The structure of the amyloid-beta peptide high-affinity copper II binding site in Alzheimer disease

Anti-amyloid Aggregation Activity of Natural Compounds: Implications for Alzheimer's Drug Discovery

Several plant-derived natural compounds are known to exhibit anti-amyloid aggregation activity which makes them attractive as potential therapies to treat Alzheimer's disease. The mechanisms of their anti-amyloid activity are not well known. In this regard, many natural compounds are known to exhibit direct binding to various amyloid species including oligomers and fibrils, which in turn can lead to conformational change in the beta-sheet assembly to form nontoxic aggregates. This review discusses the mechanism of anti-amyloid activity of 16 natural compounds and gives structural details on their direct binding interactions with amyloid aggregates. Our computational investigations show that the physicochemical properties of natural products do fit Lipinski's criteria and that catechol and catechol-type moieties present in natural compounds act as lysine site-specific inhibitors of amyloid aggregation. Based on these observations, we propose a structural template to design novel small molecules containing site-specific ring scaffolds, planar aromatic and nonaromatic linkers with suitably substituted hydrogen bond acceptors and donors. These studies will have significant implications in the design and development of novel amyloid aggregation inhibitors with superior metabolic stability and blood-brain barrier penetration as potential agents to treat Alzheimer's disease.

Insights into the oxygen-based ligand of the low pH component of the Cu(2+)-amyloid-β complex

In spite of significant experimental effort dedicated to the study of Cu(2+) binding to the amyloid beta (Aβ) peptide, involved in Alzheimer's disease, the nature of the oxygen-based ligand in the low pH component of the Cu(2+)-Aβ(1-16) complex is still under debate. This study reports density-functional-theory-based calculations that explore the potential energy surface of Cu(2+) complexes including N and O ligands at the N-terminus of the Aβ peptide, with a focus on evaluating the role of Asp1 carboxylate in copper coordination. Model conformers including 3, 6, and 17 amino acids have been used to systematically study several aspects of the Cu(2+)-coordination such as the Asp1 side chain conformation, local peptide backbone geometry, electrostatic and/or hydrogen bond interactions, and number and availability of Cu(2+) ligands. Our results show that the Asp1 peptide carbonyl binds to Cu(2+) only if the coordination number is less than four. In contrast, if four ligands are available, the most stable structures include the Asp1 carboxylate in equatorial position instead of the Asp1 carbonyl group. The two lowest energy Cu(2+)-Aβ(1-17) models involve Asp1 COO(-), the N-terminus, and His6 and His14 as equatorial ligands, with either a carbonyl or a water molecule in the axial position. These models are in good agreement with experimental data reported for component I of the Cu(2+)-Aβ(1-16) complex, including EXAFS- and X-ray-derived Cu(2+)-ligand distances, Cu(2+) EPR parameters, and (14)N and (13)C superhyperfine couplings. Our results suggest that at low pH, Cu(2+)-Aβ species with Asp1 carboxylate equatorial coordination coexist with species coordinating the Asp1 carbonyl. Understanding the bonding mechanism in these species is relevant to gain a deeper insight on the molecular processes involving copper-amyloid-β complexes, such as aggregation and redox activity.

Mo polyoxometalate nanoclusters capable of inhibiting the aggregation of Aβ-peptide associated with Alzheimer's disease

A neuropathological hallmark of Alzheimer's disease (AD) is aggregation of a forty-residue peptide known as amyloid beta forty (Aβ40). While past work has indicated that blocking Aβ40 aggregation could be an effective strategy for the treatment of AD, developing therapies with this goal has been met with limited success. Polyoxometalates (POMs) have been previously investigated for their anti-viral and anti-tumoral properties and we report here that three representative POM nanoclusters have been synthesized for use against Aβ40 aggregation. Through the use of thioflavin T fluorescence, turbidity, circular dichroism spectroscopy, and transmission electron microscopy (TEM), we found that all three POM complexes can significantly inhibit both natural Aβ40 self-aggregation and metal-ion induced Aβ40 aggregation. We also evaluated the protective effect of POM complexes on Aβ40-induced neurotoxicity in cultured PC12 cells and found that treatment with POM complexes can elevate cell viability, decrease levels of intracellular reactive oxygen species, and stabilize mitochondrial membrane potential. These findings indicate that all three representative POM complexes are capable of inhibiting Aβ40 aggregation and subsequent neurotoxicity. While a complete mechanistic understanding remains to be elucidated, the synthesized POM complexes may work through a synergistic interaction with metal ions and Aβ40. These data indicate that POM complexes have high therapeutic potential for use against one of the primary neuropathological features of AD.

