Molecular mechanism underlying anti-inflammatory and anti-allergic activities of phytochemicals: an update

Animal Models of Inflammation for Screening of Anti-inflammatory Drugs: Implications for the Discovery and Development of Phytopharmaceuticals

Inflammation is one of the common events in the majority of acute as well as chronic debilitating diseases and represent a chief cause of morbidity in today's era of modern lifestyle. If unchecked, inflammation leads to development of rheumatoid arthritis, diabetes, cancer, Alzheimer's disease, and atherosclerosis along with pulmonary, autoimmune and cardiovascular diseases. Inflammation involves a complex network of many mediators, a variety of cells, and execution of multiple pathways. Current therapy for inflammatory diseases is limited to the steroidal and non-steroidal anti-inflammatory agents. The chronic use of these drugs is reported to cause severe adverse effects like gastrointestinal, cardiovascular, and renal abnormalities. There is a massive need to explore new anti-inflammatory agents with selective action and lesser toxicity. Plants and isolated phytoconstituents are promising and interesting sources of new anti-inflammatories. However, drug development from natural sources has been linked with hurdles like the complex nature of extracts, difficulties in isolation of pure phytoconstituents, and the yield of isolated compounds in minute quantities that is insufficient for subsequent lead development. Although various in-vivo and in-vitro models for anti-inflammatory drug development are available, judicious selection of appropriate animal models is a vital step in the early phase of drug development. Systematic evaluation of phytoconstituents can facilitate the identification and development of potential anti-inflammatory leads from natural sources. The present review describes various techniques of anti-inflammatory drug screening with its advantages and limitations, elaboration on biological targets of phytoconstituents in inflammation and biomarkers for the prediction of adverse effects of anti-inflammatory drugs. The systematic approach proposed through present article for anti-inflammatory drug screening can rationalize the identification of novel phytoconstituents at the initial stage of drug screening programs.

An ethnobotanical study of medicinal plants used to treat skin diseases in northern Pakistan

Background

Skin diseases are a major health concern especially in association with human immune deficiency syndrome and acquired an immune deficiency. The aim of this study was to document the ethnomedicinal information of plants used to treat skin diseases in Northern Pakistan. This is the first quantitative ethnobotanical study of therapeutic herbs utilized by the indigenous people of Northern Pakistan for skin diseases.

Methods

Interviews were taken to obtain information from 180 participants. Quantitative methods including fidelity level (FL), Frequency of citation (FC), Use-value (UV), Jaccard indices (JI), Family importance value (FIV), Relative frequency of citation (RFC) and Chi-square test were applied. Medicinal plants uses are also compared with 50 national and international publications.

Results

In this study, we recorded 106 plant species belonged to 56 floral families for treatment of skin ailments. The dominant life form reported was herb while the preferred method of utilization was powder, along with leaf as the most used plant part. RFC ranges from 0.07 to 0.25% whereas the highest FIV was recorded for family Pteridaceae. FL values range from 36.8 to 100%. The study reported 88% of new plant reports for the treatment of skin diseases.

Conclusion

The present study revealed the importance of several plants used to treat skin diseases by the local communities of Northern Pakistan. The available literature supported the evidence of plant dermatological properties. Plants having high UV and RFC can be considered for further scientific analysis. There is dire need to create awareness among local, government and scientific communities for the preservation of medicinal species and ethnomedicinal knowledge in Northern Pakistan.

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (10.1186/s12906-019-2605-6) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Artonin E sensitizes TRAIL-induced apoptosis by DR5 upregulation and cFLIP downregulation in TRAIL-refractory colorectal cancer LoVo cells

Background

The TRAIL treatment is an ideal strategy for colorectal cancer (CRC) therapy because of minimal collateral damage to normal cells. Unfortunately, some CRC is TRAIL-refractory cancer, such as LoVo cells. In an effort to overcome TRAIL-refractory cancer, we investigated the effect of artonin E in regulating death receptor 5 (DR5) and cellular FLICE (FADD-like IL-1β-converting enzyme)-inhibitory protein (cFLIP), two major mediators regulate TRAIL-induced apoptosis, in LoVo cells as a model of TRAIL refractory CRC.

Methods

TRAIL-refractory cancer (LoVo cells) was treated with artonin E and TRAIL. Cell viability was determined by MTT assay. Apoptotic chromatin condensation was observed by fluorescent Hoechst33342 staining. The mRNA and protein expression of DR5 and FLIP was determined by quantitative PCR and Western blotting analysis, respectively.

Results

The combination treatment of artonin E and TRAIL enhanced cytotoxicity and apoptotic chromatin condensation in LoVo cells significantly, while treatment of artonin E or TRAIL alone was not. Artonin E enhanced both mRNA and protein expression of DR5. Interestingly, this is the first report showing that artonin E decreased protein expression of cFLIP. All together we showed that artonin E enhanced TRAIL-induced apoptosis in LoVo cells through DR5 upregulation and cFLIP downregulation.

Conclusions

Artonin E was able to increase DR5 expression and decrease cFLIP expression in LoVo cells. These results showed that LoVo cells sensitized TRAIL-induced apoptosis in combined treatment with artonin E and TRAIL. Therefore, the combination treatment of artonin E and TRAIL is one of the potential strategies used for TRAIL-refractory CRC therapy in the future.

