Impact of Biogenic Amines on Food Quality and Safety

The Measurement of Hazardous Biogenic Amines in Non-Alcoholic Beers: Efficient and Applicable Miniaturized Electro-Membrane Extraction Joined to Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry

The determination of biogenic amines (BAs) as serious food contaminants and chemical indicators of unwanted microbial contamination or deficient processing conditions in non-alcoholic beers is of great interest for the beverage industries. In the present investigation, the combination of hollow fiber-electro-membrane extraction (HF-EME) and dispersive liquid-liquid microextraction (DLLME) followed by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC/MS) was applied for the analysis of histamine, putrescine, tyramine, cadaverine in non-alcoholic beers. EME is fundamentally based on the electrostatic attraction, diffusion and solvability of analytes in a selected acceptor phase. This membrane-based extraction technique promoted selectivity and the enrichment factor. The DLLME process reduced the volumes of organic solvents and make the coupling of HF-EME to the CG/MS conceivable. The leading variables, which have a great effect on extraction recovery, were optimized. The relative standard deviation was achieved between 4.9 and 7.0%. The recoveries were between 94% and 98%. The limit of detection and limit of quantification were found to be 0.92-0.98 ng mL^-1 and 3.03-3.23 ng mL^-1, respectively. The enrichment factor was calculated in the range 36-41. The achievements revealed that putrescine and tyramine, with concentrations of 3.87 and 2.33 µg g^-1, were at the highest concentration in non-alcoholic beers. This offered method with great benefits could help beverage industries to monitor the concentration of BAs in beers and control them.

Wine putrescine abatement by bentonites: From ideal case to practice

Herein, we demonstrated that bentonites can be incisively used to reduce wine BAs content, especially putrescine molecules. Pioneering kinetic and thermodynamic studies of putrescine adsorption onto two commercially available bentonites (optimal concentration of 0.40 g dm^-3) were performed resulting in ca. 60% removal by physisorption mechanism. Both bentonites showed also promising results in more complex systems, resulting in a lower putrescine adsorption due to the competition with other molecules (as proteins, polyphenols), typically present in wines. Nonetheless, we managed to reduce the putrescine content below 10 ppm both in red and white wines.

Focus on Histamine Production During Cheese Manufacture and Processing: A Review

Histamine (HIS) intoxication is a poisoning caused by histamine in food. Cheese is one of the most common dairy products associated with histamine levels which vary depending on the processing methods. The final content of histamine in cheese is influenced by intrinsic and extrinsic factors, their interactions, and contamination stemming from food processing. The application of control measures may be useful to inhibit/reduce production during cheese manufacture and processing but have a limited effect. To reduce histamine intoxication outbreaks from cheese consumption the introduction of quality control programs and appropriate risk mitigation options should be applied along the dairy chain from an overall perspective of food safety based on individual susceptibility and consumer sensitivity. As key food safety, this topic should be considered in future regulations in dairy products because the lack of a clear law on HIS limits in cheese may result in a significant potential deviation from the EU food safety strategy.

Combination of SPE and fluorescent detection of AQC-derivatives for the determination at sub-mg/L levels of biogenic amines in dairy products

Biogenic amines (BAs) are compounds generated by decarboxylation of their amino acid precursors. Their intake, even at low concentrations, can lead to several types of health problems in sensitive individuals. As they can be easily formed in fermented dairy products, their quantitative determination is very relevant. In the present paper, a method for the quantitative determination of four biogenic amines in different dairy products has been developed, validated and applied to 37 samples of milk, 23 of yogurt, and 14 of kefir. Amines were selectively extracted using solid phase extraction, subsequently derivatizatized with 6-aminoquinolyl-N-hydroxysuccinimidyl carbamate and further determined by High Performance Liquid Chromatography with fluorescence detection. The method's sensitivity was highly satisfactory, with limits of detection lower than 0.2 mg/L. Optimal linearity and repeatability were also achieved. BAs were not detected in most of the milk samples, but they were found frequently at high levels in yogurt and kefir samples, reaching values of up to 79 mg/kg total BAs in kefir samples. Levels measured should not be a cause for concern for the population at large, but should be known by BAs-sensitive individuals.

Genomic, phenotypic, and clinical safety of Limosilactobacillus reuteri ATCC PTA 4659

Evaluating the safety of probiotic microorganisms is an important part of the development of probiotic products. In this study, we have performed a systematic safety assessment of Limosilactobacillus reuteri American Type Culture Collection (ATCC) PTA 4659 based on genome analysis, antibiotic susceptibility testing, phenotypic characterization, and a human clinical safety study. Genome sequence analysis showed that the strain is free from virulence and antibiotic resistance genes. Connected to this, phenotypic characterization showed that the strain is susceptible to the main classes of antibiotics. Limosilactobacillus reuteri ATCC PTA 4659 was shown to produce histamine, which has previously been described as an anti-inflammatory mediator produced by certain L. reuteri strains. However, the amount of histamine, a biogenic amine, poses no safety concern of a potential product. The strain was investigated in a human clinical safety study and was shown to survive passage through the gastrointestinal tract, both when administered at high [1 × 1011 colony-forming units (CFU)/day] and low doses (1 × 109 CFU/day). The clinical safety evaluation showed that the doses administered are safe for human consumption. Furthermore, carbohydrate utilization, mucus adhesion, and tolerance to acid and bile were studied. It was shown that L. reuteri ATCC PTA 4659 has a very high adhesion to mucus and tolerance to both gastric pH and bile, all potentially important properties for a probiotic strain. Altogether, this study has demonstrated that Limosilactobacillus reuteri ATCC PTA 4659 is safe for human consumption and along with its phenotypic characteristics and previously described anti-inflammatory effects, makes it a promising strain for future probiotic development. NCT01033539.