Structural insights into the interaction of platinum-based inhibitors with the Alzheimer's disease amyloid-β peptide

Extended X-ray absorption fine structure spectroscopy, mass spectrometry, dynamic light scattering and density functional theory are combined to derive structural models for the interaction of neurotoxicity-ablating platinum-based compounds with the amyloid-β peptide.

3D structures and redox potentials of Cu2+-Aβ(1-16) complexes at different pH: a computational study

Oxidative stress induced by redox-active metal cations such as Cu(2+) is a key event in the development of Alzheimer's disease. A detailed knowledge of the structure of Cu(2+)-Aβ complex is thus important to get a better understanding of this critical process. In the present study, we use a computational approach that combines homology modeling with quantum-mechanics-based methods to determine plausible 3D structures of Cu(2+)-Aβ(1-16) complexes that enclose the different metal coordination spheres proposed experimentally at different pH values. With these models in hand, we determine their standard reduction potential (SRP) with the aim of getting new insights into the relation between the structure of these complexes and their redox behavior. Results show that in all cases copper reduction induces CObackbone decoordination, which, for distorted square planar structures in the oxidized state (Ia_δδ, IIa_εδε, IIa_εεε, and IIc_ε), leads to tricoordinated species. For the pentacoordinated structural candidate Ib_δε with Glu11 at the apical position, the reduction leads to a distorted tetrahedral structure. The present results highlight the importance of the nature of the ligands on the SRP. The computed values (with respect to the standard hydrogen electrode) for complexes enclosing negatively charged ligands in the coordination sphere (from -0.81 to -0.12 V) are significantly lower than those computed for models involving neutral ligands (from 0.19 to 0.28 V). Major geometry changes induced by reduction, on both the metal site and the peptide configuration, are discussed as well as their possible influence in the formation of reactive oxygen species.

Design and synthesis of curcumin analogues for in vivo fluorescence imaging and inhibiting copper-induced cross-linking of amyloid beta species in Alzheimer's disease

In this article, we first designed and synthesized curcumin-based near-infrared (NIR) fluorescence imaging probes for detecting both soluble and insoluble amyloid beta (Aβ) species and then an inhibitor that could attenuate cross-linking of Aβ induced by copper. According to our previous results and the possible structural stereohindrance compatibility of the Aβ peptide and the hydrophobic/hydrophilic property of the Aβ13-20 (HHQKLVFF) fragment, NIR imaging probe CRANAD-58 was designed and synthesized. As expected CRANAD-58 showed significant fluorescence property changes upon mixing with both soluble and insoluble Aβ species in vitro. In vivo NIR imaging revealed that CRANAD-58 was capable of differentiating transgenic and wild-type mice as young as 4 months old, the age that lacks apparently visible Aβ plaques and Aβ is likely in its soluble forms. According to our limited studies on the interaction mechanism between CRANAD-58 and Aβ, we also designed CRANAD-17 to attenuate the cross-linking of Aβ42 induced by copper. It is well-known that the coordination of copper with imidazoles on Histidine-13 and 14 (H13, H14) of Aβ peptides could initialize covalent cross-linking of Aβ. In CRANAD-17, a curcumin scaffold was used as an anchoring moiety to usher the designed compound to the vicinity of H13 and H14 of Aβ, and imidazole rings were incorporated to compete with H13/H14 for copper binding. The results of SDS-PAGE gel and Western blot indicated that CRANAD-17 was capable of inhibiting Aβ42 cross-linking induced by copper. This raises a potential for CRANAD-17 to be considered for AD therapy.

