Current trends and challenges in cancer management and therapy using designer nanomaterials

Cross-scale tracing of nanoparticles and tumors at the single-cell level using the whole-lung atlas

Currently, the effectiveness of oncotherapy is limited by tumor heterogeneities, which presents a huge challenge for the development of nanotargeted drug delivery systems (DDSs). Therefore, it is important to resolve the spatiotemporal interactions between tumors and nanoparticles. However, targeting evaluation has been limited by particle visualization due to the gap between whole-organ scale and subcellular precision. Here, a high-precision three-dimensional (3D) visualization of tumor structure based on the micro-optical sectioning tomography (MOST) system and fluorescence MOST (fMOST) system is presented to clarify 3D spatial distribution of nanoparticles within the tumor. We demonstrate that through the MOST/fMOST system, it is possible to reveal multidimensional and cross-scale correlations between the tumor structure and nanoparticle distribution to remodel the tumor microenvironment and explore the structural parameters of vasculature. This visualization methodology provides an accurate assessment of the efficacy, distribution, and targeting efficiency of DDSs for oncotherapy compared to available approaches.

Multifunctional bismuth oxide (Bi2 O3 ) particles: Evidence for selective melanoma therapy

The current study investigates the therapeutic and optical properties of bismuth oxide (Bi2 O3 ) particles for selective melanoma therapy and prevention. The Bi2 O3 particles were prepared using a standard precipitation method. The Bi2 O3 particles induced apoptosis in human A375 melanoma cells but not human HaCaT keratinocytes or CCD-1090Sk fibroblast cells. This selective apoptosis appears to be associated with a combination of factors: increased particle internalization (2.29 ± 0.41, 1.16 ± 0.08 and 1.66 ± 0.22-fold of control) and enhanced production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) (3.4 ± 0.1, 1.1 ± 0.1 and 2.05 ± 0.17-fold of control) in A375 cells compared to HaCaT and CCD-1090SK cells, respectively. As a high-Z element, bismuth is also an excellent contrast agent for computer tomography, which renders Bi2 O3 a theranostic material. Moreover, Bi2 O3 displays high UV absorption and low photocatalytic activity compared to other semiconducting metal oxides, which opens further potential fields of application as a pigment or as an active ingredient in sunscreens. Overall, this study demonstrates the multifunctional properties of Bi2 O3 particles surrounding the treatment and prevention of melanoma.

Natural Polymeric Nanobiocomposites for Anti-Cancer Drug Delivery Therapeutics: A Recent Update

Cancer is one of the most common lethal diseases and the leading cause of mortality worldwide. Effective cancer treatment is a global problem, and subsequent advancements in nanomedicine are useful as substitute management for anti-cancer agents. Nanotechnology, which is gaining popularity, enables fast-expanding delivery methods in science for curing diseases in a site-specific approach, utilizing natural bioactive substances because several studies have established that natural plant-based bioactive compounds can improve the effectiveness of chemotherapy. Bioactive, in combination with nanotechnology, is an exceptionally alluring and recent development in the fight against cancer. Along with their nutritional advantages, natural bioactive chemicals may be used as chemotherapeutic medications to manage cancer. Alginate, starch, xanthan gum, pectin, guar gum, hyaluronic acid, gelatin, albumin, collagen, cellulose, chitosan, and other biopolymers have been employed successfully in the delivery of medicinal products to particular sites. Due to their biodegradability, natural polymeric nanobiocomposites have garnered much interest in developing novel anti-cancer drug delivery methods. There are several techniques to create biopolymer-based nanoparticle systems. However, these systems must be created in an affordable and environmentally sustainable way to be more readily available, selective, and less hazardous to increase treatment effectiveness. Thus, an extensive comprehension of the various facets and recent developments in natural polymeric nanobiocomposites utilized to deliver anti-cancer drugs is imperative. The present article provides an overview of the latest research and developments in natural polymeric nanobiocomposites, particularly emphasizing their applications in the controlled and targeted delivery of anti-cancer drugs.

Contrasting Properties of Polymeric Nanocarriers for MRI-Guided Drug Delivery

Poor pharmacokinetics and low aqueous solubility combined with rapid clearance from the circulation of drugs result in their limited effectiveness and generally high therapeutic doses. The use of nanocarriers for drug delivery can prevent the rapid degradation of the drug, leading to its increased half-life. It can also improve the solubility and stability of drugs, advance their distribution and targeting, ensure a sustained release, and reduce drug resistance by delivering multiple therapeutic agents simultaneously. Furthermore, nanotechnology enables the combination of therapeutics with biomedical imaging agents and other treatment modalities to overcome the challenges of disease diagnosis and therapy. Such an approach is referred to as "theranostics" and aims to offer a more patient-specific approach through the observation of the distribution of contrast agents that are linked to therapeutics. The purpose of this paper is to present the recent scientific reports on polymeric nanocarriers for MRI-guided drug delivery. Polymeric nanocarriers are a very broad and versatile group of materials for drug delivery, providing high loading capacities, improved pharmacokinetics, and biocompatibility. The main focus was on the contrasting properties of proposed polymeric nanocarriers, which can be categorized into three main groups: polymeric nanocarriers (1) with relaxation-type contrast agents, (2) with chemical exchange saturation transfer (CEST) properties, and (3) with direct detection contrast agents based on fluorinated compounds. The importance of this aspect tends to be downplayed, despite its being essential for the successful design of applicable theranostic nanocarriers for image-guided drug delivery. If available, cytotoxicity and therapeutic effects were also summarized.

Review of the Role of Nanotechnology in Overcoming the Challenges Faced in Oral Cancer Diagnosis and Treatment

Throughout the world, oral cancer is a common and aggressive malignancy with a high risk of morbidity, mortality, and recurrence. The importance of early detection in cancer prevention and disease treatment cannot be overstated. Conventional therapeutic strategies have minor difficulties but considerable side effects and unfavourable consequences in clinical applications. Hence, there is a requirement for effective ways for early detection and treatment of oral cancer. At present, numerous forms of nanoparticles have piqued researchers' interest as a potentially useful tool for diagnostic probes and medicinal devices. Because of their inherent physicochemical properties and customizable surface modification, they are able to circumvent some of restrictions and accomplish the intended diagnostic and therapeutic impact. Nanotechnology is a unique field that has revolutionised the industry and is paving the way for new treatments for oral cancer. It can help with a better diagnosis with less harmful substances and is setting current guidelines for treatment. The use of nanotechnology in cancer diagnosis, therapy, and care improves clinical practise dramatically. The different types of nanoparticles that have been developed for the diagnosis and therapy of oral cancers will be covered in this study. The difficulties and potential uses of nanoparticles in the treatment and diagnosis of oral cancer are then highlighted. In order to emphasise existing difficulties and potential remedies for oral cancer, a prospective view of the future is also provided.

Metal-Based Nanoparticles in Food Packaging and Coating Technologies: A Review

Food security has continued to be a topic of interest in our world due to the increasing demand for food. Many technologies have been adopted to enhance food supply and narrow the demand gap. Thus, the attempt to use nanotechnology to improve food security and increase supply has emerged due to the severe shortcomings of conventional technologies, which have made them insufficient to cater to the continuous demand for food products. Hence, nanoparticles have been identified to play a major role in areas involving food production, protection, and shelf-life extensions. Specifically, metal-based nanoparticles have been singled out to play an important role in manufacturing materials with outstanding properties, which can help increase the shelf-life of different food materials. The physicochemical and biological properties of metal-based nanoparticles, such as the large surface area and antimicrobial properties, have made them suitable and adequately useful, not just as a regular packaging material but as a functional material upon incorporation into biopolymer matrices. These, amongst many other reasons, have led to their wide synthesis and applications, even though their methods of preparation and risk evaluation remain a topic of concern. This review, therefore, briefly explores the available synthetic methods, physicochemical properties, roles, and biological properties of metal-based nanoparticles for food packaging. Furthermore, the associated limitations, alongside quality and safety considerations, of these materials were summarily explored. Although this area of research continues to garner attention, this review showed that metal-based nanoparticles possess great potential to be a leading material for food packaging if the problem of migration and toxicity can be effectively modulated.

