: 10.1186/bcr3215] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/14/2011] [Revised: 06/01/2012] [Accepted: 06/25/2012] [Indexed: 01/16/2023] Open
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Macrophages comprise an essential component of the mammary microenvironment necessary for normal gland development. However, there is no viable in vivo model to study their role in normal human breast function. We hypothesized that adding primary human macrophages to the murine mammary gland would enhance and provide a novel approach to examine immune-stromal cell interactions during the humanization process. METHODS Primary human macrophages, in the presence or absence of ectopic estrogen stimulation, were used to humanize mouse mammary glands. Mechanisms of enhanced humanization were identified by cytokine/chemokine ELISAs, zymography, western analysis, invasion and proliferation assays; results were confirmed with immunohistological analysis. RESULTS The combined treatment of macrophages and estrogen stimulation significantly enhanced the percentage of the total gland humanized and the engraftment/outgrowth success rate. Timecourse analysis revealed the disappearance of the human macrophages by two weeks post-injection, suggesting that the improved overall growth and invasiveness of the fibroblasts provided a larger stromal bed for epithelial cell proliferation and structure formation. Confirming their promotion of fibroblasts humanization, estrogen-stimulated macrophages significantly enhanced fibroblast proliferation and invasion in vitro, as well as significantly increased proliferating cell nuclear antigen (PCNA) positive cells in humanized glands. Cytokine/chemokine ELISAs, zymography and western analyses identified TNFα and MMP9 as potential mechanisms by which estrogen-stimulated macrophages enhanced humanization. Specific inhibitors to TNFα and MMP9 validated the effects of these molecules on fibroblast behavior in vitro, as well as by immunohistochemical analysis of humanized glands for human-specific MMP9 expression. Lastly, glands humanized with macrophages had enhanced engraftment and tumor growth compared to glands humanized with fibroblasts alone. CONCLUSIONS Herein, we demonstrate intricate immune and stromal cell paracrine interactions in a humanized in vivo model system. We confirmed our in vivo results with in vitro analyses, highlighting the value of this model to interchangeably substantiate in vitro and in vivo results. It is critical to understand the signaling networks that drive paracrine cell interactions, for tumor cells exploit these signaling mechanisms to support their growth and invasive properties. This report presents a dynamic in vivo model to study primary human immune/fibroblast/epithelial interactions and to advance our knowledge of the stromal-derived signals that promote tumorigenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jodie M Fleming
- Mammary Biology and Tumorigenesis Laboratory, Center for Cancer Research, National Cancer Institute, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA.
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84
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Joshi PA, Di Grappa MA, Khokha R. Active allies: hormones, stem cells and the niche in adult mammopoiesis. Trends Endocrinol Metab 2012; 23:299-309. [PMID: 22613704 DOI: 10.1016/j.tem.2012.04.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/09/2012] [Revised: 04/09/2012] [Accepted: 04/10/2012] [Indexed: 01/17/2023]
Abstract
Adult stem cells are recruited in response to specific physiological demands to regenerate, repair or maintain essential cellular components of tissues, while preserving self-renewal capacity. Signals that activate adult stem cells are not simply cell autonomous and stem cells are part of a larger dynamic framework, the stem cell 'niche', which integrates systemic and local cues to sustain stem cell functionality. The mammary stem cell niche responds readily to hormonal stimuli, generating pertinent signals that activate stem cells, culminating in stem cell expansion and tissue growth. We review here current knowledge of the mammary stem cell niche with attention to the potent stimulation rendered by ovarian hormones, relevant cellular and molecular players, and the implication of a deregulated niche, for breast cancer risk.