Structural studies of the tethered N-terminus of the Alzheimer's disease amyloid-β peptide

Alzheimer's disease is the most common form of dementia in humans and is related to the accumulation of the amyloid-β (Aβ) peptide and its interaction with metals (Cu, Fe, and Zn) in the brain. Crystallographic structural information about Aβ peptide deposits and the details of the metal-binding site is limited owing to the heterogeneous nature of aggregation states formed by the peptide. Here, we present a crystal structure of Aβ residues 1-16 fused to the N-terminus of the Escherichia coli immunity protein Im7, and stabilized with the fragment antigen binding fragment of the anti-Aβ N-terminal antibody WO2. The structure demonstrates that Aβ residues 10-16, which are not in complex with the antibody, adopt a mixture of local polyproline II-helix and turn type conformations, enhancing cooperativity between the two adjacent histidine residues His13 and His14. Furthermore, this relatively rigid region of Aβ (residues, 10-16) appear as an almost independent unit available for trapping metal ions and provides a rationale for the His13-metal-His14 coordination in the Aβ1-16 fragment implicated in Aβ metal binding. This novel structure, therefore, has the potential to provide a foundation for investigating the effect of metal ion binding to Aβ and illustrates a potential target for the development of future Alzheimer's disease therapeutics aimed at stabilizing the N-terminal monomer structure, in particular residues His13 and His14, and preventing Aβ metal-binding-induced neurotoxicity.

Elevated copper in the amyloid plaques and iron in the cortex are observed in mouse models of Alzheimer's disease that exhibit neurodegeneration

BACKGROUND

In Alzheimer's disease (AD), alterations in metal homeostasis, including the accumulation of metal ions in the plaques and an increase of iron in the cortex, have been well documented but the mechanisms involved are poorly understood.

OBJECTIVE

In this study, we compared the metal content in the plaques and the iron speciation in the cortex of three mouse models, two of which show neurodegeneration (5xFAD and Tg-SwDI/NOS2^-/- (CVN) and one that shows very little neurodegeneration (PSAPP).

METHODS

The Fe, Cu, and Zn contents and speciation were determined using synchrotron X-ray fluorescence microscopy (XFM) and X-ray absorption spectroscopy (XAS), respectively.

RESULTS

In the mouse models with reported significant neurodegeneration, we found that plaques contained ~25% more copper compared to the PSAPP mice. The iron content in the cortex increased at the late stage of the disease in all mouse models, but iron speciation remains unchanged.

CONCLUSIONS

The elevation of copper in the plaques and iron in the cortex is associated with AD severity, suggesting that these redox-active metal ions may be inducing oxidative damage and directly influencing neurodegeneration.

Nanoprobing of the effect of Cu(2+) cations on misfolding, interaction and aggregation of amyloid β peptide

Misfolding and aggregation of the amyloid β-protein (Aβ) are hallmarks of Alzheimer's disease. Both processes are dependent on the environmental conditions, including the presence of divalent cations, such as Cu(2+). Cu(2+) cations regulate early stages of Aβ aggregation, but the molecular mechanism of Cu(2+) regulation is unknown. In this study we applied single molecule AFM force spectroscopy to elucidate the role of Cu(2+) cations on interpeptide interactions. By immobilizing one of two interacting Aβ42 molecules on a mica surface and tethering the counterpart molecule onto the tip, we were able to probe the interpeptide interactions in the presence and absence of Cu(2+) cations at pH 7.4, 6.8, 6.0, 5.0, and 4.0. The results show that the presence of Cu(2+) cations change the pattern of Aβ interactions for pH values between pH 7.4 and pH 5.0. Under these conditions, Cu(2+) cations induce Aβ42 peptide structural changes resulting in N-termini interactions within the dimers. Cu(2+) cations also stabilize the dimers. No effects of Cu(2+) cations on Aβ-Aβ interactions were observed at pH 4.0, suggesting that peptide protonation changes the peptide-cation interaction. The effect of Cu(2+) cations on later stages of Aβ aggregation was studied by AFM topographic images. The results demonstrate that substoichiometric Cu(2+) cations accelerate the formation of fibrils at pH 7.4 and 5.0, whereas no effect of Cu(2+) cations was observed at pH 4.0. Taken together, the combined AFM force spectroscopy and imaging analyses demonstrate that Cu(2+) cations promote both the initial and the elongation stages of Aβ aggregation, but protein protonation diminishes the effect of Cu(2+).