Recent Advances in Nanomaterials-Based Targeted Drug Delivery for Preclinical Cancer Diagnosis and Therapeutics

Nano-oncology is a branch of biomedical research and engineering that focuses on using nanotechnology in cancer diagnosis and treatment. Nanomaterials are extensively employed in the field of oncology because of their minute size and ultra-specificity. A wide range of nanocarriers, such as dendrimers, micelles, PEGylated liposomes, and polymeric nanoparticles are used to facilitate the efficient transport of anti-cancer drugs at the target tumor site. Real-time labeling and monitoring of cancer cells using quantum dots is essential for determining the level of therapy needed for treatment. The drug is targeted to the tumor site either by passive or active means. Passive targeting makes use of the tumor microenvironment and enhanced permeability and retention effect, while active targeting involves the use of ligand-coated nanoparticles. Nanotechnology is being used to diagnose the early stage of cancer by detecting cancer-specific biomarkers using tumor imaging. The implication of nanotechnology in cancer therapy employs photoinduced nanosensitizers, reverse multidrug resistance, and enabling efficient delivery of CRISPR/Cas9 and RNA molecules for therapeutic applications. However, despite recent advancements in nano-oncology, there is a need to delve deeper into the domain of designing and applying nanoparticles for improved cancer diagnostics.

Repurposing of Chronically Used Drugs in Cancer Therapy: A Chance to Grasp

Despite the advancement in drug discovery for cancer therapy, drug repurposing remains an exceptional opportunistic strategy. This approach offers many advantages (faster, safer, and cheaper drugs) typically needed to overcome increased challenges, i.e., side effects, resistance, and costs associated with cancer therapy. However, not all drug classes suit a patient's condition or long-time use. For that, repurposing chronically used medications is more appealing. This review highlights the importance of repurposing anti-diabetic and anti-hypertensive drugs in the global fight against human malignancies. Extensive searches of all available evidence (up to 30 March 2023) on the anti-cancer activities of anti-diabetic and anti-hypertensive agents are obtained from multiple resources (PubMed, Google Scholar, ClinicalTrials.gov, Drug Bank database, ReDo database, and the National Institutes of Health). Interestingly, more than 92 clinical trials are evaluating the anti-cancer activity of 14 anti-diabetic and anti-hypertensive drugs against more than 15 cancer types. Moreover, some of these agents have reached Phase IV evaluations, suggesting promising official release as anti-cancer medications. This comprehensive review provides current updates on different anti-diabetic and anti-hypertensive classes possessing anti-cancer activities with the available evidence about their mechanism(s) and stage of development and evaluation. Hence, it serves researchers and clinicians interested in anti-cancer drug discovery and cancer management.

The anticancer effect of recombinant LukS-PV protein and silver nanoparticles loaded with this protein

LukS-PV is a component of Panton-Valentine leucocidin (PVL) and is secreted by Staphylococcus aureus. Silver nanoparticles exhibit considerable potential as anticancer agents and drug delivery systems. Drug delivery is a way to deliver medicinal combinations to achieve a beneficial therapeutic effect. In the current study, recombinant LukS-PV protein-loaded silver nanoparticles were prepared and their cytotoxicity effect was analyzed on human breast cancer cells and human normal embryonic kidneys cells by MTT assay. Apoptosis was investigated by staining with Annexin V/propidium iodide. The recombinant LukS-PV protein-loaded silver nanoparticles showed dose-dependent cytotoxicity and induced apoptosis in the MCF7 cells and had a lesser effect on HEK293 cells. After 24 h exposure to the recombinant LukS-PV protein-loaded silver nanoparticles (IC50), Annexin V-FITC/PI FCM revealed that 33.2% of MCF7 cells were apoptotic. In conclusion, recombinant LukS-PV protein-loaded silver nanoparticles probably cannot be a better alternative for the targeted healing approaches to cancer therapies. Hence, it is suggested that silver nanoparticles could be utilized as a delivery system for releasing toxins into cancer cells.

Ligand-displaying-exosomes using RNA nanotechnology for targeted delivery of multi-specific drugs for liver cancer regression

Liver cancer such as hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) poorly responds to chemotherapeutics as there are no effective means to deliver the drugs to liver cancer. Here we report GalNAc decorated exosomes as cargo for targeted delivery of Paclitaxel (PTX) and miR122 to liver tumors as an effective means to inhibit the HCC. Exosomes (Exos) are nanosized extracellular vesicles that deliver a payload to cancer cells effectively. GalNAc provides Exos targeting ability by binding to the asialoglycoprotein-receptor (ASGP-R) overexpressed on the liver cancer cell surface. A 4-way junction (4WJ) RNA nanoparticle was constructed to harbor 24 copies of hydrophobic PTX and 1 copy of miR122. The 4WJ RNA-PTX complex was loaded into the Exos, and its surface was decorated with GalNAc using RNA nanotechnology to obtain specific targeting. The multi-specific Exos selectively bind and efficiently delivered the payload into the liver cancer cells and exhibited the highest cancer cell inhibition due to the multi-specific effect of miR122, PTX, GalNAc, and Exos. The same was reflected in mice xenograft studies, the liver cancer was efficiently inhibited after systemic injection of the multi-specific Exos. The required effective dose of chemical drugs carried by Exos was significantly reduced, indicating high efficiency and low toxicity. The multi-specific strategy demonstrates that Exos can serve as a natural cargo vehicle for the targeted delivery of anticancer therapeutics to treat difficult-to-treat cancers.

Metal-Organic Frameworks-Based Nanoplatforms for the Theranostic Applications of Neurological Diseases

Neurological diseases are the foremost cause of disability and the second leading cause of death worldwide. Owing to the special microenvironment of neural tissues and biological characteristics of neural cells, a considerable number of neurological disorders are currently incurable. In the past few years, the development of nanoplatforms based on metal-organic frameworks (MOFs) has broadened opportunities for offering sensitive diagnosis/monitoring and effective therapy of neurology-related diseases. In this article, the obstacles for neurotherapeutics, including delayed diagnosis and misdiagnosis, the existence of blood brain barrier (BBB), off-target treatment, irrepressible inflammatory storm/oxidative stress, and irreversible nerve cell death are summarized. Correspondingly, MOFs-based diagnostic/monitoring strategies such as neuroimaging and biosensors (electrochemistry, fluorometry, colorimetry, electrochemiluminescence, etc.) and MOFs-based therapeutic strategies including higher BBB permeability, targeting specific lesion sites, attenuation of neuroinflammation/oxidative stress as well as regeneration of nerve cells, are extensively highlighted for the management of neurological diseases. Finally, the challenges of the present research from perspective of clinical translation are discussed, hoping to facilitate interdisciplinary studies at the intersections between MOFs-based nanoplatforms and neurotheranostics.