Triterpenoid corosolic acid attenuates HIF-1 stabilization upon cobalt (II) chloride-induced hypoxia in A549 human lung epithelial cancer cells

Hypoxia-inducible factor-1 is a target for the management of cancer. Here, the anti-proliferation properties of corosolic acid (CA) against A549 human lung epithelial cancer cells in CoCl₂-induced hypoxia is reported. CA was isolated from the roots of Salvia syriaca based on a bioassay-guided isolation platform and identified by 1D and 2D NMR experiments. Several cytotoxicies and genotoxicity analyses were performed using MTT, DAPI, cell cycle, DNA ladder, and annexin V/PI detection. Cobalt chloride (CoCl₂) was used to stimulate hypoxia. The adaptation of A549 cells to a stimulated hypoxic condition in the presence of CA was evaluated. CA decreased the growth of A549 cells with an IC₅₀ of 12 μg/mL at 48 h. Also, chromatin condensation and DNA fragmentation were detected as signs of apoptosis occurrence. CA induced ~85% apoptosis and even 1% necrosis. The expression of hypoxia-inducible factor-1 α (HIF-1α), HIF-1β and downstream genes was strongly suppressed in the presence of CA in CoCl₂-stimulated hypoxia condition. Results indicated that CA has remarkable cytotoxicity against the cancerous cell in hypoxia condition and may be regarded for preparation of new formulations for possible uses as supplement and medicine in cancer therapy.

Antinociceptive activity of methanol extract of Chlorophytum alismifolium tubers in murine model of pain: Possible involvement of α2-adrenergic receptor and KATP channels

The tubers of Chlorophytum alismifolium are used in Nigerian Herbal Medicine for the management of diabetes mellitus, painful and inflammatory conditions. The antinociceptive activity has been validated but the mechanism of this activity is yet to be explored. This study therefore, aimed to investigate the probable mechanism(s) of the antinociceptive activity of C. alismifolium tubers using experimental animal model of pain. HPLC and GC-MS analyses were carried out on the extract. Antinociceptive activity was investigated using acetic acid-induced writhing response test in mice. Three groups of mice were orally administered distilled water (10 ml/kg), C. alismifolium (400 mg/kg) and morphine (10 mg/kg) 60 min before administration of acetic acid and the resulting writhing were counted for 10 min. To establish the probable mechanism(s) of action of C. alismifolium, separate groups of animals were pretreated intraperitoneally with naloxone (2 mg/kg), prazosin (1 mg/kg), yohimbine (1 mg/kg), propranolol (20 mg/kg) and glibenclamide (5 mg/kg) 15 min before C. alismifolium administration. HPLC chromatogram of the extract revealed seventeen characteristic peaks with retention times ranging between 2.1 and 7.4 min. Administration of C. alismifolium significantly (p < 0.01) reduced the mean number of writhes compared to control group. Pretreatment with yohimbine and glibenclamide significantly (p < 0.05 and p < 0.01 respectively) reduced the antinociceptive activity of extract-alone treated group. However, pretreatment with prazosin, naloxone and propranolol showed no effect on its analgesic activity. The findings from this research revealed the possible involvement of α₂-adrenergic receptor and K_ATP channels in the antinociceptive activity of Chlorophytum alismifolium tuber extract.

Chemical and Bioactivity Evaluation of Eryngium planum and Cnicus benedictus Polyphenolic-Rich Extracts

This study evaluated the biological activities of Eryngium planum and of Cnicus benedictus extracts enriched in polyphenols obtained by nanofiltration. The HPLC-MS analysis showed that E. planum contains mainly flavonoids, especially rutin, while in C. benedictus extracts show the high concentration of the phenolic acids, principally the chlorogenic acid and sinapic acid. Herein, there is the first report of ursolic acid, genistin, and isorhamnetin in E. planum and C. benedictus. C. benedictus polyphenolic-rich extract showed high scavenging activity (IC₅₀=0.0081 mg/mL) comparable to that of standard compound (ascorbic acid) and a higher reducing power (IC₅₀= 0.082 mg/mL), with IC₅₀ having a significantly lower value than IC₅₀ for ascorbic acid. Both extracts were nontoxic to NCTC cell line. Among the investigated herbs, E. planum polyphenolic-rich extract showed the highest inhibitory activities with the IC₅₀ value of 31.3 μg/mL for lipoxygenase and 24.6 μg/mL for hyaluronidase. Both polyphenolic-rich extracts had a higher inhibitory effect on α-amylase and α-glucosidase than that of the acarbose. The synergistic effect of ursolic acid, rutin, chlorogenic acid, rosmarinic acid, genistin, and daidzein identified in polyphenolic-rich extracts could be mainly responsible for the pharmacological potentials of the studied extracts used in managing inflammation and diabetes.

Tabernaemontana catharinensis leaves exhibit topical anti-inflammatory activity without causing toxicity

BACKGROUND

Tabernaemontana catharinensis, popularly known as snake skin, has been empirically used as an anti-inflammatory to treat cutaneous skin disorders. However, no study proves its effectiveness as a topical anti-inflammatory.

STUDY DESIGN

We investigated the topical anti-inflammatory effect of T.catharinensis leaves crude extract (TcE) in irritant contact dermatitis models in mice and its preliminary toxicity profile.

METHODS

The topical anti-inflammatory effect was evaluated by ear thickness measurement, inflammatory cell infiltration (MPO activity measurement and histological procedure) and cytokines levels. TcE qualitative phytochemical analysis was performed by UHPLC-ESI-HRMS and the TcE effect (therapeutic dose; 10 µg/ear) on preliminary toxicological parameters was also evaluated (on the 14° day of experiment).