The heterogeneous nature of Cu2+ interactions with Alzheimer's amyloid-β peptide

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a neurodegenerative disorder characterized by progressive cognitive and memory impairment. Within the brain, senile plaques, which comprise extracellular deposits of the amyloid-β peptide (Aβ), are the most common pathological feature of AD. A high concentration of Cu(2+) is found within these plaques, which are also areas under oxidative stress. Laboratory work has shown that in vitro Aβ will react with Cu(2+) to induce peptide aggregation and the production of reactive oxygen species. As such, this interaction offers a possible explanation for two of the defining pathological features observed in the AD brain: the presence of amyloid plaques, which consist largely of insoluble Aβ aggregates, and the abundant oxidative stress therein. Researchers have accordingly put forth the "metals hypothesis" of AD, which postulates that compounds designed to inhibit Cu(2+)/Aβ interactions and redistribute Cu(2+) may offer therapeutic potential for treating AD. Characterization of the pH-dependent Cu(2+) coordination of Aβ is fundamental to understanding the neurological relevance of Cu(2+)/Aβ interactions and aiding the design of new therapeutic agents. In an effort to shed light on the problem, many experimental and theoretical techniques, using a variety of model systems, have been undertaken. The preceding decade has seen numerous conflicting spectroscopic reports concerning the nature of the Cu(2+)/Aβ coordination. As the number of studies has grown, the nature of the pH-dependent ligand environment surrounding the Cu(2+) cation has remained a point of contention. In large part, the difficulties can be attributed to inappropriate choices of the model system or to methods that are incapable of quantitatively delineating the presence and identity of multiple Cu(2+) coordination modes. Electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR) is the method of choice for studying paramagnetic metal-protein interactions. With the introduction of site-specific (15)N, (17)O, and (13)C isotopic labels and the application of advanced techniques, EPR is capable of eliminating much of the ambiguity. Recent EPR studies have produced the most definitive picture of the pH-dependent Cu(2+) coordination modes of Aβ and enabled researchers to address the inconsistencies present in the literature. In this Account, we begin by briefly introducing the evidence for a role of Cu(2+) in AD as well as the potential physiological and therapeutic implications of that role. We then outline the EPR methodology used to resolve the molecular details of the Cu(2+)/Aβ interactions. No drugs are currently available for altering the course of AD, and existing therapies only offer short-term symptomatic relief. This focused picture of the role of Cu(2+) in AD-related plaques offers welcome potential for the development of new methods to combat this devastating disease.

Three dimensional models of Cu(2+)-Aβ(1-16) complexes from computational approaches

Elucidation of the coordination of metal ions to Aβ is essential to understand their role in its aggregation and to rationally design new chelators with potential therapeutic applications in Alzheimer disease. Because of that, in the last 10 years several studies have focused their attention in determining the coordination properties of Cu(2+) interacting with Aβ. However, more important than characterizing the first coordination sphere of the metal is the determination of the whole Cu(2+)-Aβ structure. In this study, we combine homology modeling (HM) techniques with quantum mechanics based approaches (QM) to determine plausible three-dimensional models for Cu(2+)-Aβ(1-16) with three histidines in their coordination sphere. We considered both ε and δ coordination of histidines 6, 13, and 14 as well as the coordination of different possible candidates containing oxygen as fourth ligand (Asp1, Glu3, Asp7, Glu11, and CO(Ala2)). Among the 32 models that enclose COO(-), the lowest energy structures correspond to [O(E3),N(δ)(H6),N(ε)(H13),N(ε)(H14)] (1), [O(E3),N(δ)(H6),N(δ)(H13),N(δ)(H14)] (2), and [O(D7),N(ε)(H6),N(δ)(H13),N(δ)(H14)] (3). The most stable model containing CO(Ala2) as fourth ligand in the Cu(2+) coordination sphere is [O(c)(A2),N(ε)(H6),N(δ)(H13),N(ε)(H14)] (4). An estimation of the relative stability between Glu3 (1) and CO(Ala2) (4) coordinated complexes seems to indicate that the preference for the latter coordination may be due to solvent effects. The present results also show the relationship between the peptidic and metallic moieties in defining the overall geometry of the complex and illustrate that the final stability of the complexes results from a balance between the metal coordination site and amyloid folding upon complexation.