Recent advances of Pluronic-based copolymers functionalization in biomedical applications

The design of polymeric biocompatible nanomaterials for biological and medical applications has received special attention in recent years. Among different polymers, the triblock type copolymers (EO)_x(PO)_y(EO)_x or Pluronics® stand out due its favorable characteristics such as biocompatibility, low tissue adhesion, thermosensitivity, and structural capacity to produce different types of macro and nanostructures, e.g. micelles, vesicles, nanocapsules, nanospheres, and hydrogels. However, Pluronic itself is not the "magic bullet" and its functionalization via chemical synthesis following biologically oriented design rules is usually required aiming to improve its properties. Therefore, this paper presents some of the main publications on new methodologies for synthetic modifications and applications of Pluronic-based nanoconstructs in the biomedical field in the last 15 years. In general, the polymer modifications aim to improve physical-chemical properties related to the micellization process or physical entrapment of drug cargo, responsive stimuli, active targeting, thermosensitivity, gelling ability, and hydrogel formation. Among these applications, it can be highlighted the treatment of malignant neoplasms, infectious diseases, wound healing, cellular regeneration, and tissue engineering. Functionalized Pluronic has also been used for various purposes, including medical diagnosis, medical imaging, and even miniaturization, such as the creation of lab-on-a-chip devices. In this context, this review discusses the main scientific contributions to the designing, optimization, and improvement of covalently functionalized Pluronics aiming at new strategies focused on the multiple areas of the biomedical field.

A review of nanomaterials from synthetic and natural molecules for prospective breast cancer nanotherapy

Breast cancer being one of the most frequent cancers in women accounts for almost a quarter of all cancer cases. Early and late-stage breast cancer outcomes have improved dramatically, with considerable gains in overall survival rate and disease-free state. However, the current therapy of breast cancer suffers from drug resistance leading to relapse and recurrence of the disease. Also, the currently used synthetic and natural agents have bioavailability issues which limit their use. Recently, nanocarriers-assisted delivery of synthetic and natural anticancer drugs has been introduced to the breast cancer therapy which alienates the limitations associated with the current therapy to a great extent. Significant progress has lately been made in the realm of nanotechnology, which proved to be vital in the fight against drug resistance. Nanotechnology has been successfully applied in the effective and improved therapy of different forms of breast cancer including invasive, non-invasive as well as triple negative breast cancer (TNBC), etc. This review presents a comprehensive overview of various nanoformulations prepared for the improved delivery of synthetic and natural anticancer drugs alone or in combination showing better efficacy and pharmacokinetics. In addition to this, various ongoing and completed clinical studies and patents granted on nanotechnology-based breast cancer drug delivery are also reviewed.

Polydopamine Nanomaterials for Overcoming Current Challenges in Cancer Treatment

In efforts to overcome current challenges in cancer treatment, multifunctional nanoparticles are attracting growing interest, including nanoparticles made with polydopamine (PDA). PDA is a nature-inspired polymer with a dark brown color. It has excellent biocompatibility and is biodegradable, offering a range of extraordinary inherent advantages. These include excellent drug loading capability, photothermal conversion efficiency, and adhesive properties. Though the mechanism of dopamine polymerization remains unclear, PDA has demonstrated exceptional flexibility in engineering desired morphology and size, easy and straightforward functionalization, etc. Moreover, it offers enormous potential for designing multifunctional nanomaterials for innovative approaches in cancer treatment. The aim of this work is to review studies on PDA, where the potential to develop multifunctional nanomaterials with applications in photothermal therapy has been demonstrated. Future prospects of PDA for developing applications in enhancing radiotherapy and/or immunotherapy, including for image-guided drug delivery to boost therapeutic efficacy and minimal side effects, are presented.

Advances in tumor nanotechnology: theragnostic implications in tumors via targeting regulated cell death

Cell death constitutes an indispensable part of the organismal balance in the human body. Generally, cell death includes regulated cell death (RCD) and accidental cell death (ACD), reflecting the intricately molecule-dependent process and the uncontrolled response, respectively. Furthermore, diverse RCD pathways correlate with multiple diseases, such as tumors and neurodegenerative diseases. Meanwhile, with the development of precision medicine, novel nano-based materials have gradually been applied in the clinical diagnosis and treatment of tumor patients. As the carrier, organic, inorganic, and biomimetic nanomaterials could facilitate the distribution, improve solubility and bioavailability, enhance biocompatibility and decrease the toxicity of drugs in the body, therefore, benefiting tumor patients with better survival outcomes and quality of life. In terms of the most studied cell death pathways, such as apoptosis, necroptosis, and pyroptosis, plenty of studies have explored specific types of nanomaterials targeting the molecules and signals in these pathways. However, no attempt was made to display diverse nanomaterials targeting different RCD pathways comprehensively. In this review, we elaborate on the potential mechanisms of RCD, including intrinsic and extrinsic apoptosis, necroptosis, ferroptosis, pyroptosis, autophagy-dependent cell death, and other cell death pathways together with corresponding nanomaterials. The thorough presentation of RCD pathways and diverse nano-based materials may provide a wider cellular and molecular landscape of tumor diagnosis and treatments.

Co-delivery of doxorubicin/sorafenib by DNA-decorated green ZIF-67-based nanocarriers for chemotherapy and hepatocellular carcinoma treatment

Zeolitic imidazolate framework-67 (ZIF-67) has been decorated with natural biomaterials and DNA to develop a promising strategy and suitable and safe co-delivery platform for doxorubicin and sorafenib (DOX-SOR). FT-IR, XRD, FESEM, and TEM were used to characterize the modified MOFs. Combined Ginkgo biloba leaf extract and E. coli DNA were used as green decorations, and as environmentally-friendly methods to be developed, and DOX and SOR were attached to the porosity and on the surface of the MOFs. TEM and FESEM images demonstrated that the green MOFs were successfully synthesized for biomedical applications and showed their cubic structure. As a result of the nanocarrier-drug interactions, 59.7% and 60.2% of the drug payload were achieved with DOX and SOR, respectively. HEK-293, HT-29, and MCF-7 cells displayed excellent viability by decoration with DNA and Ginkgo biloba leaf extract at low and high concentrations (0.1 and 50 μg/mL), suggesting they could be used in biomedical applications. MTT assays demonstrated that the nanocarriers are highly biocompatible with normal cells and possess anticancer properties when applied to HT-29 and MCF-7 cells. As a result of Ginkgo biloba leaf extract and DNA modification, DOX-SOR release was prolonged and pH-sensitive (highest release at pHs 4.5 and 5.5). The internalization and delivery of the drug were also studied using a 2d fluorescence microscope, demonstrating that the drug was effectively internalized. Cell images showed NPs internalizing in MCF-7 cells, proving their efficacy as drug delivery systems.