RESULTS

TcE (10 μg/ear) prevented the development of ear edema induced by cinnamaldehyde, capsaicin, arachidonic acid, phenol, and croton oil with maximum inhibition of 100% to cinnamaldehyde, arachidonic acid, phenol, and croton oil and 75 ± 6% to capsaicin. Besides, the TcE (10 μg/ear) also prevented the increase of MPO activity by 96 ± 2%, 48 ± 7%, 100%, 87 ± 8%, and 93 ± 4%, respectively, to the same irritant agents. The positive controls also prevented both ear edema and the increased of MPO activity by 100% and 42 ± 8% (HC-030031), 54 ± 6% and 80 ± 4% (SB-366791), 100% and 54 ± 5% (indomethacin), 100% and 80 ± 4% (dexamethasone in skin inflammation model induced by phenol) and 100% and 97 ± 3% (dexamethasone in inflammation model induced by croton oil), respectively. TcE also prevented the inflammatory cells infiltration and the increase of MIP-2, IL-1β and TNF-α levels irritant agents-induced. TcE topical anti-inflammatory effect may be attributed to the combined effect of indole alkaloids, terpenes, and phenolic compounds found in the extract and identified by dereplication method. The TcE' therapeutic dose proved to be safe in preliminary toxicological tests.

CONCLUSION

Our results suggest that TcE could be an interesting strategy for the treatment of inflammatory diseases.

In Vivo Anti-inflammatory and Antiallergic Activity of Pure Naringenin, Naringenin Chalcone, and Quercetin in Mice

Flavonoids, found in almost all fruits and vegetables, belong to a class of plant secondary metabolites with a polyphenolic structure and have properties with health-improving potential. However, few experimental studies on the effects of flavonoids have been carried out in vivo after external application and using pure compounds. Aiming to fill this gap, in this study we tested the topical anti-inflammatory and antiallergic activity of three flavonoids of high purity, naringenin, naringenin chalcone, and quercetin, in mouse models. The topical anti-inflammatory effects were assessed against arachidonic acid- (AA) and tetradecanoylphorbol-13-acetate- (TPA) induced ear edema. The anti-inflammatory effect of naringenin against ear edema was noticeable at a 1% dose in the AA model and at half this dose in the TPA model. Quercetin (1.3%) did not exert any topical anti-inflammatory activity in the AA model, but its inhibitory effect in the TPA model was similar to that of naringenin (2%); in contrast, naringenin chalcone was more active against the AA-induced than TPA-induced inflammation. The flavonoid effect on IgE-mediated passive cutaneous anaphylaxis was also studied in mice, both intravenously and topically. Naringenin, naringenin chalcone, and quercetin all showed strong antiallergic activity after intravenous dosing (0.02%) and when applied topically (2%). The results of this study suggest that the flavonoids naringenin, naringenin chalcone, and quercetin may be useful alternatives for the topical treatment of inflammatory and allergic skin disorders.

Pretreatment with a grape seed proanthocyanidin extract downregulates proinflammatory cytokine expression in airway epithelial cells infected with respiratory syncytial virus

Respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) infections are associated with significant morbidity and mortality. Inflammation is mediated by cytokine secretion from RSV‑infected airway epithelial cells. Grape seed proanthocyanidin extract (GSPE) exhibits potent antioxidant capacity, as well as anti‑bacterial, anti‑viral, anti‑carcinogenic, anti‑inflammatory and anti‑allergic actions. However, few studies have explored the anti‑inflammatory effects of GSPE on airway epithelial cells infected with RSV. Airway epithelial A549 cells were pretreated with GSPE and its effects on cytokine production during RSV infection were investigated. A549 cells were infected with RSV, with or without GSPE pretreatment, and cultured for 24, 48 and 72 h. The expression of interleukin (IL)‑1β, IL‑6 and IL‑8, were measured by reverse transcription‑quantitative polymerase chain reaction, ELISA and western blotting. RSV infection induced significant increases in proinflammatory cytokine expression. However, GSPE pretreatment decreased the mRNA and protein expression levels of IL‑1ß, IL‑6 and IL‑8. GSPE regulated the immune response by reducing the RSV‑induced transcription of proinflammatory cytokines in airway epithelial cells, suggesting that GSPE helps to prevent RSV‑induced airway disease.

Nasturtium officinale R. Br. effectively reduces the skin inflammation induced by croton oil via glucocorticoid receptor-dependent and NF-κB pathways without causing toxicological effects in mice

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Inflammatory skin diseases treatments currently used cause adverse effects. Nasturtium officinale (watercress) is used popularly as an anti-inflammatory. However, until now, no study proved its effectiveness as a topical treatment to inflammatory skin diseases. The topical anti-inflammatory activity of N. officinale crude extract leaves (NoE) on an irritant contact dermatitis (ICD) model croton oil-induced in mice was investigated.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

ICD models were induced by a single (1 mg/ear; acute) or repeated (0.4 mg/ear; chronic; 9 days total) croton oil application. NoE and dexamethasone solutions' (diluted in acetone; 20 μL/ear) or NoE gel, dexamethasone gel and base gel (15 mg/ear) were topically applied immediately after croton oil application. The NoE topical anti-inflammatory effect was evaluated for inflammatory parameters (ear edema, inflammatory cells infiltration, and inflammatory cytokines levels). NoE topical anti-inflammatory mechanism (NF-κB pathway and effect glucocorticoid-like) were assessed by western blot and ear edema analyses, respectively. UHPLC-MS/MS chromatography, gels accelerated stability and preliminary study of adverse effects was also performed.