Aggregation of amyloids in a cellular context: modelling and experiment

Amyloid-related diseases are a group of illnesses in which an abnormal accumulation of proteins into fibrillar structures is evident. Results from a wide range of studies, ranging from identification of amyloid-β dimers in the brain to biophysical characterization of the interactions between amyloidogenic peptides and lipid membranes during fibril growth shed light on the initial events which take place during amyloid aggregation. Accounts of fibril disaggregation and formation of globular aggregates due to interactions with lipids or fatty acids further demonstrate the complexity of the aggregation process and the difficulty to treat amyloid-related diseases. There is an inherent difficulty in generalizing from studies of aggregation in vitro, but the involvement of too many cellular components limits the ability to follow amyloid aggregation in a cellular (or extracellular) context. Fortunately, the development of experimental methods to generate stable globular aggregates suggests new means of studying the molecular events associated with amyloid aggregation. Furthermore, simulation studies enable deeper understanding of the experimental results and provide useful predictions that can be tested in the laboratory. Computer simulations can nowadays provide molecular or even atomistic details that are experimentally not available or very difficult to obtain. In the present review, recent developments on modelling and experiments of amyloid aggregation are reviewed, and an integrative account on how isolated interactions (as observed in vitro and in silico) combine during the course of amyloid-related diseases is presented. Finally, it is argued that an integrative approach is necessary to get a better understanding of the protein aggregation process.

Oxidative stress and cell membranes in the pathogenesis of Alzheimer's disease

Amyloid β proteins and oxidative stress are believed to have central roles in the development of Alzheimer's disease. Lipid membranes are among the most vulnerable cellular components to oxidative stress, and membranes in susceptible regions of the brain are compositionally distinct from those in other tissues. This review considers the evidence that membranes are either a source of neurotoxic lipid oxidation products or the target of pathogenic processes involving amyloid β proteins that cause permeability changes or ion channel formation. Progress toward a comprehensive theory of Alzheimer's disease pathogenesis is discussed in which lipid membranes assume both roles and promote the conversion of monomeric amyloid β proteins into fibrils, the pathognomonic histopathological lesion of the disease.

Ab initio design of chelating ligands relevant to Alzheimer's disease: influence of metalloaromaticity

Evidence supporting the role of metal ions in Alzheimer's disease (AD) has rendered metal ion chelation as a promising therapeutic treatment. The rational design of efficient chelating ligands requires, however, a good knowledge of the electronic and molecular structure of the complexes formed. In the present work, the coordinative properties of a set of chelating ligands toward Cu(II) have been analyzed by means of DFT(B3LYP) calculations. Special attention has been paid to the aromatic behavior of the metalated rings of the complex and its influence on the chelating ability of the ligand. Ligands considered have identical metal binding sites (through N/O coordination) and only differ on the kind and size of the aromatic moieties. Results indicate that there is a good correlation between the stability constants (log β(2)) and the degree of metalloaromaticity determined through the I(NG) and HOMA indices; that is, the higher the metalloaromaticity, the larger the log β(2) value. MOs and aromaticity descriptors confirm that present complexes exhibit Möbius metalloaromaticity. Detailed analysis of the nature of the Cu(II)-ligand bonding, performed through an energy decomposition analysis, indicates that ligands with less aromatic moieties have the negative charge more localized in the metalated ring, thus increasing their σ-donor character and the metalloaromaticity of the complexes they form.

Crystal structure of the amyloid-β p3 fragment provides a model for oligomer formation in Alzheimer's disease

Alzheimer's disease is a progressive neurodegenerative disorder associated with the presence of amyloid-β (Aβ) peptide fibrillar plaques in the brain. However, current evidence suggests that soluble nonfibrillar Aβ oligomers may be the major drivers of Aβ-mediated synaptic dysfunction. Structural information on these Aβ species has been very limited because of their noncrystalline and unstable nature. Here, we describe a crystal structure of amylogenic residues 18-41 of the Aβ peptide (equivalent to the p3 α/γ-secretase fragment of amyloid precursor protein) presented within the CDR3 loop region of a shark Ig new antigen receptor (IgNAR) single variable domain antibody. The predominant oligomeric species is a tightly associated Aβ dimer, with paired dimers forming a tetramer in the crystal caged within four IgNAR domains, preventing uncontrolled amyloid formation. Our structure correlates with independently observed features of small nonfibrillar Aβ oligomers and reveals conserved elements consistent with residues and motifs predicted as critical in Aβ folding and oligomerization, thus potentially providing a model system for nonfibrillar oligomer formation in Alzheimer's disease.

