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Improvements on neuromuscular performance with caffeine ingestion depend on the time-of-day. J Sci Med Sport 2015; 18:338-42. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jsams.2014.04.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 67] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/30/2013] [Revised: 04/08/2014] [Accepted: 04/17/2014] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
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52
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Sorkin BC, Camp KM, Haggans CJ, Deuster PA, Haverkos L, Maruvada P, Witt E, Coates PM. Executive summary of NIH workshop on the Use and Biology of Energy Drinks: Current Knowledge and Critical Gaps. Nutr Rev 2015; 72 Suppl 1:1-8. [PMID: 25293538 DOI: 10.1111/nure.12154] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Sales of energy drinks in the United States reached $12.5 billion in 2012. Emergency department visits related to consumption of these products have increased sharply, and while these numbers remain small relative to product sales, they raise important questions regarding biological and behavioral effects. Although some common ingredients of energy drinks have been extensively studied (e.g., caffeine, B vitamins, sugars, inositol), data on other ingredients (e.g., taurine) are limited. Summarized here are data presented elsewhere in this issue on the prevalence and patterns of caffeine-containing energy drink use, the effects of these products on alertness, fatigue, cognitive functions, sleep, mood, homeostasis, as well as on exercise physiology and metabolism, and the biological mechanisms mediating the observed effects. There are substantial data on the effects of some energy drink ingredients, such as caffeine and sugars, on many of these outcomes; however, even for these ingredients many controversies and gaps remain, and data on other ingredients in caffeine-containing energy drinks, and on ingredient interactions, are sparse. This summary concludes with a discussion of critical gaps in the data and potential next steps.
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Affiliation(s)
- Barbara C Sorkin
- Office of Dietary Supplements, National Institutes of Health (NIH), Bethesda, Maryland, USA
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53
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Mora-Rodriguez R, Pallarés JG. Performance outcomes and unwanted side effects associated with energy drinks. Nutr Rev 2015; 72 Suppl 1:108-20. [PMID: 25293550 DOI: 10.1111/nure.12132] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Energy drinks are increasingly popular among athletes and others. Advertising for these products typically features images conjuring great muscle power and endurance; however, the scientific literature provides sparse evidence for an ergogenic role of energy drinks. Although the composition of energy drinks varies, most contain caffeine; carbohydrates, amino acids, herbs, and vitamins are other typical ingredients. This report analyzes the effects of energy drink ingredients on prolonged submaximal (endurance) exercise as well as on short-term strength and power (neuromuscular performance). It also analyzes the effects of energy drink ingredients on the fluid and electrolyte deficit during prolonged exercise. In several studies, energy drinks have been found to improve endurance performance, although the effects could be attributable to the caffeine and/or carbohydrate content. In contrast, fewer studies find an ergogenic effect of energy drinks on muscle strength and power. The existing data suggest that the caffeine dose given in studies of energy drinks is insufficient to enhance neuromuscular performance. Finally, it is unclear if energy drinks are the optimal vehicle to deliver caffeine when high doses are needed to improve neuromuscular performance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ricardo Mora-Rodriguez
- Exercise Physiology Laboratory at Toledo, University of Castilla-La Mancha, Toledo, Spain
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54
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Pallarés JG, López-Samanes Á, Fernández-Elías VE, Aguado-Jiménez R, Ortega JF, Gómez C, Ventura R, Segura J, Mora-Rodríguez R. Pseudoephedrine and circadian rhythm interaction on neuromuscular performance. Scand J Med Sci Sports 2014; 25:e603-12. [PMID: 25515692 DOI: 10.1111/sms.12385] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 11/04/2014] [Indexed: 01/04/2023]
Abstract
This study analyzed the effects of pseudoephedrine (PSE) provided at different time of day on neuromuscular performance, side effects, and violation of the current doping cut-off threshold [World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA)]. Nine resistance-trained males carried out bench press and full squat exercises against four incremental loads (25%, 50%, 75%, and 90% one repetition maximum [1RM]), in a randomized, double-blind, cross-over design. Participants ingested either 180 mg of PSE (supra-therapeutic dose) or placebo in the morning (7:00 h; AM(PLAC) and AM(PSE)) and in the afternoon (17:00 h; PM(PLAC) and PM(PSE)). PSE enhanced muscle contraction velocity against 25% and 50% 1RM loads, only when it was ingested in the mornings, and only in the full squat exercise (4.4-8.7%; P < 0.05). PSE ingestion raised urine and plasma PSE concentrations (P < 0.05) regardless of time of day; however, cathine only increased in the urine samples. PSE ingestion resulted in positive tests occurring in 11% of samples, and it rose some adverse side effects such us tachycardia and heart palpitations. Ingestion of a single dose of 180 mg of PSE results in enhanced lower body muscle contraction velocity against low and moderate loads only in the mornings. These mild performance improvements are accompanied by undesirable side effects and an 11% risk of surpassing the doping threshold.