RESULTS

UHPLC-MS/MS of the NoE revealed the presence of coumaric acid, rutin, and ferulic acid. NoE gels stability study showed no relevant changes at low temperature. NoE, dexamethasone, NoE gel and dexamethasone gel inhibited the ear edema croton oil-induced by 82 ± 6% (1 mg/ear), 99 ± 1% (0.1 mg/ear), 81 ± 8% (3%) and 70 ± 6% (0.5%) for the acute model, and 49 ± 7% (1 mg/ear), 80 ± 4% (0.1 mg/ear), 41 ± 8% (3%) and 46 ± 14% (0.5%) for the chronic model, respectively. The same treatments also reduced the inflammatory cells infiltration by 62 ± 3% (1 mg/ear), 97 ± 2% (0.1 mg/ear), 60 ± 3% (3%) and 66 ± 6% (0.5%) for the acute model, respectively, and 25 ± 8% (1 mg/ear) to NoE and 83 ± 13% to dexamethasone to the chronic model. NoE and NoE gel reduced the pro-inflammatory cytokines levels (acute ICD model) by 62 ± 5% and 71 ± 3% (MIP-2) and 32 ± 3% and 44 ± 4% (IL-1β), while dexamethasone solution's and gel reduced by 79 ± 7% and 44 ± 4% to MIP-2 and 98 ± 2% and 83 ± 9% to IL-1β, respectively. NoE' and dexamethasone' solutions inhibited the reduction of IkB-α protein expression induced by croton oil by 100% and 80 ± 14%, respectively. Besides, the mifepristone (glucocorticoid receptor antagonist) pre-treatment prevented the topical anti-edematogenic effect of NoE' and dexamethasone' solutions by 61 ± 5% to NoE and 78 ± 16% to dexamethasone. The repeated topical application of NoE did not cause adverse effects.

CONCLUSION

Our results suggest the N. officinale use in the cutaneous inflammatory process treatment and demonstrate the NoE potential to develop a promising topical anti-inflammatory agent to treat inflammatory disorders.

The phytochemical and anti-inflammatory studies of Dillenia suffruticosa leaves

The Dillenia suffruticosa leaves (Dilleniaceae), a folk medicine recommended in Southeast Asia for treating inflammation, were phytochemically studied for the first time and assessed for suppression of λ-carrageenan-induced paw oedema in rats. The crude methanolic extract orally administered at 5,000 mg/kg, displayed no toxicity and at 250 to 1,000 mg/kg significantly suppressed the paw oedema. Two-isolated triterpenoids, betulinic acid (1) and koetjapic acid (2) orally administered at 50 mg/kg, significantly reduced the paw oedema, (p < 0.001) and (p < 0.005) at the fourth h onwards to 47.36% ± 2.23 and 53.43% ± 7.09, respectively, from 95.90% ± 6.88 oedema induced by λ-carrageenan alone. 1 and the isolated flavonoids of vitexin (3), tiliroside (4), and kaempferol (5), displayed moderately more of cyclooxygenase (COX)-2 than COX-1 enzyme inhibition, whereas 2 was slightly more inhibition of COX-1. The in silico molecular docking studies provided support to the in vitro COX studies that the isolated compounds formed H-bonding with the amino acid residues at the COX-2 catalytic sites. The triterpenoids were bound to the peroxidase, possibly inhibiting the peroxidase reaction, whereas the flavonoids interacted more at the cyclooxygenase, resembling celecoxib, therefore providing evidences that these compounds were responsible for the anti-inflammatory properties of D. suffruticosa.

Cariniana domestica fruit peels present topical anti-inflammatory efficacy in a mouse model of skin inflammation

To investigate the topical anti-inflammatory activity of the crude extract of Cariniana domestica fruit peels (CdE), its dichloromethane, n-butanol, and ethyl acetate (EtAc) fractions, and steroids (β-sitosterol, lupeol, and stigmasterol) isolated from the EtAc fraction in models of irritant contact dermatitis (ICD) croton oil-induced in mice. We induced skin inflammation by single (acute; 1 mg/ear) and multiple (chronic; 0.4 mg/ear) croton oil application. We topically applied C. domestica (CdE, fractions, and gel formulations) and β-sitosterol, lupeol, and stigmasterol immediately after applying croton oil. HPLC-DAD chromatography of the EtAc fraction and stability of the gel formulations were verified. HPLC-DAD of the EtAc fraction revealed the stigmasterol, lupeol, and β-sitosterol presence. CdE and EtAc fraction gels showed no organoleptic or pH changes at room temperatures. CdE and dichloromethane, n-butanol, and EtAc (1 mg/ear) fractions decreased the acute ear edema with maximum inhibition (I_max) of 97 ± 2, 86 ± 1, 81 ± 4, and 95 ± 2%, respectively. CdE and EtAc fraction gel presented similar effects, with respective I_max of 85 ± 6% (3%;15 mg/ear) and 82 ± 2% (1%;15 mg/ear). β-sitosterol (7.5 μg/ear), lupeol (10 μg/ear), and stigmasterol (5.7 μg/ear) also reduced this parameter by 46 ± 8, 51 ± 7, and 62 ± 7%, respectively. All topical treatments reduced the inflammatory cells' infiltration in the acute ICD model. CdE reduced the ear edema by 77 ± 4% (1 mg/ear) and the inflammatory cell infiltration in the chronic ICD model. CdE's anti-inflammatory effect was accompanied by a minimum development of adverse effects. C. domestica demonstrates a promising potential for the development of a topical anti-inflammatory agent. Graphical abstract Cariniana domestica, popularly known as jequitibá-roxo, presented topical anti-inflammatory activity in an acute and chronic irritant contact dermatitis croton oil-induced in mice. The crude extract (solutions and gel formulations) and different fractions obtained from fruit peels of C. domestica showed topical antiinflammatory activity on skin inflammation models with minimum adverse effects in preliminary toxicological studies (behavior and biochemical parameters). Moreover, the HPLC analysis revealed the presence of β-sitosterol, stigmasterol and lupeol, which also presented topical anti-inflammatory effect in the acute irritant contact dermatitis croton oil-induced. Our findings support the use of this species as a promising topical antiinflammatory agent.