Fruit-Based Fermented Beverages: Contamination Sources and Emerging Technologies Applied to Assure Their Safety

The food and beverage market has become broader due to globalization and consumer claims. Under the umbrella of consumer demands, legislation, nutritional status, and sustainability, the importance of food and beverage safety must be decisive. A significant sector of food production is related to ensuring fruit and vegetable conservation and utilization through fermentation. In this respect, in this review, we critically analyzed the scientific literature regarding the presence of chemical, microbiological and physical hazards in fruit-based fermented beverages. Furthermore, the potential formation of toxic compounds during processing is also discussed. In managing the risks, biological, physical, and chemical techniques can reduce or eliminate any contaminant from fruit-based fermented beverages. Some of these techniques belong to the technological flow of obtaining the beverages (i.e., mycotoxins bound by microorganisms used in fermentation) or are explicitly applied for a specific risk reduction (i.e., mycotoxin oxidation by ozone). Providing manufacturers with information on potential hazards that could jeopardize the safety of fermented fruit-based drinks and strategies to lower or eliminate these hazards is of paramount importance.

Improvement of Caciotta-like cheese nutritional value by means of enrichment with blackcurrant (Ribes nigrum) and Cornelian cherry (Cornus mas)

Introduction

In this study, we supplemented models of Caciotta-like cheese with blackcurrant (Ribes nigrum) and Cornelian cherry (Cornus mas), as they have a high content of polyphenols, known as phytochemicals associated with health benefits. We evaluated the microbial composition, organoleptic aspects, total phenolic content, and chemical composition of model cheeses enriched with blackcurrant and Cornelian cherry.

Methods

Two different suppliers have been tested: a conventional and an organic one. Two different conditions of preparation (freeze-dried and not freeze-dried) were tested in two different amounts (0.3 and 0.6% dry weight w/v milk volume). Polyphenols were determined using Folin-Ciocalteu reaction and spectrometry; microbial community was determined with selective 24 media and plate counts; composition was determined using nuclear magnetic resonance spectrometry. Organoleptic tests with an untrained panel have been performed.

Results

The enrichments with blackcurrant and Cornelian cherry increased the total polyphenol content in model cheeses, in particular, when blackcurrant and Cornelian cherry were from conventional farming. Blackcurrant-enriched cheeses showed higher counts of lactic acid bacteria, higher levels of organic acids, amino acids, gamma-aminobutyric acid, histamine, and lower amount of monosaccharides deriving from bacterial lactose fermentation in cheese, suggesting a positive effect of blackcurrant compounds on the growth and activity of lactic acid bacteria. The enrichments did not affect the acceptance of the cheese, neither by blackcurrant nor by Cornelian cherry incorporation, with the exception of the appearance.

Discussion

Overall, we showed that cheeses enriched with blackcurrant or Cornelian cherry from conventional farming increased the bioactive potential of the dairy product without having an adverse effect on the microbial community, physiochemical properties, or organoleptic properties.

Submerged and Solid-State Fermentation of Spirulina with Lactic Acid Bacteria Strains: Antimicrobial Properties and the Formation of Bioactive Compounds of Protein Origin

The aim of this study was to investigate the changes in bioactive compounds (L-glutamic acid (L-Glu), gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) and biogenic amines (BAs)) during the submerged (SMF) and solid-state (SSF) fermentation of Spirulina with lactobacilli strains (Lacticaseibacillus paracasei No. 244; Levilactobacillus brevis No. 173; Leuconostoc mesenteroides No. 225; Liquorilactobacillus uvarum No. 245). The antimicrobial properties of the untreated and fermented Spirulina against a variety of pathogenic and opportunistic strains were tested. The highest concentrations of L-Glu (3841 mg/kg) and GABA (2396 mg/kg) were found after 48 h of SSF with No. 173 and No. 244 strains, respectively. The LAB strain used for biotreatment and the process conditions, as well as the interaction of these factors, had statistically significant effects on the GABA concentration in Spirulina (p ≤ 0.001, p = 0.019 and p = 0.011, respectively). In all cases, the SSF of Spirulina had a higher total BA content than SMF. Most of the fermented Spirulina showed exceptional antimicrobial activity against Staphylococcus aureus but not against the other pathogenic bacteria. The ratios of BA/GABA and BA/L-Glu ranged from 0.5 to 62 and from 0.31 to 10.7, respectively. The GABA content was correlated with putrescine, cadaverine, histamine, tyramine, spermidine and spermine contents. The L-glutamic acid concentration showed positive moderate correlations with tryptamine, putrescine, spermidine and spermine. To summarize, while high concentrations of desirable compounds are formed during fermentation, the formation of non-desirable compounds (BAs) must also be considered due to the similar mechanism of their synthesis as well as the possibility of obtaining high concentrations in the end products.