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Affiliation(s)
- Purna A Joshi
- Ontario Cancer Insitute, 610 University Avenue, Toronto, ON M5G 2M9, Canada
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85
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Ellis S, Akers RM, Capuco AV, Safayi S. Triennial Lactation Symposium: Bovine mammary epithelial cell lineages and parenchymal development. J Anim Sci 2011; 90:1666-73. [PMID: 22100590 DOI: 10.2527/jas.2011-4671] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Mammary development proceeds from an aggregation of cells in the ventral ectoderm to the establishment of an elaborate tree of alveoli, ducts, and cisternae. However, despite abundant data on endocrine regulation of ruminant mammary growth, we know comparatively little about cell lineages, expression of differentiation markers, and plasticity in mammary cell phenotype. Histologic analyses have revealed cell populations with distinct histochemical profiles, but functional assessment of cell populations during development has been limited to analysis of proliferation and frequency estimations of morphotypes. The lack of transplantation models, limited availability of validated antibodies with reactivity to bovine antigens, and similar technical challenges have generally hindered the pace of discovery, but the application of new technologies such as laser microdissection, transcriptional profiling, and multispectral image analysis are yielding important clues into bovine mammary cell ontogeny and developmental regulation. Our analyses have shown that prepubertal ovariectomy affects epithelial architecture, increases the proportion of cells expressing the estrogen receptor, and increases myoepithelial cell development, all concomitant with a dramatic reduction in the mass of parenchymal tissue. Our observations point to a dual role for ovarian secretions in the control of not only the rate of epithelial development, but also the nature of the parenchymal development. The balance of stimulus and inhibition pathways cooperatively regulates mammary growth. The increased reliance on objective staining analyses and quantitative approaches will ensure broader repeatability, application, and extension of the findings regarding the impact of the ovary and other regulatory entities and factors. Advances in understanding the ontogeny of mammary epithelial cells, coupled with established and increasing knowledge of endocrine factors affecting mammary development, may yield intervention strategies to improve dairy profitability.
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Affiliation(s)
- S Ellis
- Department of Animal and Veterinary Sciences, Clemson University, Clemson, SC 29634, USA
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86
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Bonafè M, Storci G, Franceschi C. Inflamm-aging of the stem cell niche: breast cancer as a paradigmatic example: breakdown of the multi-shell cytokine network fuels cancer in aged people. Bioessays 2011; 34:40-9. [PMID: 22086861 DOI: 10.1002/bies.201100104] [Citation(s) in RCA: 60] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Inflamm-aging is a relatively new terminology used to describe the age-related increase in the systemic pro-inflammatory status of humans. Here, we represent inflamm-aging as a breakdown in the multi-shell cytokine network, in which stem cells and stromal fibroblasts (referred to as the stem cell niche) become pro-inflammatory cytokine over-expressing cells due to the accumulation of DNA damage. Inflamm-aging self-propagates owing to the capability of pro-inflammatory cytokines to ignite the DNA-damage response in other cells surrounding DNA-damaged cells. Macrophages, the major cellular player in inflamm-aging, amplify the phenomenon, by broadcasting pro-inflammatory signals at both local and systemic levels. On the basis of this, we propose that inflamm-aging is a major contributor to the increase in cancer incidence and progression in aged people. Breast cancer will be presented as a paradigmatic example for this relationship.
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87
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Stefater JA, Ren S, Lang RA, Duffield JS. Metchnikoff's policemen: macrophages in development, homeostasis and regeneration. Trends Mol Med 2011; 17:743-52. [PMID: 21890411 DOI: 10.1016/j.molmed.2011.07.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 119] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/27/2011] [Revised: 07/26/2011] [Accepted: 07/29/2011] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
Over the past decade, modern genetic tools have permitted scientists to study the function of myeloid lineage cells, including macrophages, as never before. Macrophages were first detected more than a century ago as cells that ingested bacteria and other microbes, but it is now known that their functional roles are far more numerous. In this review, we focus on the prevailing functions of macrophages beyond their role in innate immunity. We highlight examples of macrophages acting as regulators of development, tissue homoeostasis, remodeling (the reorganization or renovation of existing tissues) and repair. We also detail how modern genetic tools have facilitated new insights into these mysterious cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- James A Stefater
- Visual Systems Group, Divisions of Pediatric Ophthalmology and Developmental Biology, Cincinnati Children's Hospital Medical Center, 3333 Burnet Avenue, Cincinnati, OH 45229, USA
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88
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Abstract
The mammary gland undergoes a spectacular series of changes as it develops, and maintains a remarkable capacity to remodel and regenerate for several decades. Mammary morphogenesis has been investigated for over 100 years, motivated by the dairy industry and cancer biologists. Over the past decade, the gland has emerged as a major model system in its own right for understanding the cell biology of tissue morphogenesis. Multiple signalling pathways from several cell types are orchestrated together with mechanical cues and cell rearrangements to establish the pattern of the mammary gland. The integrated mechanical and molecular pathways that control mammary morphogenesis have implications for the developmental regulation of other epithelial organs.