Isolation of maltol derivatives from Stellera chamaejasme and the anti-atopic properties of maltol on skin lesions in DNCB-stimulated mice

The aim of this study was to isolate maltol derivatives from S. chamaejasme and to investigate the anti-atopic dermatitis (anti-AD) effect of maltol in a 2,4-dinitrochlorobenzene (DNCB)-sensitized mouse model of AD.

Gallic and vanillic acid suppress inflammation and promote myelination in an in vitro mouse model of neurodegeneration

Neuroinflammation affects millions of people around the world as a result of injury or stress. Neuroinflammation represents almost all types of neurological diseases such as multiple sclerosis and Alzheimer's disease. Neurodegenerative diseases comprise demyelination and synaptic loss. The inflammatory response is further propagated by the activation of glial cells and modulation of constitutively expressed extracellular matrix proteins. The aim of the present study was to identify the anti-inflammatory effects of purified compounds gallic acid (GA, 1.0 µM) and vanillic acid (VA, 0.2 µM) on the lysolecithin (LPC, 0.003%)-induced model of inflammation. Hippocampal neurons were co-cultured with glial cells, and LPC was added to induce inflammation. Neurite outgrowth was measured by morphometry software. The level of myelination and demyelination was identified by immunostaining and sodium dodecyl sulfate polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis and western blotting techniques using different antibodies. Whole-cell patch clamp recordings were used to observe the sustained repetitive firing pattern. The data showed that GA and VA significantly increased the neurite outgrowth after 48 h in culture. Both compounds significantly reduced the expression of cyclooxygenase-2, NFκB, tenascin-C, chondroitin sulfate proteoglycans and glial fibrillary acidic protein in astrocytes in the LPC-induced model of inflammation. The level of myelin protein in neurites and oligodendrocyte cell bodies was significantly upregulated by GA and VA treatment. The reduction in sustained repetitive firing in the LPC-induced model of inflammation was reversed by both GA and VA treatment. This study supports the hypothesis that VA and GA have anti-inflammatory activities and could be regarded as potential treatments for neurodegenerative disease.

Structure-Based Classification and Anti-Cancer Effects of Plant Metabolites

A variety of malignant cancers affect the global human population. Although a wide variety of approaches to cancer treatment have been studied and used clinically (surgery, radiotherapy, chemotherapy, and immunotherapy), the toxic side effects of cancer therapies have a negative impact on patients and impede progress in conquering cancer. Plant metabolites are emerging as new leads for anti-cancer drug development. This review summarizes these plant metabolites with regard to their structures and the types of cancer against which they show activity, organized by the organ or tissues in which each cancer forms. This information will be helpful for understanding the current state of knowledge of the anti-cancer effects of various plant metabolites against major types of cancer for the further development of novel anti-cancer drugs.

Mechanistic evaluation of phytochemicals in breast cancer remedy: current understanding and future perspectives

Breast cancer is one of the most commonly diagnosed cancers around the globe and accounts for a large proportion of fatalities in women. Despite the advancement in therapeutic and diagnostic procedures, breast cancer still represents a major challenge. Current anti-breast cancer approaches include surgical removal, radiotherapy, hormonal therapy and the use of various chemotherapeutic drugs. However, drug resistance, associated serious adverse effects, metastasis and recurrence complications still need to be resolved which demand safe and alternative strategies. In this scenario, phytochemicals have recently gained huge attention due to their safety profile and cost-effectiveness. These phytochemicals modulate various genes, gene products and signalling pathways, thereby inhibiting breast cancer cell proliferation, invasion, angiogenesis and metastasis and inducing apoptosis. Moreover, they also target breast cancer stem cells and overcome drug resistance problems in breast carcinomas. Phytochemicals as adjuvants with chemotherapeutic drugs have greatly enhanced their therapeutic efficacy. This review focuses on the recently recognized molecular mechanisms underlying breast cancer chemoprevention with the use of phytochemicals such as curcumin, resveratrol, silibinin, genistein, epigallocatechin gallate, secoisolariciresinol, thymoquinone, kaempferol, quercetin, parthenolide, sulforaphane, ginsenosides, naringenin, isoliquiritigenin, luteolin, benzyl isothiocyanate, α-mangostin, 3,3'-diindolylmethane, pterostilbene, vinca alkaloids and apigenin.