Bacterial species diversity of traditionally ripened sheep legs from the Faroe Islands (skerpikjøt)

Skerpikjøt is a traditionally ripened sheep leg product from the Faroe Islands, constituting a relatively underexplored microbial ecosystem. The objective of this study is to achieve a deeper understanding of the microbial composition of this artisanal product. Nine ripened hind legs, obtained from three different producers, were assessed regarding their bacterial communities and contents of biogenic amines, including both surface and core samples. Biogenic amine concentrations were generally low, although one sample had a somewhat elevated concentration of cadaverine. Bacterial diversity was investigated by culture-dependent and culture-independent techniques. Gram-positive catalase-positive cocci (GCC) constituted the most abundant group. Within this group, Staphylococcus equorum was the most prevailing species, followed by Kocuria sp., Mammaliicoccus vitulinus, and Staphylococcus saprophyticus. Lactic acid bacteria prevailed in only one sample and were mainly represented by Latilactobacillus curvatus. Enterobacterial communities were characterised by the prevalence of Serratia proteamaculans. Despite the majority of GCC, Clostridium putrefaciens was the most abundant bacterial species in some core samples. Taken together, the culture-dependent and culture-independent identification methods gave complementary results.

Fermented Foods in the Management of Obesity: Mechanisms of Action and Future Challenges

Fermented foods are part of the staple diet in many different countries and populations and contain various probiotic microorganisms and non-digestible prebiotics. Fermentation is the process of breaking down sugars by bacteria and yeast species; it not only enhances food preservation but can also increase the number of beneficial gut bacteria. Regular consumption of fermented foods has been associated with a variety of health benefits (although some health risks also exist), including improved digestion, enhanced immunity, and greater weight loss, suggesting that fermented foods have the potential to help in the design of effective nutritional therapeutic approaches for obesity. In this article, we provide a comprehensive overview of the health effects of fermented foods and the corresponding mechanisms of action in obesity and obesity-related metabolic abnormalities.

Colorimetric Paper Sensor for Food Spoilage Based on Biogenic Amine Monitoring

Biogenic amines (BAs), nitrogenous molecules usually present in different foods, can be considered an indicator of freshness and food quality since their amount increases during food spoilage. Their detection, possibly in real time via the use of smart packaging, is therefore of crucial importance to ensure food safety and to fulfill consumers' demand. To this end, colorimetric sensors are considered one of the most feasible solutions. Here, we report a user-friendly colorimetric sensing paper able to detect BAs via the naked eye. The sensing molecule is the aglycone genipin, a natural cross-linking agent extracted from gardenia fruit, able to bind BAs producing water-soluble blue pigments. The paper sensor was applied to chicken meat quality monitoring and a quantitative analysis was performed with image acquisition via a smartphone camera, achieving a limit of detection equivalent to 0.1 mM of putrescine. The suitability of the BA sensing paper was assessed by integrating the sensor into smart packaging and analyzing commercial chicken meat samples stored at different temperatures; the results of the sensor paralleled the "best before date" indicated on the label, confirming the potential applicability of the sensor as a smart label.

Microbiology, flavor formation, and bioactivity of fermented soybean curd (furu): A review

Soybeans are an important plant-based food but its beany flavor and anti-nutritional factors limit its consumption. Fermentation is an effective way to improve its flavor and nutrition. Furu is a popular fermented soybean curd and mainly manufactured in Asia, which has been consumed for thousands of years as an appetizer because of its attractive flavors. This review first classifies furu products on the basis of various factors; then, the microorganisms involved in its fermentation and their various functions are discussed. The mechanisms for the formation of aroma and taste compounds during fermentation are also discussed; and the microbial metabolites and their bioactivities are analyzed. Finally, future prospects and challenges are introduced and further research is proposed. This information is needed to protect the regional characteristics of furu and to regulate its consistent quality. The current information suggests that more in vivo experiments and further clinical trials are needed to confirm its safety and the microbial community needs to be optimized and standardized for each type of furu to improve the production process.

Recent advances in development of electrochemical biosensors for the detection of biogenic amines

Biogenic amines (BAs) are widely found in food as a consequence of diverse factors including free amino acid availability, microbial production of decarboxylases, and variations in processing and storage conditions. Hence, BAs are considered as an important marker for determining the freshness and quality of food. Owing to the documentation of BAs in different dietary products, their numerous negative impacts on human health have reported to be a serious concern in past few decades. Therefore, the quantification of these chemical species in food becomes crucial as it can immensely contributes toward control of new episodes on food intoxication in humans. In this line, various chromatographic and colorimetric methods have been developed to detect BAs. However, these methods are in use from a longer time, still are limited by high cost, lengthy procedures, huge infrastructure and skilled personnel requirements that hinder their on-field application. In pursuit of a reliable method offering accurate detection of BAs, this review presents the state-of-the-art of electrochemical strategies for BAs sensing in food. The core of the review discusses about the widely employed electrochemical transducers, such as amperometric, potentiometric, impedimetric and conductometric-based BAs biosensors with significant findings of research work conducted previously. The application of electrochemical sensors to analyze BAs in different fields including food systems (fermented and non-fermented types) and smart packaging systems has been reviewed. Moreover, existing challenges and further available prospects for the development of rapid, facile, and sensitive electrochemical strategies for on-site determination of BAs have also been discussed.