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89
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The mammary gland microenvironment directs progenitor cell fate in vivo. Int J Cell Biol 2011; 2011:451676. [PMID: 21647291 PMCID: PMC3103901 DOI: 10.1155/2011/451676] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/14/2011] [Accepted: 03/11/2011] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
The mammary gland is a unique organ that continually undergoes postnatal developmental changes. In mice, the mammary gland is formed via signals from terminal end buds, which direct ductal growth and elongation. Intriguingly, it is likely that the entire cellular repertoire of the mammary gland is formed from a single antecedent cell. Furthermore, in order to produce progeny of varied lineages (e.g., luminal and myoepithelial cells), signals from the local tissue microenvironment influence mammary stem/progenitor cell fate. Data have shown that cells from the mammary gland microenvironment reprogram adult somatic cells from other organs (testes, nerve) into cells that produce milk and express mammary epithelial cell proteins. Similar results were found for human tumorigenic epithelial carcinoma cells. Presently, it is unclear how the deterministic power of the mammary gland microenvironment controls epithelial cell fate. Regardless, signals generated by the microenvironment have a profound influence on progenitor cell differentiation in vivo.
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90
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Coussens LM, Pollard JW. Leukocytes in mammary development and cancer. Cold Spring Harb Perspect Biol 2011; 3:cshperspect.a003285. [PMID: 21123394 DOI: 10.1101/cshperspect.a003285] [Citation(s) in RCA: 140] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Leukocytes, of both the innate and adaptive lineages, are normal cellular components of all tissues. These important cells not only are critical for regulating normal tissue homeostasis, but also are significant paracrine regulators of all physiologic and pathologic tissue repair processes. This article summarizes recent insights regarding the trophic roles of leukocytes at each stage of mammary gland development and during cancer development, with a focus on Murids and humans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lisa M Coussens
- Department of Pathology, Helen Diller Family Comprehensive Cancer Center, University of California, San Francisco, 94143, USA
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91
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Visvader JE, Smith GH. Murine mammary epithelial stem cells: discovery, function, and current status. Cold Spring Harb Perspect Biol 2011; 3:cshperspect.a004879. [PMID: 20926515 DOI: 10.1101/cshperspect.a004879] [Citation(s) in RCA: 66] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
An entire mammary epithelial outgrowth, capable of full secretory differentiation, may comprise the progeny of a single cellular antecedent, i.e., may be generated from a single mammary epithelial stem cell. Early studies showed that any portion of an intact murine mammary gland containing epithelium could recapitulate an entire mammary epithelial tree on transplantation into an epithelium-free mammary fat pad. More recent studies have shown that a hierarchy of mammary stem/progenitor cells exists among the mammary epithelium and that their behavior and maintenance is dependent on signals generated both locally and systemically. In this review, we have attempted to develop the scientific saga surrounding the discovery and characterization of the murine mammary stem/progenitor cell hierarchy and to suggest further approaches that will enhance our knowledge and understanding of these cells and their role in both normal development and neoplasia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jane E Visvader
- Stem Cells and Cancer Division, The Walter and Eliza Hall Institute of Medical Research, 1G Royal Parade, Parkville, VIC 3050, Australia
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92
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Barcellos-Hoff MH. Stromal mediation of radiation carcinogenesis. J Mammary Gland Biol Neoplasia 2010; 15:381-7. [PMID: 21181431 PMCID: PMC3068291 DOI: 10.1007/s10911-010-9197-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/09/2010] [Accepted: 12/09/2010] [Indexed: 01/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Ionizing radiation is a well-established carcinogen in human breast and rodent mammary gland. This review addresses evidence that radiation elicits the critical stromal context for cancer, affecting not only frequency but the type of cancer. Recent data from the breast tumors of women treated with radiation therapy and the cellular mechanisms evident in experimental models suggest that radiation effects on stromal-epithelial interactions and tissue composition are a major determinant of cancer development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mary Helen Barcellos-Hoff
- Departments of Radiation Oncology and Cell Biology, New York University School of Medicine, 566 First Avenue, New York, NY 10016, USA.