Substoichiometric levels of Cu2+ ions accelerate the kinetics of fiber formation and promote cell toxicity of amyloid-{beta} from Alzheimer disease

A role for Cu(2+) ions in Alzheimer disease is often disputed, as it is believed that Cu(2+) ions only promote nontoxic amorphous aggregates of amyloid-β (Aβ). In contrast with currently held opinion, we show that the presence of substoichiometric levels of Cu(2+) ions in fact doubles the rate of production of amyloid fibers, accelerating both the nucleation and elongation of fiber formation. We suggest that binding of Cu(2+) ions at a physiological pH causes Aβ to approach its isoelectric point, thus inducing self-association and fiber formation. We further show that Cu(2+) ions bound to Aβ are consistently more toxic to neuronal cells than Aβ in the absence of Cu(2+) ions, whereas Cu(2+) ions in the absence of Aβ are not cytotoxic. The degree of Cu-Aβ cytotoxicity correlates with the levels of Cu(2+) ions that accelerate fiber formation. We note the effect appears to be specific for Cu(2+) ions as Zn(2+) ions inhibit the formation of fibers. An active role for Cu(2+) ions in accelerating fiber formation and promoting cell death suggests impaired copper homeostasis may be a risk factor in Alzheimer disease.

Copper and zinc binding to amyloid-beta: coordination, dynamics, aggregation, reactivity and metal-ion transfer

The metal ions copper, zinc and iron have been shown to be involved in Alzheimer's disease (AD). Cu, Zn and Fe ions are proposed to be implicated in two key steps of AD pathology: 1) aggregation of the peptide amyloid-beta (Abeta), and 2) production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) induced by Abeta. There is compelling evidence that Cu and Zn bind directly to Abeta in AD. This formation of Cu/Zn-Abeta complexes is thought to be aberrant as they have been detected only in AD, but not under healthy conditions. In this context, the understanding of how these metal ions interact with Abeta, their influence on structure and oligomerization become an important issue for AD. Moreover, the mechanism of ROS production by Cu-Abeta in relation to its aggregations state, as well as the metal-transfer reaction from and to Abeta are crucial in order to understand why Abeta oligomers are highly toxic and why Abeta seems to bind Cu and Zn only in AD.

Modelling Copper Binding to the Amyloid-β Peptide in Alzheimer

Oxidative modification due to reactive oxygen species generated by Cu2+ bound to the amyloid-β peptide may be one of the sources of neurodegeneration observed in Alzheimer’s disease. Understanding the structure and function of the copper binding site can assist in the design of effective therapeutics. This paper highlights some of the most significant recent developments in computational modelling studies of the structure of the binding site and reaction mechanisms of reactive oxygen species generation.

Generation of soluble oligomeric beta-amyloid species via copper catalyzed oxidation with implications for Alzheimer's disease: a DFT study

A mechanism for the oxidation of a dimeric beta-amyloid copper ion complex is proposed based on DFT calculations. It involves the Met35 residue, which is believed to be important in the neurotoxicity causing Alzheimer's disease. Oxidation of Met35 is found to proceed readily with dioxygen when two Met35 residues are close to each other and the copper ion. This indicates that oxidants, such as hydrogen peroxide, are not necessary for oxidation of beta-amyloid copper ion complexes. Understanding these processes could be pivotal in gaining more knowledge of this complex disease and for the development of therapeutic treatments.

Importance of dynamical processes in the coordination chemistry and redox conversion of copper amyloid-beta complexes

Interaction of Cu ions with the amyloid-beta (Abeta) peptide is linked to the development of Alzheimer's disease; hence, determining the coordination of Cu(I) and Cu(II) ions to Abeta and the pathway of the Cu(I)(Abeta)/Cu(II)(Abeta) redox conversion is of great interest. In the present report, we use the room temperature X-ray absorption near edge structure to show that the binding sites of the Cu(I) and Cu(II) complexes are similar to those previously determined from frozen-solution studies. More precisely, the Cu(I) is coordinated by the imidazole groups of two histidine residues in a linear fashion. However, an NMR study unravels the involvement of all three histidine residues in the Cu(I) binding due to dynamical exchange between several set of ligands. The presence of an equilibrium is also responsible for the complex redox process observed by cyclic voltammetry and evidenced by a concentration-dependent electrochemical response.