Influence of Brewing Process on the Profile of Biogenic Amines in Craft Beers

The evaluation of the biogenic amines (BAs) profile of different types of craft beers is herein presented. A previously developed and validated analytical method based on ion-pair chromatography coupled with potentiometric detection was used to determine the presence of 10 BAs. Good analytical features were obtained for all amines regarding linearity (R² values from 0.9873 ± 0.0015 to 0.9973 ± 0.0015), intra- and inter-day precision (RSD lower than 6.9% and 9.7% for beer samples, respectively), and accuracy (recovery between 83.2-108.9%). Detection and quantification limits range from 9.3 to 60.5 and from 31.1 to 202.3 µg L^-1, respectively. The validated method was applied to the analysis of four ale beers and one lager craft beer. Ethylamine, spermidine, spermine, and tyramine were detected in all analyzed samples while methylamine and phenylethylamine were not detected. Overall, pale ale beers had a significantly higher total content of BAs than those found in wheat pale and dark samples. A general least square regression model showed a good correlation between the total content of BAs and the brewing process, especially for Plato degree, mashing, and fermentation temperatures. Knowledge about the type of ingredients and manufacturing processes that contribute to higher concentrations of these compounds is crucial to ensuring consumer safety.

Safety evaluation and application of lactic acid bacteria and yeast strains isolated from Sichuan broad bean paste

Broad bean paste is one of the most popular characteristic traditional fermented bean products in China, which is prepared by mixed fermentation of a variety of microorganisms, among which lactic acid bacteria and yeast played an important role in the improvement of the fermented broad bean paste quality. However, the traditional open-air fermentation of broad bean paste brought some risks of harmful microorganisms. In this study, the safety and fermentation ability of lactic acid bacteria and yeast strains isolated from traditional broad bean paste was evaluated. The results showed that the protease activity of the strain Lactobacillus plantarum DPUL-J5 (366.73 ± 9.00 U/L) and Pichia kudriavzevii DPUY-J5 (237.18 ± 10.93 U/L) were the highest. Both strains produced little biogenic amines, and did not exhibit α-hemolytic activity or antibiotic resistance for some of the antibiotics most used in human medicine. Furthermore, the broad bean paste fermentation involving DPUL-J5 and DPUY-J5 was beneficial for accumulating higher total acid (1.69 ± 0.01 g/100 g), amino-acid nitrogen (0.85 ± 0.03 g/100 g), and more volatile flavor compounds, meanwhile, reducing the levels of biogenic amines and aflatoxin B1. Therefore, this study provided a new strategy to improve the safety and quality of traditional broad bean paste.

Development of Histamine in Fresh and Canned Tuna Steaks Stored under Different Experimental Temperature Conditions

Among biogenic amines, histamine is most frequently involved in foodborne intoxication. To evaluate histamine formation in tuna, several storage conditions were reproduced. An LC-MS/MS method was used for analytical determinations. Fresh tuna samples (not contaminated and grafted with tuna muscle naturally incurred with histamine at 6000 mg/kg) were stored at 4, 12, and 20 °C, and daily samples were collected for 6 days. The development of histamine was observed only in grafted tuna samples. At 4 °C, histamine formation progressed from 12.8 mg/kg (day 1) up to 68.2 mg/kg (day 6). At 12 °C, higher concentrations developed (23.9 mg/kg on day 1 up to 2721.3 mg/kg on day 6) relative to 20 °C (from 12.0 to 1681.0 mg/kg). It was found that at 4 °C, if grafted tuna was submerged in oil, histamine formation progressed more slowly. In a naturally contaminated sample, it was observed that the histamine distribution was uniform, while the normal cooking process did not affect the histamine level. Furthermore, it was found that the use of histamine-contaminated equipment for food handling may result in histamine formation in food. These results confirm the importance of implementing good hygiene practices and respecting the cold chain.

Bioactive Amines in Wines. The Assessment of Quality Descriptors by Flow Injection Analysis with Tandem Mass Spectrometry

Biogenic amines (BAs) occur in a wide variety of foodstuffs, mainly from the decomposition of proteins by the action of microorganisms. They are involved in several cellular functions but may become toxic when ingested in high amounts through the diet. In the case of oenological products, BAs are already present in low concentrations in must, and their levels rise dramatically during the fermentation processes. This paper proposes a rapid method for the determination of BAs in wines and related samples based on precolumn derivatization with dansyl chloride and further detection by flow injection analysis with tandem mass spectrometry. Some remarkable analytes such as putrescine, ethanolamine, histamine, and tyramine have been quantified in the samples. Concentrations obtained have shown interesting patterns, pointing out the role of BAs as quality descriptors. Furthermore, it has been found that the BA content also depends on the vinification practices, with malolactic fermentation being a significant step in the formation of BAs. From the point of view of health, concentrations found in the samples are, in general, below 10 mg L^-1, so the consumption of these products does not represent any special concern. In conclusion, the proposed method results in a suitable approach for a fast screening of this family of bioactive compounds in wines to evaluate quality and health issues.