Controllable assembly of dendritic DNA nanostructures for ultrasensitive detection of METTL3-METTL14 m6A methyltransferase activity in cancer cells and human breast tissues

N⁶-Methyladenosine (m⁶A) is a reversible chemical modification in eukaryotic messenger RNAs and long noncoding RNAs. The aberrant expression of RNA methyltransferase METTL3-METTL14 complex may change the m⁶A methylation level and cause multiple diseases including cancers. The conventional METTL3-METTL14 assays commonly suffer from time-consuming procedures and poor sensitivity. Herein, we develop a controllable amplification machinery based on MazF-activated terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase (TdT)-assisted dendritic DNA structure assembly for ultrasensitive detection of METTL3-METTL14 complex activity in cancer cells and breast tissues. The presence of METTL3-METTL14 complex catalyzes the formation of m⁶A in detection probe, effectively preventing the cleavage of methylated detection probes by MazF. The methylated detection probes with 3'-OH termini can function as the primers for template-free polymerization catalyzed by TdT on magnetic beads (MBs), producing long chains of poly-thymidine (poly-T) sequences. Then poly-T sequences hybridize with signal probes that contain poly-adenine (poly-A) sequence, inducing TdT-mediated polymerization and the subsequent hybridization with more poly-A signal probes for generating dendritic DNA nanostructures assembled on MBs. After magnetic separation and elevated temperature treatment, the signal probes are disassembled from MBs to generate a high fluorescence signal. This method possesses excellent specificity and high sensitivity with a limit of detection (LOD) of 2.61 × 10^-15 M, and it can accurately quantify cellular METTL3-METTL14 complex at single-cell level. Furthermore, it can screen inhibitors, evaluate kinetic parameters, and discriminate breast cancer tissues from normal tissues.

Natural Compounds: Co-Delivery Strategies with Chemotherapeutic Agents or Nucleic Acids Using Lipid-Based Nanocarriers

Cancer is one of the leading causes of death, and latest predictions indicate that cancer- related deaths will increase over the next few decades. Despite significant advances in conventional therapies, treatments remain far from ideal due to limitations such as lack of selectivity, non-specific distribution, and multidrug resistance. Current research is focusing on the development of several strategies to improve the efficiency of chemotherapeutic agents and, as a result, overcome the challenges associated with conventional therapies. In this regard, combined therapy with natural compounds and other therapeutic agents, such as chemotherapeutics or nucleic acids, has recently emerged as a new strategy for tackling the drawbacks of conventional therapies. Taking this strategy into consideration, the co-delivery of the above-mentioned agents in lipid-based nanocarriers provides some advantages by improving the potential of the therapeutic agents carried. In this review, we present an analysis of the synergistic anticancer outcomes resulting from the combination of natural compounds and chemotherapeutics or nucleic acids. We also emphasize the importance of these co-delivery strategies when reducing multidrug resistance and adverse toxic effects. Furthermore, the review delves into the challenges and opportunities surrounding the application of these co-delivery strategies towards tangible clinical translation for cancer treatment.

Beta glucan as an immune stimulant in tumor microenvironment - Insight into lessons and promises from past decade

Cancer is characterized by a perturbed immune landscape. Inside tumor microenvironment, immune system is reprogrammed to facilitate tumor growth and survival rather than eliminating it. This immune evasive mechanism needs to be reversed to normal for effective anticancer therapeutic strategy. Immunotherapy has emerged as a novel strategy for redeployment of immune cells against cancer. However, they suffer in their efficacy, response rate and side effects. This necessitated us to turn toward natural repertoires which can act as a substitute to conventional immunotherapeutics. Beta glucan, a polysaccharide derived from mushroom, serves the role of immunomodulator inside tumor microenvironment. It acts as pathogen associated molecular pattern and bind to various pattern recognition receptors expressed on surface of immune cells thereby facilitating their activation and crosstalk. This result in resurgence of suppressed immune surveillance in the tumor milieu. In this review, we highlight in brief the advances and limitation of cancer immunotherapy. Alongside, we have discussed the detailed mechanistic principle and recent advances underlying restoration of immune functionality by beta glucan.

Nanomaterial-Based Antivascular Therapy in the Multimodal Treatment of Cancer

Abnormal tumor vasculature and a hypoxic tumor microenvironment (TME) limit the effectiveness of conventional cancer treatment. Recent studies have shown that antivascular strategies that focus on antagonizing the hypoxic TME and promoting vessel normalization effectively synergize to increase the antitumor efficacy of conventional therapeutic regimens. By integrating multiple therapeutic agents, well-designed nanomaterials exhibit great advantages in achieving higher drug delivery efficiency and can be used as multimodal therapy with reduced systemic toxicity. In this review, strategies for the nanomaterial-based administration of antivascular therapy combined with other common tumor treatments, including immunotherapy, chemotherapy, phototherapy, radiotherapy, and interventional therapy, are summarized. In particular, the administration of intravascular therapy and other therapies with the use of versatile nanodrugs is also described. This review provides a reference for the development of multifunctional nanotheranostic platforms for effective antivascular therapy in combined anticancer treatments.

Potential of green-synthesized ZnO NPs against human ovarian teratocarcinoma: an in vitro study

BACKGROUND

Ovarian cancer leads to devastating outcomes, and its treatment is highly challenging. At present, there is a lack of clinical symptoms, well-known sensitivity biomarkers, and patients are diagnosed at an advanced stage. Currently, available therapeutics against ovarian cancer are inefficient, costly, and associated with severe side effects. The present study evaluated the anticancer potential of zinc oxide nanoparticles (ZnO NPs) that were successfully biosynthesized in an ecofriendly mode using pumpkin seed extracts.

METHODS AND RESULTS

The anticancer potential of the biosynthesized ZnO NPs was assessed using an in vitro human ovarian teratocarcinoma cell line (PA-1) by well-known assays such as MTT assay, morphological alterations, induction of apoptosis, measurement of reactive oxygen species (ROS) production, and inhibition of cell adhesion/migration. The biogenic ZnO NPs exerted a high level of cytotoxicity against PA-1 cells. Furthermore, the ZnO NPs inhibited cellular adhesion and migration but induced ROS production and cell death through programmed cell death.

CONCLUSION

The aforementioned anticancer properties highlight the therapeutic utility of ZnO NPs in ovarian cancer treatment. However, further research is recommended to envisage their mechanism of action in different cancer models and validation in a suitable in vivo system.

An Updated Review on the Role of Nanoformulated Phytochemicals in Colorectal Cancer

The most common cancer-related cause of death worldwide is colorectal cancer. It is initiated with the formation of polyps, which further cause the development of colorectal cancer in multistep phases. Colorectal cancer mortality is high despite recent treatment breakthroughs and a greater understanding of its pathophysiology. Stress is one of the major causes of triggering different cellular signalling cascades inside the body and which might turn toward the development of cancer. Naturally occurring plant compounds or phytochemicals are being studied for medical purposes. Phytochemicals' benefits are being analyzed for inflammatory illnesses, liver failure, metabolic disorders, neurodegenerative disorders, and nephropathies. Cancer treatment with fewer side effects and better outcomes has been achieved by combining phytochemicals with chemotherapy. Resveratrol, curcumin, and epigallocatechin-3-gallate have been studied for their chemotherapeutic and chemopreventive potentiality, but hydrophobicity, solubility, poor bioavailability, and target selectivity limit the clinical uses of these compounds. The therapeutic potential is maximized by utilizing nanocarriers such as liposomes, micelles, nanoemulsions, and nanoparticles to increase phytochemical bioavailability and target specificity. This updated literature review discusses the clinical limitations, increased sensitivity, chemopreventive and chemotherapeutic effects, and the clinical limitations of the phytochemicals.

Cellular Compartmentalization, Glutathione Transport and Its Relevance in Some Pathologies

Reduced glutathione (GSH) is the most abundant non-protein endogenous thiol. It is a ubiquitous molecule produced in most organs, but its synthesis is predominantly in the liver, the tissue in charge of storing and distributing it. GSH is involved in the detoxification of free radicals, peroxides and xenobiotics (drugs, pollutants, carcinogens, etc.), protects biological membranes from lipid peroxidation, and is an important regulator of cell homeostasis, since it participates in signaling redox, regulation of the synthesis and degradation of proteins (S-glutathionylation), signal transduction, various apoptotic processes, gene expression, cell proliferation, DNA and RNA synthesis, etc. GSH transport is a vital step in cellular homeostasis supported by the liver through providing extrahepatic organs (such as the kidney, lung, intestine, and brain, among others) with the said antioxidant. The wide range of functions within the cell in which glutathione is involved shows that glutathione’s role in cellular homeostasis goes beyond being a simple antioxidant agent; therefore, the importance of this tripeptide needs to be reassessed from a broader metabolic perspective.