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Affiliation(s)
- J G Pallarés
- Exercise Physiology Laboratory at Toledo, University of Castilla-La Mancha, Toledo, Spain.,Genoarchitecture Group, University of Murcia, Murcia, Spain
| | - Á López-Samanes
- Exercise Physiology Laboratory at Toledo, University of Castilla-La Mancha, Toledo, Spain
| | - V E Fernández-Elías
- Exercise Physiology Laboratory at Toledo, University of Castilla-La Mancha, Toledo, Spain
| | - R Aguado-Jiménez
- Department of Health Sciences, Public University of Navarra, Pamplona, Spain
| | - J F Ortega
- Exercise Physiology Laboratory at Toledo, University of Castilla-La Mancha, Toledo, Spain
| | - C Gómez
- Bioanalysis and Analytical Services Research Group Neurosciences Program, IMIM, Hospital del Mar Medical Research Institute, Barcelona, Spain
| | - R Ventura
- Bioanalysis and Analytical Services Research Group Neurosciences Program, IMIM, Hospital del Mar Medical Research Institute, Barcelona, Spain.,Department of Experimental and Health Sciences, Universitat Pompeu Fabra, Barcelona, Spain
| | - J Segura
- Bioanalysis and Analytical Services Research Group Neurosciences Program, IMIM, Hospital del Mar Medical Research Institute, Barcelona, Spain.,Department of Experimental and Health Sciences, Universitat Pompeu Fabra, Barcelona, Spain
| | - R Mora-Rodríguez
- Exercise Physiology Laboratory at Toledo, University of Castilla-La Mancha, Toledo, Spain
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55
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The use of energy drinks in sport: perceived ergogenicity and side effects in male and female athletes. Br J Nutr 2014; 112:1494-502. [DOI: 10.1017/s0007114514002189] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
Abstract
The use of caffeine containing energy drinks has dramatically increased in the last few years, especially in the sport context because of its reported ergogenic effect. The ingestion of low to moderate doses of caffeinated energy drinks has been associated with adverse side effects such as insomnia or increased nervousness. The aim of the present study was to assess psycho-physiological changes and the prevalence of side effects resulting from the ingestion of 3 mg caffeine/kg body mass in the form of an energy drink. In a double-blind and placebo controlled experimental design, ninety experienced and low-caffeine-consuming athletes (fifty-three male and thirty-seven female) in two different sessions were provided with an energy drink that contained 3 mg/kg of caffeine or the same decaffeinated energy drink (placebo; 0 mg/kg). At 60 min after the ingestion of the energy drink, participants completed a training session. The effects of ingestion of these beverages on psycho-physiological variables during exercise and the rate of adverse side effects were measured using questionnaires. The caffeinated energy drink increased self-perceived muscle power during exercise compared with the placebo beverage (6·41 (sd1·7)v.5·66 (sd1·51);P= 0·001). Moreover, the energy drink produced a higher prevalence of side effects such as insomnia (31·2v.10·4 %;P< 0·001), nervousness (13·2v.0 %;P= 0·002) and activeness (16·9v.3·9 %;P= 0·007) than the placebo energy drink. There were no sex differences in the incidence of side effects (P>0·05). The ingestion of an energy drink with 3 mg/kg of caffeine increased the prevalence of side effects. The presence of these side effects was similar between male and female participants.