Morusin Functions as a Lipogenesis Inhibitor as Well as a Lipolysis Stimulator in Differentiated 3T3-L1 and Primary Adipocytes

Conflicting results for morusin activity during adipogenic differentiation are reported in 3T3-L1 adipocytes and cancer cells. To elucidate the influence of morusin on fat metabolism, their anti-obesity effects and molecular mechanism were investigated in 3T3-L1 cells and primary adipocytes. Morusin at a dose of less than 20 µM does not induce any significant change in the viability of 3T3-L1 adipocytes. The accumulation of intracellular lipid droplets in 3T3-L1 adipocytes stimulated with 0.5 mM 3-isobutyl-1-methylxanthine, 1 µM dexamethasone, 10 µg/mL insulin in DMEM containing 10% FBS (MDI)-significantly reduces in a dose-dependent manner after morusin treatment. The phosphorylation level of members in the MAP kinase signaling pathway under the insulin receptor downstream also decrease significantly in the MDI + morusin-treated group compared to MDI + vehicle-treated group. Also, the expression of adipogenic transcription factors (PPARγ and C/EBPα) and lipogenic proteins (aP2 and FAS) are significantly attenuated by exposure to the compound in MDI-stimulated 3T3-L1 adipocytes. Furthermore, the decrease in the G0/G1 arrest of cell cycle after culturing in MDI medium was dramatically recovered after co-culturing in MDI + 20 µM morusin. Moreover, morusin treatment induces glycerol release in the primary adipocytes of SD rats and enhances lipolytic protein expression (HSL, ATGL, and perilipin) in differentiated 3T3-L1 adipocytes. Overall, the results of the present study provide strong evidence that morusin inhibits adipogenesis by regulating the insulin receptor signaling, cell cycle and adipogenic protein expression as well as stimulating lipolysis by enhancing glycerol release and lipolytic proteins expression.

A Sensitive and Rapid UPLC-MS/MS Method for Determination of Monosaccharides and Anti-Allergic Effect of the Polysaccharides Extracted from Saposhnikoviae Radix

Background: Allergic disease is a common clinical disease. Natural products provide an important source for a wide range of potential anti-allergic agents. This study was designed to evaluate the anti-allergic activities of the water-soluble polysaccharides extracted and purified from Saposhnikoviae Radix (SRPS). The composition and content of monosaccharides were determined to provide a material basis. Methods: An ultra-high-performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (UPLC-MS/MS) method was established to determine the composition and content of SRPS. 2,4-dinitrofluorobenzene (DNFB) induced a delayed-type hypersensitivity (DTH) mouse model orally administrated SRPS for seven consecutive days. Ear swelling, organ index, and serum IgE levels were observed to evaluate the anti-allergic activities. Results: The UPLC-MS/MS analysis showed that SRPS was consisted of eight monosaccharides including galacturonic acid, mannose, glucose, galactose, rhamnose, fucose, ribose, and arabinose with a relative molar ratio of 4.42%, 7.86%, 23.69%, 12.06%, 3.10%, 0.45%, 0.71%, and 47.70%, respectively. SRPS could effectively reduce ear swelling, a thymus index, and a serum IgE levels. Conclusions: The method was simple, rapid, sensitive, and reproducible, which could be used to analyze and determine the monosaccharide composition of SRPS. The vivo experiments demonstrated that SRPS may effectively inhibit development of DNFB-induced DTH. SRPS is a novel potential resource for natural anti-allergic drugs.

Protective Effects of Miswak (Salvadora persica) against Experimentally Induced Gastric Ulcers in Rats

Gastric ulcers are among the most broadly perceived illnesses affecting individuals. Alcohol consumption is the main cause of gastric ulceration. This study assessed the protective effects of Salvadora persica (SP) extract against ethanol-induced gastric ulcer and elucidated the conceivable underlying mechanisms involved. For this purpose, 40 rats were allotted into 4 equal groups (control, ethanol- (EtOH-) treated, and SP-treated "SP200 and SP400" groups). The control and EtOH-treated groups were given phosphate buffer saline (PBS), and both the SP200 and SP400 groups were given SP extract dissolved in PBS at doses of 200 and 400 mg/kg b.w., respectively. All treatments were given orally for 7 constitutive days. On the 8th day, all rats were fasted for 24 h followed by oral gavage of PBS in the control group and chilled absolute ethanol solution (5 ml/kg b.w.) in the EtOH- and SP-treated groups to induce gastric lesions. One hour later, the rats were sacrificed and the stomachs were harvested. Gross and microscopic examinations of the EtOH-treated group showed severe gastric hemorrhagic necrosis, submucosal edema, destruction of epithelial cells, and reduced glycoprotein content at the mucus surface. These pathological lesions were defeated by SP extract treatment. Administration of SP extract modulated the oxidative stress and augmented the antioxidant defenses. The elevated ethanol-expressed tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) and interleukin-1β (IL-1β) genes, as well as bcl-2-like protein 4 (Bax) and inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS), were diminished in the SP-treated group. Curiously, SP extract upregulated endothelial nitric oxide synthase (eNOS) and transforming growth factor-β1 (TGF-β1) gene expression comparable to that of the EtOH-treated rats. Aggregately, SP exerted antiulcer activities in ethanol-induced gastric ulcer rat models via modulation of oxidant/antioxidant status, mitigation of proinflammatory cytokines, and apoptosis, as well as remodeling of both NOS isoforms.