Changes in the physicochemical parameters and microbial community of a new cultivar blue wheat cereal wholemeal during sourdough production

Changes in the characteristics of a new cultivar (DS8472-5) of blue wheat during wholemeal fermentation with Pediococcus acidilactici (LUHS29), Liquorilactobacillus uvarum (LUHS245), and Lactiplantibacillus plantarum (LUHS122), including acidity, microbiological and chromaticity parameters, free amino acid (FAA), gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA), and biogenic amine (BA) contents, macro- and micro-element concentrations and fatty acid (FA) and volatile compounds (VC), were evaluated. In addition, a metagenomic analysis was performed. The lactic acid bacteria (LAB) strains used for fermentation was a significant factor in wholemeal fermentation sample pH, redness (a*) and LAB counts (p ≤ 0.05). In most of the samples, fermentation increased the FAA content in wheat wholemeal, and the highest concentration of GABA was found in DS8472-5 LUHS122 samples. Phenylethylamine (PHE) was found in all wheat wholemeal samples; however, spermidine was only detected in fermented samples and cadaverine only in DS8472-5 LUHS122. Fermented samples showed higher omega-3 and omega-6 contents and a higher number and variety of VC. Analysis of the microbial profile showed that LAB as part of the natural microbiota present in cereal grains also actively participates in fermentation processes induced by industrial bacterial cultures. Finally, all the tested LAB were suitable for DS8472-5 wheat wholemeal fermentation, and the DS8472-5 LUHS122 samples showed the lowest pH and the highest LAB viable counts (3.94, 5.80°N, and 8.92 log10 CFU/g, respectively).

Biogenic amine production from processed animal and plant protein-based foods contaminated with Escherichia coli and Enterococcus feacalis

The aim of the study was to investigate biogenic amine production in different types of cooked protein foods. The food samples were incubated at varying temperatures (4, 37 and 55 °C) on different microbiological media for 48, 72 and 180 h. Resulting bacteria were isolated and characterized using cultural, biochemical and molecular methods, further screened for production of biogenic amines in decarboxylase broth media supplemented with 0.4% of histidine, tyrosine, lysine and ornithine. The samples were incubated at 25 °C for 48 h and the biogenic amine concentration in each food sample determined by means of HPLC. There was a high prevalence of the isolates among the food samples. All the isolates except Klebsiella sp. and Pseudomonas sp. were positive for decarboxylase activity indicating 84.6% of the isolates capable of biogenic amine production. The amine concentration varied among the types of food and methods of cooking. Histamine was detected in 41.67% of the inoculated food samples (9.2 ± 1.2-100.95 ± 0.1 µg/g) while putrescine was the least detected (41.67%) in the inoculated food sample (7.7 ± 0.1-8.8 ± 0.2 µg/g). Cadaverine and histamine were detected in 16.4% (2.6 ± 0.2-49.9 ± 0.9 µg/g) and 7.5% (1.4 ± 0.1-20.4 ± 0.3 µg/g) of the foods, respectively. Microbial contamination of the cooked protein foods led to high levels of biogenic amines irrespective of the cooking methodology adopted and type of foods investigated.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s13197-022-05576-0.

Natural Sympathomimetic Drugs: From Pharmacology to Toxicology

Sympathomimetic agents are a group of chemical compounds that are able to activate the sympathetic nervous system either directly via adrenergic receptors or indirectly by increasing endogenous catecholamine levels or mimicking their intracellular signaling pathways. Compounds from this group, both used therapeutically or abused, comprise endogenous catecholamines (such as adrenaline and noradrenaline), synthetic amines (e.g., isoproterenol and dobutamine), trace amines (e.g., tyramine, tryptamine, histamine and octopamine), illicit drugs (e.g., ephedrine, cathinone, and cocaine), or even caffeine and synephrine. In addition to the effects triggered by stimulation of the sympathetic system, the discovery of trace amine associated receptors (TAARs) in humans brought new insights about their sympathomimetic pharmacology and toxicology. Although synthetic sympathomimetic agents are mostly seen as toxic, natural sympathomimetic agents are considered more complacently in the terms of safety in the vision of the lay public. Here, we aim to discuss the pharmacological and mainly toxicological aspects related to sympathomimetic natural agents, in particular of trace amines, compounds derived from plants like ephedra and khat, and finally cocaine. The main purpose of this review is to give a scientific and updated view of those agents and serve as a reminder on the safety issues of natural sympathomimetic agents most used in the community.

Development of a High Performance Liquid Chromatography with Diode Array Detector (HPLC-DAD) Method for Determination of Biogenic Amines in Ripened Cheeses

Biogenic amines (BAs) are organic, basic nitrogenous compounds formed during the decarboxylation of amino acids. A method for the determination of eight biogenic amines (tryptamine, 2-phenyletylamine, putrescine, cadaverine, histamine, tyramine, spermidine, spermine) in ripened cheeses was developed and validated. Cheese samples with the addition of internal standards were extracted with 0.2 M perchloric acid and pre-column derivatized with dansyl chloride at 60 °C for 15 min, purified with toluene and dried under a stream of nitrogen. The samples were analyzed using high performance liquid chromatography with diode array detector (HPLC-DAD). The method was validated with the BAs at three concentration levels: 50, 100, and 200 mg/kg, respectively. The obtained values of correlation coefficient (R2) ranged at 0.9997−0.9998 for all of compounds. The limits of detection (LOD) and quantification (LOQ) were in ranges 1.53−1.88 and 5.13−6.28 mg/kg, respectively. The recovery for all of biogenic amines ranged from 70 to 120% and the precision (RSDr) value were <20%. The validated method was applied to analysis of 35 real ripened cheese samples purchased in Poland.