Copper(II) binding to amyloid-beta fibrils of Alzheimer's disease reveals a picomolar affinity: stoichiometry and coordination geometry are independent of Abeta oligomeric form

Cu(2+) ions are found concentrated within senile plaques of Alzheimer's disease patients directly bound to amyloid-beta peptide (Abeta) and are linked to the neurotoxicity and self-association of Abeta. The affinity of Cu(2+) for monomeric Abeta is highly disputed, and there have been no reports of affinity of Cu(2+) for fibrillar Abeta. We therefore measured the affinity of Cu(2+) for both monomeric and fibrillar Abeta(1-42) using two independent methods: fluorescence quenching and circular dichroism. The binding curves were almost identical for both fibrillar and monomeric forms. Competition studies with free glycine, l-histidine, and nitrilotriacetic acid (NTA) indicate an apparent (conditional) dissociation constant of 10(-11) M, at pH 7.4. Previous studies of Cu-Abeta have typically found the affinity 2 or more orders of magnitude weaker, largely because the affinity of competing ligands or buffers has been underestimated. Abeta fibers are able to bind a full stoichiometric complement of Cu(2+) ions with little change in their secondary structure and have coordination geometry identical to that of monomeric Abeta. Electron paramagnetic resonance studies (EPR) with Abeta His/Ala analogues suggest a dynamic view of the tetragonal Cu(2+) complex, with axial as well as equatorial coordination of imidazole nitrogens creating an ensemble of coordination geometries in exchange between each other. Furthermore, the N-terminal amino group is essential for the formation of high-pH complex II. The Abeta(1-28) fragment binds an additional Cu(2+) ion compared to full-length Abeta, with appreciable affinity. This second binding site is revealed in Abeta(1-42) upon addition of methanol, indicating hydrophobic interactions block the formation of this weaker carboxylate-rich complex. A Cu(2+) affinity for Abeta of 10(11) M(-1) supports a modified amyloid cascade hypothesis in which Cu(2+) is central to Abeta neurotoxicity.

Mechanism of hydrogen peroxide production by copper-bound amyloid beta peptide: a theoretical study

The amyloid beta peptide (Abeta) of Alzheimer's disease evolves hydrogen peroxide in vitro in the presence of Cu(II), external reducing agents, and molecular oxygen, without producing detectable amounts of the one-electron reduced intermediate, superoxide, O(2)(-*). The mechanism of this process was examined by ab initio computational chemistry techniques in systems that model the binding of Cu(II) to the His13His14 fragment of Abeta. The catalytic cycle begins with the reduction of the most stable Cu(II) complex to the most stable Cu(I) complex. This Cu(I) complex forms a Cu(II)-like adduct with (3)O(2) that cannot dissociate in water to yield O(2)(-*). However, it can be reduced by proton-coupled electron transfer to an adduct between HOO(-) and the Cu(II)-like complex, which in turn can be protonated. The protonated complex decomposes to yield H(2)O(2) by an associative-dissociative mechanism, thus completing the cycle.

Pleomorphic copper coordination by Alzheimer's disease amyloid-beta peptide

Numerous conflicting models have been proposed regarding the nature of the Cu(2+) coordination environment of the amyloid beta (Abeta) peptide, the causative agent of Alzheimer's disease. This study used multifrequency CW-EPR spectroscopy to directly resolve the superhyperfine interactions between Cu(2+) and the ligand nuclei of Abeta, thereby avoiding ambiguities associated with introducing point mutations. Using a library of Abeta16 analogues with site-specific (15)N-labeling at Asp1, His6, His13, and His14, numerical simulations of the superhyperfine resonances delineated two independent 3N1O Cu(2+) coordination modes, {N(a)(D1), O, N(epsilon)(H6), N(epsilon)(H13)} (component Ia) and {N(a)(D1), O, N(epsilon)(H6), N(epsilon)(H14)} (component Ib), between pH 6-7. A third coordination mode (component II) was identified at pH 8.0, and simulation of the superhyperfine resonances indicated a 3N1O coordination sphere involving nitrogen ligation by His6, His13, and His14. No differences were observed upon (17)O-labeling of the phenolic oxygen of Tyr10, confirming it is not a key oxygen ligand in the physiological pH range. Hyperfine sublevel correlation (HYSCORE) spectroscopy, in conjunction with site-specific (15)N-labeling, provided additional support for the common role of His6 in components Ia and Ib, and for the assignment of a {O, N(epsilon)(H6), N(epsilon)(H13), N(epsilon)(H14)} coordination sphere to component II. HYSCORE studies of a peptide analogue with selective (13)C-labeling of Asp1 revealed (13)C cross-peaks characteristic of equatorial coordination by the carboxylate oxygen of Asp1 in component Ia/b coordination. The direct resolution of Cu(2+) ligand interactions, together with the key finding that component I is composed of two distinct coordination modes, provides valuable insight into a range of conflicting ligand assignments and highlights the complexity of Cu(2+)/Abeta interactions.