Vegetarian Dietary Patterns and Cardiovascular Disease

Cardiovascular (CV) disease (CVD) is the leading global cause of mortality, being responsible for 46% of non-communicable disease deaths. It has been estimated that about 85.6 million Americans are living with some form of CVD, which continues to rise. Healthy lifestyle choices may reduce the risk of myocardial infarction by >80%, with nutrition playing a key role. Vegetarian dietary patterns reduce CVD mortality and the risk of coronary heart disease (CHD) by 40%. Plant-based diets are the only dietary pattern to have shown reversal of CHD. Additionally, evidence suggests benefits of vegetarian dietary patterns in both the prevention and the treatment of heart failure and cerebrovascular disease. Plant-based diets are associated with lower blood pressure, lower blood lipids, and reduced platelet aggregation than non-vegetarian diets and are beneficial in weight management, reduce the risk of developing metabolic syndrome, and type 2 diabetes. They have also been shown an effective treatment method in diabetes management. Well planned vegetarian diets provide benefits in preventing and reversing atherosclerosis and in decreasing CVD risk factors and should be promoted through dietary guidelines and recommendations.

Phytochemical Analysis by HPLC-HRESI-MS and Anti-Inflammatory Activity of Tabernaemontana catharinensis

Tabernaemontana catharinensis (Apocynaceae) has been popularly used by folk medicine because of its anti-inflammatory, analgesic, and antiophidic properties. This study aims to analyze the flavonoids composition of the hydroethanolic extract and of the ethyl acetate (EtOAc) and butanol (BuOH) fractions of T. catharinensis leaves, as well as to evaluate their anti-inflammatory activity using in vivo models. The phytochemical profile, determined by High-Performance Liquid Chromatography–High-Resolution Electrospray Ionization-Mass Spectrometry (HPLC–HRESI-MS), showed the presence of flavonoids mainly having an isorhamnetin nucleus. The anti-inflammatory activity was evaluated in carrageenan-induced paw edema (pre- and post-treatment) with oral administration of a T. catharinensis hydroethanolic extract (50, 100, and 150 mg/kg) and of organic fractions (50 mg/kg). The extract and fractions showed antiedematogenic activity by decreasing myeloperoxidase (MPO) production. In the zymosan-air-pouch model, the extract and fractions inhibited leukocyte migration and significantly decreased the levels of various proteins, such as MPO, interleukin (IL)-1β, and tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α. The cytotoxicity was evaluated by the 3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide (MTT) assay, which revealed no cytotoxicity of the extract and the fractions. These results suggest that the hydroethanolic extract and organic fractions of T. catharinensis leaves have sufficient anti-inflammatory activity to support the popular use of this plant in the treatment of inflammatory disorders.

Probing the Antiallergic and Anti-inflammatory Activity of Biflavonoids and Dihydroflavonols from Dietes bicolor

Dietes bicolor (Iridaceae) is an ornamental plant used by African local healers to treat diarrhea and dysentery. A new dihydroflavonol, (2R,3R)-3,5,7-trihydroxy-8-methoxyflavanone (1); two known dihydroflavonols, trans-3-hydroxy-5-methoxy-6,7-methylenedioxyflavanone (2) and trans-3-hydroxy-5,7-dimethoxyflavanone (3); the known isoflavone orobol 7,3'-di-O-methyl ether (4); the known biflavones lanaroflavone (5), robustaflavone (6), and amentoflavone (7); and β-sitosterol (8) were isolated from the CH₂Cl₂ fraction of D. bicolor leaves. The extract showed potent activity in antiallergic and anti-inflammatory assays. The structures of the isolates were identified by spectroscopic and spectrometric methods. Compounds 6 and 7 (400 μM) exhibited antiallergic activity by inhibiting antigen-induced β-hexosaminidase release at 45.7% and 46.3%, respectively. Moreover, 6 and 7 exerted anti-inflammatory activity as demonstrated by the inhibition of superoxide anion generation with an IC₅₀ value of 1.0 μM as well as the inhibition of elastase release with IC₅₀ values of 0.45 and 0.75 μM, respectively. The anti-inflammatory activity was further explained by the virtual docking of the isolated compounds to the binding sites in the human neutrophil elastase (HNE) crystal structure using Discovery Studio 2.5. It was concluded that the biflavonoids bind directly to HNE and inhibit its enzymatic activity based on the CDOCKER algorithm. The data provided evidence for the potential use of D. bicolor against certain diseases related to allergy and inflammation.

Traditional knowledge on herbal drinks among indigenous communities in Azad Jammu and Kashmir, Pakistan

BACKGROUND

Traditional knowledge about the use of medicinal plants for herbal drinks (HDs) is not well documented in the Azad Kashmir region despite their widespread use. This study highlights the taxonomic diversity and traditional knowledge on medicinal plants used for HDs while examining the diversity of diseases treated with HDs in the study area.

METHODS

Individual discussions were conducted with 255 informants (84 women and 171 men). Data gathered included (i) informant age and gender, (ii) HD species and respective plant parts used, (iii) health disorders treated, and (iv) mode of preparation and utilizations. Quantitative ethnobotanical indices including relative frequency of citation (RFC), informant consensus factor (ICF), and use value (UV) were used for data analyses.

RESULTS

Altogether, 73 medicinal plants belonging to 40 families and 66 genera were reported to be used in HD preparations, with Asteraceae being the richest family. The average number of HD species cited was 9.09 ± 0.17 per informant and did not vary either by age or gender. In addition, men and women, and adults and the young used the same pool of species (dissimilarity nearly zero). The most used plant parts were leaves (20.00%), roots (17.25%), and fruits (16.47%). Based on UV, the top five most used species were Valeriana jatamansi, Isodon rugosus, Onopordum acanthium, Acacia nilotica, and Viola canescens; and the UV was similar among gender and age categories too. The most utilized herbal preparation forms included decoctions, infusions, and tea. One hundred and eleven diseases grouped into 13 ailment categories were reported to be cured using HDs. The main category of disease treated with HDs was gastrointestinal (GIT) disorders (RFC = 17.43%). Relatively few species were used by a large proportion of informants for each category of ailment (ICF ≥ 0.60). Only one species was used for "glandular disorders" and "eye diseases" (ICF = 1). A novelty of about 22% (16 species) was recorded for HD species in the present work.