Relationship between the Dynamics of Gross Composition, Free Fatty Acids and Biogenic Amines, and Microbial Shifts during the Ripening of Raw Ewe Milk-Derived Idiazabal Cheese

This study reports for the first time the relationship between bacterial succession, characterized by high-throughput sequencing (sequencing of V3-V4 16S rRNA regions), and the evolution of gross composition, free fatty acids (FFAs) and biogenic amines (BAs) during cheese ripening. Specifically, Idiazabal PDO cheese, a raw ewe milk-derived semi-hard o hard cheese, was analysed. Altogether, 8 gross parameters were monitored (pH, dry matter, protein, fat, Ca, Mg, P and NaCl) and 21 FFAs and 8 BAs were detected. The ripening time influenced the concentration of most physico-chemical parameters, whereas the producer mainly affected the gross composition and FFAs. Through an O2PLS approach, the non-starter lactic acid bacteria Lactobacillus, Enterococcus and Streptococcus were reported as positively related to the evolution of gross composition and FFAs release, while only Lactobacillus was positively related to BAs production. Several environmental or non-desirable bacteria showed negative correlations, which could indicate the negative impact of gross composition on their growth, the antimicrobial effect of FFAs and/or the metabolic use of FFAs by these genera, and their ability to degrade BAs. Nonetheless, Obesumbacterium and Chromohalobacter were positively associated with the synthesis of FFAs and BAs, respectively. This research work provides novel information that may contribute to the understanding of possible functional relationships between bacterial communities and the evolution of several cheese quality and safety parameters.

Safety Evaluation by Phenotypic and Genomic Characterization of Four Lactobacilli Strains with Probiotic Properties

Probiotic Lactobacillus species are known to exert health benefits in hosts when administered in adequate quantities. A systematic safety assessment of the strains must be performed before the Lactobacillus strains can be designated as probiotics for human consumption. In this study, we selected Lactobacillus fermentum IDCC 3901, L. gasseri IDCC 3101, L. helveticus IDCC 3801, and L. salivarius IDCC 3551 as representative Lactobacilli probiotic strains and investigated their probiotic properties and potential risks through phenotypic and genomic characterization. Various assays including antimicrobial resistance, biogenic amine production, L-/D-lactate production, acute oral toxicity, and antipathogenic effect were performed to evaluate the safety of the four Lactobacillus strains. Genomic analysis using whole genome sequencing was performed to investigate virulence and antibiotic resistance genes in the genomes of the selected probiotic strains. The phenotypes of the strains such as enzymatic activity and carbohydrate utilization were also investigated. As a result, antibiotic resistances of the four Lactobacillus species were detected; however, neither antibiotic resistance-related genes nor virulence genes were found by genomic analysis. Moreover, the four Lactobacillus species did not exhibit hemolytic activity or β-glucuronidase activity. The biogenic amine production and oral acute toxicity were not shown in the four Lactobacillus species, whereas they produced D-lactate with minor ratio. The four Lactobacillus species exhibited antipathogenic effect to five pathogenic microorganisms. This study provides a way to assess the potential risks of four different Lactobacillus species and validates the safety of all four strains as probiotics for human consumption.

Occurrence of biogenic amines and their correlation with bacterial communities in the Ivorian traditional fermented fish adjuevan during the storage

Adjuevan is an Ivorian traditional fermented fish used as a condiment. However, the fermentation process and storage conditions may lead to the production of biogenic amines (BA) which can induce severe human toxicological effects. Thus, this study aimed to reveal the bacterial community diversity and the BA contents during the storage. Samples of adjuevan from the fish species Chloroscombrus chrysurus, Galeoides decadactylus, and Thunnus thynnus were collected from local producers, stored at ambient temperature (28-30 °C) and in a refrigerator (4 °C) over a period of 8 weeks. At 2-week intervals, BA were determined by HPLC and the bacterial communities analyzed using high-throughput sequencing (NGS) of the V3-V4 region of the 16S rRNA gene. Results showed that histamine, cadaverine, putrescine, and tyramine were the major compounds. In adjuevan from T. thynnus, the level of histamine was over the maximum level of 200 mg/kg determined by Codex Alimentarius. For the other amines, no safety concerns are related. In total, 21 bacterial genera with a relative abundance ≥ 1% and belonging to 14 families and 5 phyla were detected. The Bacillaceae family was the most found at ambient temperature while Staphylococcaceae and Enterococcaceae were the most abundant in a refrigerator. The analysis of correlation showed that the increase of Lentibacillus leads to a decrease of the major BA at ambient temperature. On the contrary, the increase of Staphylococcus, Lactobacillus, Psychrobacter, Peptostreptococcus, and Fusobacterium leads to an increase of these biogenic compounds. Thus, Lentibacillus acted as BA-oxidizing bacteria while the others were found as BA-producing bacteria during adjuevan storage.

Comparison of Mobile Phone and CCD Cameras for Electrochemiluminescent Detection of Biogenic Amines

Biogenic amines are an important and widely studied class of molecules due to their link to the physiological processes of food-related illnesses and histamine poisoning. Electrochemiluminescent (ECL) detection offers an inexpensive and portable analytical method of detection for biogenic amines when coupled with recent advancements in low-cost carbon-based electrodes and a smartphone camera. In this work, a mobile phone camera was evaluated against a piece of conventional instrumentation, the charge-coupled device, for the detection of ECL from the reaction of biogenic amines with the luminescent compound tris(2,2'-bipyridyl)ruthenium(II). Assisted by a 3D-printed light-tight housing, the mobile phone achieved limits of detection of 127, 425 and 421 μM for spermidine, putrescine, and histamine, respectively. The mobile phone's analytical figures of merit were lesser than the CCD camera but were still within the range to detect contamination. In an exploration of real-world samples, the mobile phone was able to determine the contents of amines in skim milk on par with that of a CCD camera.