Engineered Extracellular Vesicle-Encapsuled Nanoreactors for Effective Targeting and Cascade Killing of Cancer Cells

Nanomaterials have presented great potential for cancer therapy. However, their therapeutic efficacy is not always satisfied because of inefficient biocompatibility and targeting efficacy. Here, we report engineered extracellular vesicle (EV)-encapsuled nanoreactors for the targeting and killing of cancer cells. EVs are extracted from engineered cancer cells with surface N-glycans cut and intracellular microRNA-21 (miR-21) silenced to generate cancer-targeting membranes for the following coating of gold-polydopamine (PDA) core-shell nanoparticles. The encapsuled nanoparticles are decorated with doxorubicin (Dox), glucose oxidase (GOx), and miR-21-indicative DNA tags. Once endocytosed, the acidic pH, together with the photothermal effect of the PDA shell, can promote the release of Dox and GOx-catalyzed H₂O₂ generation/glucose consumption, while the DNA tags allow enhanced fluorescence imaging of miR-21 to indicate the targeting effect. The coadministration of EV-assisted delivery and cascade treatment represents a promising strategy for combination therapy.

Magnetic iron oxide nanoparticle-loaded hydrogels for photothermal therapy of cancer cells

Introduction: Non-invasive photothermal therapy (PTT) is a competitive treatment for solid tumors, while the efficacy is largely dependent on the effective retention of photothermal converters in tumor tissues.

Methods: Herein, the development of iron oxide (Fe3O4) nanoparticle-loaded alginate (ALG) hydrogel platform for PTT of colorectal cancer cells is reported. Fe3O4 nanoparticles synthesized via coprecipitation method after reaction of 30 min have a small size (61.3 nm) and more suitable surface potential, and can mediate PTT under near-infrared (NIR) laser irradiation. The premix of Fe3O4 nanoparticles and ALG hydrogel precursors can be gelatinized by Ca2+-mediated cross-linking to form this therapeutic hydrogel platform.

Results: The formed Fe3O4 nanoparticles can be effectively taken up by CT26 cancer cells and induce the death of CT26 cells in vitro under NIR laser irradiation because of their excellent photothermal property. In addition, Fe3O4 nanoparticle-loaded ALG hydrogels show negligible cytotoxicity at the studied concentration range, but can significantly kill cancer cells after PTT effect.

Conclusion: This ALG-based hydrogel platform provides a valuable reference for subsequent in vivo studies and other related studies on Fe3O4 nanoparticle-loaded hydrogels.

Lipid-core nanoparticles: Classification, preparation methods, routes of administration and recent advances in cancer treatment

Nanotechnological drug delivery platforms represent a new paradigm for cancer therapeutics as they improve the pharmacokinetic profile and distribution of chemotherapeutic agents over conventional formulations. Among nanoparticles, lipid-based nanoplatforms possessing a lipid core, that is, lipid-core nanoparticles (LCNPs), have gained increasing interest due to lipid properties such as high solubilizing potential, versatility, biocompatibility, and biodegradability. However, due to the wide spectrum of morphologies and types of LCNPs, there is a lack of consensus regarding their terminology and classification. According to the current state-of-the-art in this critical review, LCNPs are defined and classified based on the state of their lipidic components in liquid lipid nanoparticles (LLNs). These include lipid nanoemulsions (LNEs) and lipid nanocapsules (LNCs), solid lipid nanoparticles (SLNs) and nanostructured lipid nanocarriers (NLCs). In addition, we present a comprehensive and comparative description of the methods employed for their preparation, routes of administration and the fundamental role of physicochemical properties of LCNPs for efficient antitumoral drug-delivery application. Market available LCNPs, clinical trials and preclinical in vivo studies of promising LCNPs as potential treatments for different cancer pathologies are summarized.

Chitosan-Based Nano-Smart Drug Delivery System in Breast Cancer Therapy

Despite recent advances, cancer remains the primary killer on a global scale. Numerous forms of research have been conducted to discover novel and efficient anticancer medications. The complexity of breast cancer is a major challenge which is coupled with patient-to-patient variations and heterogeneity between cells within the tumor. Revolutionary drug delivery is expected to provide a solution to that challenge. Chitosan nanoparticles (CSNPs) have prospects as a revolutionary delivery system capable of enhancing anticancer drug activity and reducing negative impacts on normal cells. The use of smart drug delivery systems (SDDs) as delivering materials to improve the bioactivity of NPs and to understand the intricacies of breast cancer has garnered significant interest. There are many reviews about CSNPs that present various points of view, but they have not yet described a series in cancer therapy from cell uptake to cell death. With this description, we will provide a more complete picture for designing preparations for SDDs. This review describes CSNPs as SDDSs, enhancing cancer therapy targeting and stimulus response using their anticancer mechanism. Multimodal chitosan SDDs as targeting and stimulus response medication delivery will improve therapeutic results.

Pharmacokinetic behaviors of soft nanoparticulate formulations of chemotherapeutics

Chemotherapeutic treatment with conventional drug formulations pose numerous challenges, such as poor solubility, high cytotoxicity and serious off-target side effects, low bioavailability, and ultimately subtherapeutic tumoral concentration leading to poor therapeutic outcomes. In the field of Nanomedicine, advances in nanotechnology have been applied with great success to design and develop novel nanoparticle-based formulations for the treatment of various types of cancer. The approval of the first nanomedicine, Doxil® (liposomal doxorubicin) in 1995, paved the path for further development for various types of novel delivery platforms. Several different types of nanoparticles, especially organic (soft) nanoparticles (liposomes, polymeric micelles, and albumin-bound nanoparticles), have been developed and approved for several anticancer drugs. Nanoparticulate drug delivery platform have facilitated to overcome of these challenges and offered key advantages of improved bioavailability, higher intra-tumoral concentration of the drug, reduced toxicity, and improved efficacy. This review introduces various commonly used nanoparticulate systems in biomedical research and their pharmacokinetic (PK) attributes, then focuses on the various physicochemical and physiological factors affecting the in vivo disposition of chemotherapeutic agents encapsulated in nanoparticles in recent years. Further, it provides a review of the current landscape of soft nanoparticulate formulations for the two most widely investigated anticancer drugs, paclitaxel, and doxorubicin, that are either approved or under investigation. Formulation details, PK profiles, and therapeutic outcomes of these novel strategies have been discussed individually and in comparison, to traditional formulations. This article is categorized under: Nanotechnology Approaches to Biology > Cells at the Nanoscale Diagnostic Tools > In Vivo Nanodiagnostics and Imaging Therapeutic Approaches and Drug Discovery > Nanomedicine for Oncologic Disease.