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56
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West DJ, Cook CJ, Beaven MC, Kilduff LP. The Influence of the Time of Day on Core Temperature and Lower Body Power Output in Elite Rugby Union Sevens Players. J Strength Cond Res 2014; 28:1524-8. [DOI: 10.1519/jsc.0000000000000301] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
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57
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Pallarés JG, Sánchez-Medina L, Pérez CE, De La Cruz-Sánchez E, Mora-Rodriguez R. Imposing a pause between the eccentric and concentric phases increases the reliability of isoinertial strength assessments. J Sports Sci 2014; 32:1165-75. [PMID: 24575723 DOI: 10.1080/02640414.2014.889844] [Citation(s) in RCA: 98] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/15/2023]
Abstract
This study analysed the effect of imposing a pause between the eccentric and concentric phases on the biological within-subject variation of velocity- and power-load isoinertial assessments. Seventeen resistance-trained athletes undertook a progressive loading test in the bench press (BP) and squat (SQ) exercises. Two trials at each load up to the one-repetition maximum (1RM) were performed using 2 techniques executed in random order: with (stop) and without (standard) a 2-s pause between the eccentric and concentric phases of each repetition. The stop technique resulted in a significantly lower coefficient of variation for the whole load-velocity relationship compared to the standard one, in both BP (2.9% vs. 4.1%; P = 0.02) and SQ (2.9% vs. 3.9%; P = 0.01). Test-retest intraclass correlation coefficients (ICCs) were r = 0.61-0.98 for the standard and r = 0.76-0.98 for the stop technique. Bland-Altman analysis showed that the error associated with the standard technique was 37.9% (BP) and 57.5% higher (SQ) than that associated with the stop technique. The biological within-subject variation is significantly reduced when a pause is imposed between the eccentric and concentric phases. Other relevant variables associated to the load-velocity and load-power relationships such as the contribution of the propulsive phase and the load that maximises power output remained basically unchanged.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jesús G Pallarés
- a Exercise Physiology Laboratory , University of Castilla-La Mancha , Toledo , Spain
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58
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Kraemer WJ, Boyd BM, Hooper DR, Fragala MS, Hatfield DL, Dunn-Lewis C, Comstock BA, Szivak TK, Flanagan SD, Looney DP, Newton RU, Vingren JL, Häkkinen K, White MT, Volek JS, Maresh CM. Epinephrine preworkout elevation may offset early morning melatonin concentrations to maintain maximal muscular force and power in track athletes. J Strength Cond Res 2014; 28:2604-10. [PMID: 24513613 DOI: 10.1519/jsc.0000000000000392] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
The optimal time of day for training has become an important question for many strength and conditioning specialists, and this study was designed to add some insights into this complex question. The primary purpose of this investigation was to examine physical performance within the temporal context of the relationship between physical performance, epinephrine, and melatonin concentrations in the early morning (0530 hours) and late (1500 hours) afternoon in elite collegiate male track and field athletes (jumpers and sprinters). Subjects had a mean (±SD) age, height, and body mass of 20.4 (±1.6) years, 185.8 (±9.4) cm, and 77.9 (±8.5) kg, respectively. Blood was obtained before each AM and PM testing session. Mean plasma melatonin concentrations were 34.9 ± 22.7 pg·ml and 4.8 ± 3.3 pg·ml for the AM vs. PM trials, respectively, demonstrating a significant (p ≤ 0.05) difference between time points. Mean resting plasma epinephrine concentrations for AM (171.7 ± 33.7 pmol·L) and PM (127.6 ± 47.8 pmol·L) also differed significantly between trails at the different times. In addition, significant differences were observed with respect to foot quickness in the AM (5.14 ± 1.06 seconds) and PM (4.39 ± 0.76 seconds). Mean peak power output for vertical jump power was 5,407.1 ± 1,272.9 W, 5,384.6 ± 888.3 W for AM vs. PM trials, respectively, which were not significantly different. The results of this investigation indicate that time of day did not negatively impact whole body physical performance in trained track athletes but did impact the quality of quickness. Thus in the morning, whole body power performances may be enhanced through adrenergic arousal when melatonin is elevated. However, this was not the case for movements requiring quickness and accuracy of movement. To compensate for the "sleepiness" associated with high concentrations of melatonin, being secreted from the pineal gland representing a continued "sleepiness" effect on the body, early morning practices may require greater adrenergic arousal to potentially offset melatonin's effects. The results of this study raise important questions on the use of early morning practices for more complex tasks that require high reaction speeds, even under conditions of adrenergic arousal.