Soy protein degradation drives diversity of amino-containing compounds via Bacillus subtilis natto fermentation

Food fermentation has been playing an important role in producing bioactive components (e.g., peptides), which exert many healthy effects. In this study, it was observed that natto possessed significantly higher angiotensin I-converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitory effect than soybean. Meanwhile, a total of 246 amino-containing compounds were identified via LC-Q-TOF-MS/MS, including amino acids, dipeptides, tripeptides, O-methyl-peptide, and biogenic amines, 187 of them were only detected in natto. Of the list, dipeptides, with ACE inhibitory abilities or potentials, were found to be the most significantly up-regulated class and positively correlated with significantly increased ACE inhibitory activity of natto. Moreover, dynamic profiling elucidated the increased dipeptides were generated from water soluble and insoluble protein via Bacillus subtilis natto fermentation. Taken together, this study enriches the chemical diversity of natto and provides an in-depth insight into the degradation mechanism of soy protein during natto fermentation, which can be extended to other functional foods.

Study the key biogenic amines in luncheon meat by capillary electrophoresis with indirect UV detection

In this work, a simple, accurate and rapid capillary electrophoresis with indirect ultraviolet detection method was developed to simultaneous separate 10 biogenic amines. It was found that β-cyclodextrin and ethylene diamine tetraacetic acid facilitated the separation of tryptamine and tyramine, spermidine and spermine, respectively. The optimized background electrolytes were consisted of 20.0 mmol/L imidazole, 8.0 mmol/L β-cyclodextrin, 0.5 mmol/L ethylene diamine tetraacetic acid and 6.0% methanol (at pH 4.50 adjusted with acetic acid). The total analysis time of this method was less than 11 min with limits of detection in the range of 0.14-1.98 mg/L. The interday relative standard deviation of migration time and peak area were less than 1.36% and 4.44% (n = 6), respectively. To verify the applicability, this method was carried out to analyze biogenic amines in commercial luncheon meat samples. Due to the complex composition of luncheon meat, the real samples were rinsed with deionized water to reduce the influence of matrices. It was found that both storage temperature and protein content of the luncheon meat samples affected the biogenic amines content during storage. The results of this study are instructive for the storage of high-protein meat products. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved.

Effect of Storage Temperature and Time on Biogenic Amines in Canned Seafood

Biogenic amines in canned seafood are associated with food quality and human health. In this study, a total of nine biogenic amines (histamine (HIS), phenylethylamine (PHE), tyramine (TYM), putrescine (PUT), cadaverine (CAD), tryptamine (TRY), spermine (SPM), spermidine (SPD), and octopamine (OCT)) were used as standards. The biogenic amines of five canned seafood species (canned mud carp, canned sardine, canned mantis shrimp, canned scallop, and canned oyster) were investigated every three months for 12 months at different storage temperatures (4, 10, 25, and 30 °C). The biogenic amine contents were determined by the ultrasound-assisted dispersive solid-phase extraction method combined with reversed-phase high-performance liquid chromatography-photodiode array detection (UADSPE-RPLC-PDA). These results showed a detection rate of 100, 60, and 40% for HIS, PHE, PUT, and TYM; CAD, SPM, and SPD; OCT in all the samples, respectively. The contents of histamine and tyramine exceeded the recommended maximum limits (50 and 100 mg kg−1) in the canned mud carp and canned scallop when stored at 30 °C, indicating their potential health risks (p < 0.05). This result also indicates that low temperatures could inhibit the BAs content of canned seafood during storage. Overall, storage temperature and time can be used as the primary means to monitor and control the quality and safety of canned seafood.

Effects of bioactive molecules on the concentration of biogenic amines in foods and biological systems

Biogenic amines (BAs) are a group of molecules naturally present in foods that contain amino acids, peptides, and proteins as well as in biological systems. In foods, their concentrations typically increase during processing and storage because of exposure to microorganisms that catalyze their formation by releasing amino acid decarboxylases. The concentrations of BAs above certain values are indicative of unsafe foods due to associate neuronal toxicity, allergenic reactions, and increase risks of cardiovascular diseases. There are therefore various strategies that focus on the control of BAs in foods mostly through elimination, inactivation, or inhibition of the growth of microorganisms. Increasingly, there are works on bioactive compounds that can decrease the concentration of BAs through their antimicrobial activity as well as the inhibition of decarboxylating enzymes that control their formation in foods or amine oxidases and N-acetyltransferase that control the degradation in vivo. This review focusses on the role of food-derived bioactive compounds and the mechanism by which they regulate the concentration of BAs. The findings are that most active molecules belong to polyphenols, one of the largest groups of plant secondary metabolites, additionally other useful +compounds are present in extracts of different herbs and spices. Different mechanisms have been proposed for the effects of polyphenols depending on the model system. Studies on the effects in vivo are limited and there is a lack of bioavailability and transport data which are important to assess the importance of the bioactive molecules.