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93
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Chua ACL, Hodson LJ, Moldenhauer LM, Robertson SA, Ingman WV. Dual roles for macrophages in ovarian cycle-associated development and remodelling of the mammary gland epithelium. Development 2010; 137:4229-38. [PMID: 21068060 DOI: 10.1242/dev.059261] [Citation(s) in RCA: 64] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Each ovarian cycle, the mammary gland epithelium rotates through a sequence of hormonally regulated cell proliferation, differentiation and apoptosis. These studies investigate the role of macrophages in this cellular turnover. Macrophage populations and their spatial distribution were found to fluctuate across the cycle. The number of macrophages was highest at diestrus, and the greatest number of macrophages in direct contact with epithelial cells occurred at proestrus. The physiological necessity of macrophages in mammary gland morphogenesis during the estrous cycle was demonstrated in Cd11b-Dtr transgenic mice. Ovariectomised mice were treated with estradiol and progesterone to stimulate alveolar development, and with the progesterone receptor antagonist mifepristone to induce regression of the newly formed alveolar buds. Macrophage depletion during alveolar development resulted in a reduction in both ductal epithelial cell proliferation and the number of alveolar buds. Macrophage depletion during alveolar regression resulted in an increased number of branch points and an accumulation of TUNEL-positive cells. These studies show that macrophages have two roles in the cellular turnover of epithelial cells in the cycling mammary gland; following ovulation, they promote the development of alveolar buds in preparation for possible pregnancy, and they remodel the tissue back to its basic architecture in preparation for a new estrous cycle.
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Affiliation(s)
- Angela C L Chua
- The Robinson Institute, Research Centre for Reproductive Health, and School of Paediatrics and Reproductive Health, University of Adelaide, Adelaide 5005, Australia
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94
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Reed JR, Schwertfeger KL. Immune cell location and function during post-natal mammary gland development. J Mammary Gland Biol Neoplasia 2010; 15:329-39. [PMID: 20730636 PMCID: PMC4204476 DOI: 10.1007/s10911-010-9188-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/15/2010] [Accepted: 08/10/2010] [Indexed: 01/21/2023] Open
Abstract
Post-natal mammary gland development requires complex interactions between the epithelial cells and various cell types within the stroma. Recent studies have illustrated the importance of immune cells and their mediators during the various stages of mammary gland development. However, the mechanisms by which these immune cells functionally contribute to mammary gland development are only beginning to be understood. This review provides an overview of the localization of immune cells within the mammary gland during the various stages of post-natal mammary gland development. Furthermore, recent studies are summarized that illustrate the mechanisms by which these cells are recruited to the mammary gland and their functional roles in mammary gland development.
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95
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McCave EJ, Cass CAP, Burg KJL, Booth BW. The normal microenvironment directs mammary gland development. J Mammary Gland Biol Neoplasia 2010; 15:291-9. [PMID: 20824492 DOI: 10.1007/s10911-010-9190-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/03/2010] [Accepted: 08/23/2010] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Normal development of the mammary gland is a multidimensional process that is controlled in part by its mammary microenvironment. The mammary microenvironment is a defined location that encompasses mammary somatic stem cells, neighboring signaling cells, the basement membrane and extracellular matrix, mammary fibroblasts as well as the intercellular signals produced and received by these cells. These dynamic signals take numerous forms including growth factors, steroids, cell-cell or cell-basement membrane physical interactions. Cellular growth and differentiation of the mammary gland throughout the developmental stages are regulated by changes in these signals and interactions. The purpose of this review is to summarize current information and research regarding the role of the mammary microenvironment during normal glandular development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Erin J McCave
- Department of Bioengineering, Clemson University, Clemson, SC 29634, USA
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96
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97
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Visvader JE. Keeping abreast of the mammary epithelial hierarchy and breast tumorigenesis. Genes Dev 2009; 23:2563-77. [PMID: 19933147 DOI: 10.1101/gad.1849509] [Citation(s) in RCA: 402] [Impact Index Per Article: 26.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/16/2023]
Abstract
The epithelium of the mammary gland exists in a highly dynamic state, undergoing dramatic morphogenetic changes during puberty, pregnancy, lactation, and regression. The recent identification of stem and progenitor populations in mouse and human mammary tissue has provided evidence that the mammary epithelium is organized in a hierarchical manner. Characterization of these normal epithelial subtypes is an important step toward understanding which cells are predisposed to oncogenesis. This review summarizes progress in the field toward defining constituent cells and key molecular regulators of the mammary epithelial hierarchy. Potential relationships between normal epithelial populations and breast tumor subtypes are discussed, with implications for understanding the cellular etiology underpinning breast tumor heterogeneity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jane E Visvader
- VBCRC (Victorian Breast Cancer Research Consortium) Laboratory, The Walter and Eliza Hall of Medical Research, Parkville, Victoria 3052, Australia.
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