Proteins and their functionalization for finding therapeutic avenues in cancer: Current status and future prospective

Despite the remarkable advancement in the health care sector, cancer remains the second most fatal disease globally. The existing conventional cancer treatments primarily include chemotherapy, which has been associated with little to severe side effects, and radiotherapy, which is usually expensive. To overcome these problems, target-specific nanocarriers have been explored for delivering chemo drugs. However, recent reports on using a few proteins having anticancer activity and further use of them as drug carriers have generated tremendous attention for furthering the research towards cancer therapy. Biomolecules, especially proteins, have emerged as suitable alternatives in cancer treatment due to multiple favourable properties including biocompatibility, biodegradability, and structural flexibility for easy surface functionalization. Several in vitro and in vivo studies have reported that various proteins derived from animal, plant, and bacterial species, demonstrated strong cytotoxic and antiproliferative properties against malignant cells in native and their different structural conformations. Moreover, surface tunable properties of these proteins help to bind a range of anticancer drugs and target ligands, thus making them efficient delivery agents in cancer therapy. Here, we discuss various proteins obtained from common exogenous sources and how they transform into effective anticancer agents. We also comprehensively discuss the tumor-killing mechanisms of different dietary proteins such as bovine α-lactalbumin, hen egg-white lysozyme, and their conjugates. We also articulate how protein nanostructures can be used as carriers for delivering cancer drugs and theranostics, and strategies to be adopted for improving their in vivo delivery and targeting. We further discuss the FDA-approved protein-based anticancer formulations along with those in different phases of clinical trials.

Core-shell micro/nanocapsules: from encapsulation to applications

Encapsulation is the way to wrap or coat one substance as a core inside another tiny substance known as a shell at micro and nano scale for protecting the active ingredients from the exterior environment. A lot of active substances, such as flavours, enzymes, drugs, pesticides, vitamins, in addition to catalysts being effectively encapsulated within capsules consisting of different natural as well as synthetic polymers comprising poly(methacrylate), poly(ethylene glycol), cellulose, poly(lactide), poly(styrene), gelatine, poly(lactide-co-glycolide)s, and acacia. The developed capsules release the enclosed substance conveniently and in time through numerous mechanisms, reliant on the ultimate use of final products. Such technology is important for several fields counting food, pharmaceutical, cosmetics, agriculture, and textile industries. The present review focuses on the most important and high-efficiency methods for manufacturing micro/nanocapsules and their several applications in our life.

Studies on anti-colon cancer potential of nanoformulations of curcumin and succinylated curcumin in mannosylated chitosan

Colon cancer (CRC) is the second leading cause of death and the third most diagnosed cancer worldwide. Although curcumin (CUR) has demonstrated a potent anticancer activity, it is characterized by its poor solubility, low bioavailability, and instability. This study is a projection from a previous investigation where CUR and succinylated CUR (CUR.SA) were separately encapsulated in mannosylated-chitosan nanoparticles (CM-NPs) to form CUR-NPs and CUR.SA-NPs, respectively. Here, we aim to assess the anti-CRC activity of these two nanoformulations. Cytotoxicity studies using CCK-8 assay indicated that both CUR-NPs and CUR.SA-NPs have a dose and time-dependent toxicity towards CRC human cell-lines (HCT116 and SW480), and more cytotoxic compared to free CUR or CUR-SA in a time-dependent manner. A significant induction of early and late apoptosis in the CUR-NPs and CUR.SA-NPs treated CRC cell lines compared to untreated cells was observed. Western blotting analyses confirmed the induction of apoptosis through activation of Caspase signaling compared to untreated cells. Based on the physicochemical properties of CUR-NPs and CUR.SA-NPs along with the data from the in vitro studies, we may conclude these nanoparticle formulations hold very promising attributes, worthy of further investigations for its role in the management of CRC.

Targeted delivery of paclitaxel drug using polymer-coated magnetic nanoparticles for fibrosarcoma therapy: in vitro and in vivo studies

Fibrosarcoma is a rare type of cancer that affects cells known as fibroblasts that are malignant, locally recurring, and spreading tumor in fibrous tissue. In this work, an iron plate immersed in an aqueous solution of double added deionized water, supplemented with potassium permanganate solution (KMnO₄) was carried out by the pulsed laser ablation in liquid method (PLAIL). Superparamagnetic iron oxide nanoparticles (SPIONs) were synthesized using different laser wavelengths (1064, 532, and 266 nm) at a fluence of 28 J/cm² with 100 shots of the iron plate to control the concentration, shape and size of the prepared high-stability SPIONs. The drug nanocarrier was synthesized by coating SPION with paclitaxel (PTX)-loaded chitosan (Cs) and polyethylene glycol (PEG). This nanosystem was functionalized by receptors that target folate (FA). The physiochemical characteristics of SPION@Cs-PTX-PEG-FA nanoparticles were evaluated and confirmed by Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), transmission electron microscopy (TEM), X-Ray diffraction (XRD), atomic force microscopy (AFM), and dynamic light scattering (DLS) methods. Cell internalization, cytotoxicity assay (MTT), apoptosis induction, and gene expression of SPION@Cs-PTX-PEG-FA were estimated in fibrosarcoma cell lines, respectively. In vivo studies used BALB/c tumor-bearing mice. The results showed that SPION@Cs-PTX-PEG-FA exhibited suitable physical stability, spherical shape, desirable size, and charge. SPION@Cs-PTX-PEG-FA inhibited proliferation and induced apoptosis of cancer cells (P < 0.01). The results of the in vivo study showed that SPION@Cs-PTX-PEG-FA significantly decreased tumor size compared to free PTX and control samples (P < 0.05), leading to longer survival, significantly increased splenocyte proliferation and IFN-γ level, and significantly decreased the level of IL-4. All of these findings indicated the potential of SPION@Cs-PTX-PEG-FA as an antitumor therapeutic agent.

Emerging Trends in Nano-Driven Immunotherapy for Treatment of Cancer

Despite advancements in the development of anticancer medications and therapies, cancer still has the greatest fatality rate due to a dismal prognosis. Traditional cancer therapies include chemotherapy, radiotherapy, and targeted therapy. The conventional treatments have a number of shortcomings, such as a lack of selectivity, non-specific cytotoxicity, suboptimal drug delivery to tumour locations, and multi-drug resistance, which results in a less potent/ineffective therapeutic outcome. Cancer immunotherapy is an emerging and promising strategy to elicit a pronounced immune response against cancer. Immunotherapy stimulates the immune system with cancer-specific antigens or immune checkpoint inhibitors to overcome the immune suppressive tumour microenvironment and kill the cancer cells. However, delivery of the antigen or immune checkpoint inhibitors and activation of the immune response need to circumvent the issues pertaining to short lifetimes and effect times, as well as adverse effects associated with off-targeting, suboptimal, or hyperactivation of the immune system. Additional challenges posed by the tumour suppressive microenvironment are less tumour immunogenicity and the inhibition of effector T cells. The evolution of nanotechnology in recent years has paved the way for improving treatment efficacy by facilitating site-specific and sustained delivery of the therapeutic moiety to elicit a robust immune response. The amenability of nanoparticles towards surface functionalization and tuneable physicochemical properties, size, shape, and surfaces charge have been successfully harnessed for immunotherapy, as well as combination therapy, against cancer. In this review, we have summarized the recent advancements made in choosing different nanomaterial combinations and their modifications made to enable their interaction with different molecular and cellular targets for efficient immunotherapy. This review also highlights recent trends in immunotherapy strategies to be used independently, as well as in combination, for the destruction of cancer cells, as well as prevent metastasis and recurrence.