Approaching to biogenic amines as quality markers in packaged chicken meat

Following the chicken meat quality decay remains a tricky procedure. On one hand, food companies need of fast and affordable methods to keep constant higher sensory and safety standards, on the other hand, food scientists and operators find difficult conjugating these exigencies by means of univocal parameters. Food quality definition itself is, in fact, a multi-layered and composite concept in which many features play a part. Thus, here we propose an index that relies on biogenic amines (BAs) evolution. These compounds may indirectly inform about microbial contamination and wrong management, production, and storage conditions of meat and meat products. In this study, three cuts of chicken meat (breast filets, drumsticks, and legs) packed under modified atmosphere, under vacuum, and in air-packaging, stored at +4°C (until to 15 days), were analyzed. Some BAs were combined in an index (BAI) and their evolution was followed. The Thiobarbituric Acid Reactive Species assay (TBARS) was also used as a common reference method. Generally, BAI may better identify the beginning of quality impairment than lipid oxidation spreading. ANOVA statistical analysis has highlighted that the storage time is anyway the most detrimental factor for chicken decay when it is stored in refrigerated rooms (p > 0.01). Despite TBARS still remains a powerful tool for chicken goods, its exclusive use may not be enough to explain quality loss. On the contrary, BAI implementation in fresh meat can give a more complete information combining food safety exigencies with sensory attributes.

The Molecular Weaponry Produced by the Bacterium Hafnia alvei in Foods

Hafnia alvei is receiving increasing attention from both a medical and veterinary point of view, but the diversity of molecules it produces has made the interest in this bacterium extend to the field of probiotics, the microbiota, and above all, to its presence and action on consumer foods. The production of Acyl Homoserine Lactones (AHLs), a type of quorum-sensing (QS) signaling molecule, is the most often-studied chemical signaling molecule in Gram-negative bacteria. H. alvei can use this communication mechanism to promote the expression of certain enzymatic activities in fermented foods, where this bacterium is frequently present. H. alvei also produces a series of molecules involved in the modification of the organoleptic properties of different products, especially cheeses, where it shares space with other microorganisms. Although some strains of this species are implicated in infections in humans, many produce antibacterial compounds, such as bacteriocins, that inhibit the growth of true pathogens, so the characterization of these molecules could be very interesting from the point of view of clinical medicine and the food industry. Lastly, in some cases, H. alvei is responsible for the production of biogenic amines or other compounds of special interest in food health. In this article, we will review the most interesting molecules that produce the H. alvei strains and will discuss some of their properties, both from the point of view of their biological activity on other microorganisms and the properties of different food matrices in which this bacterium usually thrives.

Recent Progress in Amine Gas Sensors for Food Quality Monitoring: Novel Architectures for Sensing Materials and Systems

The increasing demand for food production has necessitated the development of sensitive and reliable methods of analysis, which allow for the optimization of storage and distribution while ensuring food safety. Methods to quantify and monitor volatile and biogenic amines are key to minimizing the waste of high-protein foods and to enable the safe consumption of fresh products. Novel materials and device designs have allowed the development of portable and reliable sensors that make use of different transduction methods for amine detection and food quality monitoring. Herein, we review the past decade's advances in volatile amine sensors for food quality monitoring. First, the role of volatile and biogenic amines as a food-quality index is presented. Moreover, a comprehensive overview of the distinct amine gas sensors is provided according to the transduction method, operation strategies, and distinct materials (e.g., metal oxide semiconductors, conjugated polymers, carbon nanotubes, graphene and its derivatives, transition metal dichalcogenides, metal organic frameworks, MXenes, quantum dots, and dyes, among others) employed in each case. These include chemoresistive, fluorometric, colorimetric, and microgravimetric sensors. Emphasis is also given to sensor arrays that record the food quality fingerprints and wireless devices that operate as radiofrequency identification (RFID) tags. Finally, challenges and future opportunities on the development of new amine sensors are presented aiming to encourage further research and technological development of reliable, integrated, and remotely accessible devices for food-quality monitoring.

Chemical Composition of Kombucha

Kombucha is a fermented sweetened tea with a mixed fermenting culture of yeast and acetic acid bacteria. While the history of kombucha is not completely clear, it is now available around the world and has shown an increase in availability and demand in the United States market. The proponents of kombucha consumption tout the varied health benefits it can provide. The final kombucha flavor and composition is a function of both the initial tea used and the fermentation process. While the ascribed benefits are varied and numerous, the number of direct studies has been limited. This review focuses on the current state of understanding of the chemical composition and the potential health effects both positive and negative reported in the literature.

Effect of Different Yeast Strains on Biogenic Amines, Volatile Compounds and Sensory Profile of Beer

Nowadays, there are many sorts of beer, however, some of them, despite the good sensory and other quality indicators, could contain high concentrations of undesirable compounds, such biogenic amines (BA). The yeast strain (YS), used for fermentation, can cause desirable as well as undesirable changes in beer. The aim of this study was to evaluate the contribution of different YS (A-Saccharomyces cerevisiae var. diastaticus, B-Saccharomyces cerevisiae var. bayanus, C-Brettanomyces claussenii) on the main quality parameters of beer. In addition, the BA concentration and the volatile compounds (VC, measured by gas chromatography–mass spectrometry) and their relation with beer overall acceptability (OA, evaluated by 20 trained judges) and emotions induced for consumers were analysed. The YS was a significant factor on alcohol formation in beer (p = 0.0001). The highest colour intensity was shown by C beer (10.2 EBC), and the latter beer showed the lowest OA. All of the beer samples induced the highest intensity of the emotion “neutral”, and the main VC of the beer were 3-methyl-1-butanol; L-α-terpineol; hexanoic acid 3-methylbutyl ester; and n-capric acid isobutyl ester. The highest total BAs content was found in beer fermented with C. Finally, all of the tested YS are suitable for beer production, however, taking into consideration the safety aspect of the beer, it should be mentioned that the highest concentration of BAs was found in beer fermented with C strain.