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Affiliation(s)
- William J Kraemer
- 1Department of Kinesiology, Human Performance Laboratory, University of Connecticut, Storrs, Connecticut; 2Institute of Exercise Physiology and Wellness, Department of Educational and Human Sciences, University of Central Florida, Orlando, Florida; 3Department of Kinesiology, University of Rhode Island, Kingston, Rhode Island; 4School of Exercise and Health and Sports Sciences, Edith Cowan University, Joondalup, Australia; 5Department of Kinesiology, Health Promotion and Recreation, University of North Texas, Denton, Texas; 6Department of Biology of Physical Activity, University of Jyväskylä, Finland; and 7Department of Human Sciences, Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio
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59
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Pesta DH, Angadi SS, Burtscher M, Roberts CK. The effects of caffeine, nicotine, ethanol, and tetrahydrocannabinol on exercise performance. Nutr Metab (Lond) 2013; 10:71. [PMID: 24330705 PMCID: PMC3878772 DOI: 10.1186/1743-7075-10-71] [Citation(s) in RCA: 63] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/04/2013] [Accepted: 12/02/2013] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Caffeine, nicotine, ethanol and tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) are among the most prevalent and culturally accepted drugs in western society. For example, in Europe and North America up to 90% of the adult population drinks coffee daily and, although less prevalent, the other drugs are also used extensively by the population. Smoked tobacco, excessive alcohol consumption and marijuana (cannabis) smoking are addictive and exhibit adverse health effects. These drugs are not only common in the general population, but have also made their way into elite sports because of their purported performance-altering potential. Only one of the drugs (i.e., caffeine) has enough scientific evidence indicating an ergogenic effect. There is some preliminary evidence for nicotine as an ergogenic aid, but further study is required; cannabis and alcohol can exhibit ergogenic potential under specific circumstances but are in general believed to be ergolytic for sports performance. These drugs are currently (THC, ethanol) or have been (caffeine) on the prohibited list of the World Anti-Doping Agency or are being monitored (nicotine) due to their potential ergogenic or ergolytic effects. The aim of this brief review is to evaluate the effects of caffeine, nicotine, ethanol and THC by: 1) examining evidence supporting the ergogenic or ergolytic effects; 2) providing an overview of the mechanism(s) of action and physiological effects; and 3) where appropriate, reviewing their impact as performance-altering aids used in recreational and elite sports.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dominik H Pesta
- Department of Internal Medicine, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, USA
- Department of Sports Science, Medical Section, University Innsbruck, Innsbruck, Austria
| | - Siddhartha S Angadi
- Healthy Lifestyles Research Center, School of Nutrition and Health Promotion, Arizona State University, Phoenix, AZ, USA
| | - Martin Burtscher
- Department of Sports Science, Medical Section, University Innsbruck, Innsbruck, Austria
| | - Christian K Roberts
- Exercise and Metabolic Disease Research Laboratory, Translational Sciences Section, School of Nursing, University of California, Los Angeles, CA, USA
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60
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PALLARÉS JESÚSG, FERNÁNDEZ-ELÍAS VALENTÍNE, ORTEGA JUANF, MUÑOZ GLORIA, MUÑOZ-GUERRA JESÚS, MORA-RODRÍGUEZ RICARDO. Neuromuscular Responses to Incremental Caffeine Doses. Med Sci Sports Exerc 2013; 45:2184-92. [DOI: 10.1249/mss.0b013e31829a6672] [Citation(s) in RCA: 95] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
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61
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Watabe Y, Tomioka M, Watabe A, Aihara M, Shimba S, Inoue H. The clock gene brain and muscle Arnt-like protein-1 (BMAL1) is involved in hair growth. Arch Dermatol Res 2013; 305:755-61. [PMID: 23955654 DOI: 10.1007/s00403-013-1403-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/03/2013] [Revised: 07/30/2013] [Accepted: 08/08/2013] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Abstract
It is known that baldness caused by androgenetic alopecia is involved with androgen and the androgen receptor. Furthermore, it has been reported that testosterone secretion follows a circadian rhythm. Therefore, we hypothesized that a relationship exists between androgen-induced alopecia and biological rhythm. The mammalian circadian rhythm is controlled by several clock genes. Brain and muscle aryl hydrocarbon receptor nuclear translocator-like protein-1 (BMAL1), one of the clock genes, is a transcription factor that plays central roles in the regulation of circadian rhythms. In this study, we investigated the influence of BMAL1 on hair follicle functions and hair growth. Mice deficient in BMAL1 expression exhibited a delay in hair regrowth after shaving. In hair follicles of mouse vibrissa, expression of Bmal1 and other clock genes was found to be rhythmic. Knockdown of BMAL1 in human follicle dermal papilla cells resulted in modulation of expression of several hair growth-related genes. Therefore, we concluded that expression of clock genes in hair follicles is linked to the circadian rhythm and that BMAL1 can regulate hair growth.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuichi Watabe
- Division of Stem Cell Therapy (Endowed Chair by ANGFA Co.), St. Marianna University School of Medicine, 2-16-1 Sugao, Miyamae, Kawasaki, 216-8511, Japan,
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62
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Pallarés JG, López-Samanes Á, Moreno J, Fernández-Elías VE, Ortega JF, Mora-Rodríguez R. Circadian rhythm effects on neuromuscular and sprint swimming performance. BIOL RHYTHM RES 2013. [DOI: 10.1080/09291016.2013.797160] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
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