Advanced Phytochemical-Based Nanocarrier Systems for the Treatment of Breast Cancer

As the world's most prevalent cancer, breast cancer imposes a significant societal health burden and is among the leading causes of cancer death in women worldwide. Despite the notable improvements in survival in countries with early detection programs, combined with different modes of treatment to eradicate invasive disease, the current chemotherapy regimen faces significant challenges associated with chemotherapy-induced side effects and the development of drug resistance. Therefore, serious concerns regarding current chemotherapeutics are pressuring researchers to develop alternative therapeutics with better efficacy and safety. Due to their extremely biocompatible nature and efficient destruction of cancer cells via numerous mechanisms, phytochemicals have emerged as one of the attractive alternative therapies for chemotherapeutics to treat breast cancer. Additionally, phytofabricated nanocarriers, whether used alone or in conjunction with other loaded phytotherapeutics or chemotherapeutics, showed promising results in treating breast cancer. In the current review, we emphasize the anticancer activity of phytochemical-instigated nanocarriers and phytochemical-loaded nanocarriers against breast cancer both in vitro and in vivo. Since diverse mechanisms are implicated in the anticancer activity of phytochemicals, a strong emphasis is placed on the anticancer pathways underlying their action. Furthermore, we discuss the selective targeted delivery of phytofabricated nanocarriers to cancer cells and consider research gaps, recent developments, and the druggability of phytoceuticals. Combining phytochemical and chemotherapeutic agents with nanotechnology might have far-reaching impacts in the future.

Recent Advances in Cancer Immunotherapy Delivery Modalities

Immunotherapy is crucial in fighting cancer and achieving successful remission. Many novel strategies have recently developed, but there are still some obstacles to overcome before we can effectively attack the cancer cells and decimate the cancer environment by inducing a cascade of immune responses. To successfully demonstrate antitumor activity, immune cells must be delivered to cancer cells and exposed to the immune system. Such cutting-edge technology necessitates meticulously designed delivery methods with no loss or superior homing onto cancer environments, as well as high therapeutic efficacy and fewer adverse events. In this paper, we discuss recent advances in cancer immunotherapy delivery techniques, as well as their future prospects.

Magnetic nanoparticles: multifunctional tool for cancer therapy

INTRODUCTION

Cancer has one of the highest mortality rates globally. The traditional therapies used to treat cancer have harmful adverse effects. Considering these facts, researchers have explored new therapeutic possibilities with enhanced benefits. Nanoparticle development for cancer detection, in addition to therapy, has shown substantial progress over the past few years.

AREA COVERED

Herein, the latest research regarding cancer treatment employing magnetic nanoparticles (MNPs) in chemo-, immuno-, gene-, and radiotherapy along with hyperthermia is summarized, in addition to their physio-chemical features, advantages, and limitations for clinical translation have also been discussed.

EXPERT OPINION

MNPs are being extensively investigated and developed into effective modules for cancer therapy. They are highly functional tools aimed at cancer therapy owing to their excellent superparamagnetic, chemical, biocompatible, physical, and biodegradable properties.

Nano-enabled agglomerates and compact: Design aspects of challenges

Nanoscale medicine confers passive and active targeting potential. The development of nanomedicine is however met with processing, handling and administration hurdles. Excessive solid nanoparticle aggregation and caking result in low product yield, poor particle flowability and inefficient drug administration. These are overcome by converting the nanoparticles into a microscale dosage form via agglomeration or compaction techniques. Agglomeration and compaction nonetheless predispose the nanoparticles to risks of losing their nanogeometry, surface composition or chemistry being altered and negating biological performance. This study reviews risk factors faced during agglomeration and compaction that could result in these changes to nanoparticles. The potential risk factors pertain to materials choice in nanoparticle and microscale dosage form development, and their interplay effects with process temperature, physical forces and environmental stresses. To render the physicochemical and biological behaviour of the nanoparticles unaffected by agglomeration or compaction, modes to modulate the interplay effects of material and formulation with processing and environment variables are discussed.

Remediation competence of nanoparticles amalgamated biochar (nanobiochar/nanocomposite) on pollutants: A review

Advanced biochar blended nanoparticles substances, such as nano biochar or nanocomposites, have provided long-term solutions to a wide range of modern-day problems. Biochar blended nano-composites can be created to create better composite materials that combine the benefits of biochar and nanoparticles. Such materials have been typically improved with active functional groups, porous structure, active surface area, catalytic deterioration ability, as well as easy recovery or separation of pollutants. Such biochar-basednanocomposites have good adsorption properties for a variety of pollutants in various form of polluted medium (soil and water contamination). Catalytic nanoparticle encapsulated biochar, can perform concurrently the adsorption (by biochar) as well as catalytic degradation (nanoparticles) functions for pollutants removal from polluted sites. In this review, the advanced and practically feasible techniques involved in the biochar blended nanoparticles-based nanocomposites have been discussed with environmental applications. Furthermore, the mechanisms involved in this composite material in remediation, as well as the advantages and disadvantages of biochar blended nanoparticles-based nanocomposites, were discussed, and future directions for study in this field were suggested.

Nanoparticles: Taking a Unique Position in Medicine

The human nature of curiosity, wonder, and ingenuity date back to the age of humankind. In parallel with our history of civilization, interest in scientific approaches to unravel mechanisms underlying natural phenomena has been developing. Recent years have witnessed unprecedented growth in research in the area of pharmaceuticals and medicine. The optimism that nanotechnology (NT) applied to medicine and drugs is taking serious steps to bring about significant advances in diagnosing, treating, and preventing disease-a shift from fantasy to reality. The growing interest in the future medical applications of NT leads to the emergence of a new field for nanomaterials (NMs) and biomedicine. In recent years, NMs have emerged as essential game players in modern medicine, with clinical applications ranging from contrast agents in imaging to carriers for drug and gene delivery into tumors. Indeed, there are instances where nanoparticles (NPs) enable analyses and therapies that cannot be performed otherwise. However, NPs also bring unique environmental and societal challenges, particularly concerning toxicity. Thus, clinical applications of NPs should be revisited, and a deep understanding of the effects of NPs from the pathophysiologic basis of a disease may bring more sophisticated diagnostic opportunities and yield more effective therapies and preventive features. Correspondingly, this review highlights the significant contributions of NPs to modern medicine and drug delivery systems. This study also attempted to glimpse the future impact of NT in medicine and pharmaceuticals.

A CO2-Responsive Imidazole-Functionalized Fluorescent Material Mediates Cancer Chemotherapy

We present a breakthrough in the synthesis and development of functional gas-responsive materials as highly potent anticancer agents suitable for applications in cancer treatment. Herein, we successfully synthesised a stimuli-responsive multifunctional material (I-R6G) consisting of a carbon dioxide (CO₂)-sensitive imidazole moiety and spirolactam-containing conjugated rhodamine 6G (R6G) molecule. The resulting I-R6G is highly hydrophobic and non- or weakly fluorescent. Simple CO₂ bubbling treatment induces hydrophobic I-R6G to completely dissolve in water and subsequently form self-assembled nanoparticles, which exhibit unique optical absorption and fluorescence behaviours in water and extremely low haemolytic ability against sheep red blood cells. Reversibility testing indicated that I-R6G undergoes reversible CO₂/nitrogen (N₂)-dependent stimulation in water, as its structural and physical properties can be reversibly and stably switched by alternating cycles of CO₂ and N₂ bubbling. Importantly, in vitro cellular assays clearly demonstrated that the CO₂-protonated imidazole moiety promotes rapid internalisation of CO₂-treated I-R6G into cancer cells, which subsequently induces massive levels of necrotic cell death. In contrast, CO₂-treated I-R6G was not internalised and did not affect the viability of normal cells. Therefore, this newly created system may provide an innovative and efficient route to remarkably improve the selectivity, safety and efficacy of cancer treatment.