The amyloid-beta peptide of Alzheimer's disease binds Cu(I) in a linear bis-his coordination environment: insight into a possible neuroprotective mechanism for the amyloid-beta peptide

Oxidative stress has been suggested to contribute to neuronal apoptosis associated with Alzheimer's disease (AD). Copper may participate in oxidative stress through redox-cycling between its +2 and +1 oxidation states to generate reactive oxygen species (ROS). In vitro, copper binds to the amyloid-beta peptide of AD, and in vivo, copper is associated with amyloid plaques characteristic of AD. As a result, the AbetaCu(I) complex may be a critical reactant involved in ROS associated with AD etiology. To characterize the AbetaCu(I) complex, we have pursued X-ray absorption (XAS) and electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR) spectroscopy of AbetaCu(II) and AbetaCu(I) (produced by ascorbate reduction of AbetaCu(II)). The AbetaCu(II) complex Cu K-edge XAS spectrum is indicative of a square-planar Cu(II) center with mixed N/O ligation. Multiple scattering analysis of the extended X-ray absorption fine structure (EXAFS) data for AbetaCu(II) indicates that two of the ligands are imidazole groups of histidine ligands, indicating a (N(Im))(2)(N/O)(2) Cu(II) ligation sphere for AbetaCu(II). After reduction of the AbetaCu(II) complex with ascorbate, the edge region decreases in energy by approximately 4 eV. The X-ray absorption near-edge spectrum region of AbetaCu(I) displays an intense pre-edge feature at 8984.1(2) eV. EXAFS data fitting yielded a two-coordinate geometry, with two imidazole ligands coordinated to Cu(I) at 1.877(2) A in a linear geometry. Ascorbate reduction of AbetaCu(II) under inert atmosphere and subsequent air oxidation of AbetaCu(I) to regenerate AbetaCu(II) was monitored by low-temperature EPR spectroscopy. Slow reappearance of the AbetaCu(II) EPR signal indicates that O(2) oxidation of the AbetaCu(I) complex is kinetically sluggish and Abeta damage is occurring following reoxidation of AbetaCu(I) by O(2). Together, these results lead us to hypothesize that Cu(I) is ligated by His13 and His14 in a linear coordination environment in Alphabeta, that Abeta may be playing a neuroprotective role, and that metal-mediated oxidative damage of Abeta occurs over multiple redox cycles.

Amyloid beta-Cu2+ complexes in both monomeric and fibrillar forms do not generate H2O2 catalytically but quench hydroxyl radicals

Oxidative stress plays a key role in Alzheimer's disease (AD). In addition, the abnormally high Cu(2+) ion concentrations present in senile plaques has provoked a substantial interest in the relationship between the amyloid beta peptide (Abeta) found within plaques and redox-active copper ions. There have been a number of studies monitoring reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation by copper and ascorbate that suggest that Abeta acts as a prooxidant producing H2O2. However, others have indicated Abeta acts as an antioxidant, but to date most cell-free studies directly monitoring ROS have not supported this hypothesis. We therefore chose to look again at ROS generation by both monomeric and fibrillar forms of Abeta under aerobic conditions in the presence of Cu(2+) with/without the biological reductant ascorbate in a cell-free system. We used a variety of fluorescence and absorption based assays to monitor the production of ROS, as well as Cu(2+) reduction. In contrast to previous studies, we show here that Abeta does not generate any more ROS than controls of Cu(2+) and ascorbate. Abeta does not silence the redox activity of Cu(2+/+) via chelation, but rather hydroxyl radicals produced as a result of Fenton-Haber Weiss reactions of ascorbate and Cu(2+) rapidly react with Abeta; thus the potentially harmful radicals are quenched. In support of this, chemical modification of the Abeta peptide was examined using (1)H NMR, and specific oxidation sites within the peptide were identified at the histidine and methionine residues. Our studies add significant weight to a modified amyloid cascade hypothesis in which sporadic AD is the result of Abeta being upregulated as a response to oxidative stress. However, our results do not preclude the possibility that Abeta in an oligomeric form may concentrate the redox-active copper at neuronal membranes and so cause lipid peroxidation.