How Advanced are Cancer Immuno-Nanotherapeutics? A Comprehensive Review of the Literature

Cancer is a broad term for a group of diseases involving uncontrolled cell growth and proliferation. There is no cure for cancer despite recent significant improvements in screening, treatment, and prevention approaches. Among the available treatments, immunotherapy has been successful in targeting and killing cancer cells by stimulating or enhancing the body's immune system. Antibody-based immunotherapeutic agents that block immune checkpoint proteins expressed by cancer cells have shown promising results. The rapid development of nanotechnology has contributed to improving the effectiveness and reducing the adverse effects of these anti-cancer immunotherapeutic agents. Recently, engineered nanomaterials have been the focus of many state-of-The-art approaches toward effective cancer treatment. In this review, the contribution of various nanomaterials such as polymeric nanoparticles, dendrimers, microspheres, and carbon nanomaterials in improving the efficiency of anti-cancer immunotherapy is discussed as well as nanostructures applied to combination cancer immunotherapy.

Silver Nanoparticles Modified by Carbosilane Dendrons and PEG as Delivery Vectors of Small Interfering RNA

The fact that cancer is one of the leading causes of death requires researchers to create new systems of effective treatment for malignant tumors. One promising area is genetic therapy that uses small interfering RNA (siRNA). These molecules are capable of blocking mutant proteins in cells, but require specific systems that will deliver RNA to target cells and successfully release them into the cytoplasm. Dendronized and PEGylated silver nanoparticles as potential vectors for proapoptotic siRNA (siMCL-1) were used here. Using the methods of one-dimensional gel electrophoresis, the zeta potential, dynamic light scattering, and circular dichroism, stable siRNA and AgNP complexes were obtained. Data gathered using multicolor flow cytometry showed that AgNPs are able to deliver (up to 90%) siRNAs efficiently to some types of tumor cells, depending on the degree of PEGylation. Analysis of cell death showed that complexes of some AgNP variations with siMCL-1 lead to ~70% cell death in the populations that uptake these complexes due to apoptosis.

Nanocapsules: An Emerging Drug Delivery System

BACKGROUND

Controlled drug release and site-specific delivery of drugs make nanocapsules the most approbative drug delivery system for various kinds of drugs, bioactive, protein, and peptide compounds. Nanocapsules (NCs) are spherical shape microscopic shells consisting of a core (solid or liquid) in which the drug is positioned in a cavity enclosed by a distinctive polymeric membrane.

OBJECTIVES

The main objective of the present patent study is to elaborate on various formulation techniques and methods of nanocapsules (NCs). The review also spotlights various biomedical applications as well as on the patents of NCs to date.

METHODS

The review was extracted from the searches performed using various search engines such as PubMed, Google Patents, Medline, Google Scholars, etc. In order to emphasize the importance of NCs, some published patents of NCs have also been reported in the review.

RESULTS

NCs are tiny magical shells having incredible reproducibility. Various techniques can be used to formulate NCs. The pharmaceutical performance of the formulated NCs can be judged by evaluating their shape, size, entrapment efficiency, loading capacity, etc., using different analytical techniques. Their main applications are found in the field of agrochemicals, genetic manipulation, cosmetics, hygiene items, strategic distribution of drugs to tumors, nanocapsule bandages to combat infection, and radiotherapy.

CONCLUSION

In the present review, our team made a deliberate effort to summarize the recent advances in the field of NCs and focus on new patents related to the implementation of NCs delivery systems in the area of some life-threatening disorders like diabetes, cancer, and cardiovascular diseases.

Nanoceria: an innovative strategy for cancer treatment

Nanoceria or cerium oxide nanoparticles characterised by the co-existing of Ce³⁺ and Ce⁴⁺ that allows self-regenerative, redox-responsive dual-catalytic activities, have attracted interest as an innovative approach to treating cancer. Depending on surface characteristics and immediate environment, nanoceria exerts either anti- or pro-oxidative effects which regulate reactive oxygen species (ROS) levels in biological systems. Nanoceria mimics ROS-related enzymes that protect normal cells at physiological pH from oxidative stress and induce ROS production in the slightly acidic tumour microenvironment to trigger cancer cell death. Nanoceria as nanozymes also generates molecular oxygen that relieves tumour hypoxia, leading to tumour cell sensitisation to improve therapeutic outcomes of photodynamic (PDT), photothermal (PTT) and radiation (RT), targeted and chemotherapies. Nanoceria has been engineered as a nanocarrier to improve drug delivery or in combination with other drugs to produce synergistic anti-cancer effects. Despite reported preclinical successes, there are still knowledge gaps arising from the inadequate number of studies reporting findings based on physiologically relevant disease models that accurately represent the complexities of cancer. This review discusses the dual-catalytic activities of nanoceria responding to pH and oxygen tension gradient in tumour microenvironment, highlights the recent nanoceria-based platforms reported to be feasible direct and indirect anti-cancer agents with protective effects on healthy tissues, and finally addresses the challenges in clinical translation of nanoceria based therapeutics.

Biotechnological advancements towards water, food and medical healthcare: A review

The global health status is highly affected by the growing pace of urbanization, new lifestyles, climate changes, and resource exploitation. Modern technologies pave a promising way to deal with severe concerns toward sustainable development. Herein, we provided a comprehensive review of some popular biotechnological advancements regarding the progress achieved in water, food, and medicine, as the most substantial fields related to public health. The emergence of novel organic/inorganic materials has brought about significant improvement in conventional water treatment techniques, anti-fouling approaches, anti-microbial agents, food processing, biosensors, drug delivery systems, and implants. Particularly, a growing interest has been devoted to nanomaterials and their application for developing novel structures or improving the characteristics of standard components. Also, bioinspired materials have been widely used to improve the performance, efficiency, accuracy, stability, safety, and cost-effectiveness of traditional systems. On the other side, the fabrication of innovative devices for precisely monitoring and managing various ecosystem and human health issues is of great importance. Above all, exceptional advancements in designing ion-selective electrodes (ISEs), microelectromechanical systems (MEMs), and implantable medical devices have altered the future landscape of environmental and biomedical research. This review paper aimed to shed light on the wide-ranging materials and devices that have been developed for health applications and mainly focused on the impact of nanotechnology in this field.

Glycopolymer Decorated pH-Dependent Ratiometric Fluorescent Probe Based on Förster Resonance Energy Transfer for the Detection of Cancer Cells

Development of fluorescent imaging probes is an important topic of research for the early diagnosis of cancer. Based on the difference between the cellular environment of tumor cells and normal cells, several "smart" fluorescent probes have been developed. In this work, a glycopolymer functionalized Förster resonance energy transfer (FRET) based fluorescent sensor is developed, which can monitor the pH change in cellular system. One-pot sequential reversible addition-fragmentation chain transfer (RAFT)polymerization technique is employed to synthesize fluorescent active triblock glycopolymer that can undergo FRET change on the variation of pH. A FRET pair, fluorescein o-acrylate (FA) and 7-amino-4-methylcoumarin (AMC) is linked via a pH-responsive polymer poly [2-(diisopropylamino)ethyl methacrylate] (PDPAEMA), which can undergo reversible swelling/deswelling under acidic/neutral condition. The presence of glycopolymer segment provides stability, water solubility, and specificity toward cancer cells. The cellular FRET experiments on cancer cells (MDA MB 231) and normal cells (3T3 fibroblast cells) demonstrate that the material is capable of distinguishing cells as a function of pH change.