CONCLUSION

The diversity of medicinal plant species used as HDs and the associated traditional knowledge are of considerable value to the indigenous communities of the Azad Kashmir region. Therefore, there is a need for conservation and preservation of medicinal HD species as well as the wealth of indigenous knowledge. The conservation effort should be high for species in the ailments categories glandular disorders and eye diseases. The therapeutic uses of HDs have provided basic data for further research focused on phytochemical and pharmacological studies and conservation of the most important species.

Morusin induces paraptosis-like cell death through mitochondrial calcium overload and dysfunction in epithelial ovarian cancer

Epithelial ovarian cancer (EOC) is the leading cause of death among all gynecological cancers. Morusin, a prenylated flavonoid extracted from the root bark of Morus australis, has been reported to exhibit anti-tumor activity against various human cancers except EOC. In the present study, we explored the potential anti-cancer activity of morusin against EOC in vitro and in vivo and possible underlying mechanisms for the first time. We first found that morusin effectively inhibited EOC cell proliferation and survival in vitro and suppressed tumor growth in vivo. Then we observed that treatment of EOC cells with morusin resulted in paraptosis-like cell death, a novel mode of non-apoptotic programmed cell death that is characterized by extensive cytoplasmic vacuolation due to dilation of the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) and mitochondria and lack of apoptotic hallmarks. In addition, we discovered that morusin induced obvious increase in mitochondrial Ca²⁺ levels, accumulation of ER stress markers, generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS), and loss of mitochondrial membrane potential (Δψm) in EOC cells. Furthermore, pretreatment with 4, 4'-diisothiocyanostilbene-2, 2'-disulfonic acid (DIDS), a chemical inhibitor of voltage-dependent anion channel (VDAC) on the outer mitochondrial membrane, effectively inhibited mitochondrial Ca²⁺ influx, cytoplasmic vacuolation and cell death induced by morusin in EOC cells. Moreover, DIDS pretreatment also suppressed morusin-induced accumulation of ER stress markers, ROS production and depletion of Δψm. Consistently, tumor xenograft assays showed that co-treatment with DIDS partially reversed the inhibitory effects of morusin on tumor growth in vivo and inhibited the increased levels of ER stress markers induced by morusin in tumor tissues. Collectively, our results suggest that VDAC-mediated Ca²⁺ influx into mitochondria and subsequent mitochondrial Ca²⁺ overload contribute to mitochondrial swelling and dysfunction, leading to morusin-induced paraptosis-like cell death in EOC. This study may provide alternative therapeutic strategies for EOC exhibiting resistance to apoptosis.

A medicinal plant compound, capnoidine, prevents the onset of inflammation in a mouse model of colitis

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

The traditional uses of Corydalis dubia, Ajania nubigena and Pleurospermum amabile in the Bhutanese traditional medicine for treating disorders related to inflammatory conditions and the in vitro anti-inflammatory activity of their crude extracts inspired the isolation and the investigation of anticolitic properties of four pure compounds.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Three medicinal plants were collected from Himalayan Mountains of Bhutan. Capnoidine and scoulerine were isolated from C. dubia, linalool oxide acetate from A. nubigena and isomyristicin from P. amabile using natural product isolation protocols. Four compounds were investigated for their anti-inflammatory activities against IBD-colitis using chemically induced (TNBS) mice model of colitis. Capnoidine conferred the best preliminary protection against TNBS-induced colitis in mice and we have conducted in-depth pharmacological investigation of this compound including clinical symptoms, pathological signs, cytokine profiles, histological structure and inflammasomes using relevant bioassay protocols.

RESULTS

Capnoidine-treated mice had significantly: a) improved clinical symptoms (body weight loss, mobility, piloerection and faecal consistency); b) reduced colon pathology (adhesion, oedema, ulceration, and colon length); c) altered inflammatory cytokines profiles within the colons; d) reduced levels of p-IκB-α (Ser32) and p-NF-κB p65 (Ser536) and e) reduced histological inflammation in the colon when compared with mice administered TNBS only.

CONCLUSION

Capnoidine presents as a potential new anti-inflammatory drug lead candidate for diseases where current standard-of-care often fails and is associated with major side effects. It also validates the traditional uses of C. dubia against inflammatory conditions and underlines the value of pursuing bioactive compounds derived from traditionally used ethnobotanical medicines.

STAT3 and NF-κB are common targets for kaempferol-mediated attenuation of COX-2 expression in IL-6-induced macrophages and carrageenan-induced mouse paw edema

Cycloxygenase-2 (COX-2) is the inducible isoform of cycloxygenase enzyme family that catalyzes synthesis of inflammatory mediators, prostanoids and prostaglandins, and therefore, can be targeted by anti-inflammatory drugs. Here, we showed a plant polyphenol, kaempferol, attenuated IL-6-induced COX-2 expression in human monocytic THP-1 cells suggesting its beneficial role in chronic inflammation. Kaempferol deactivated and prevented nuclear localization of two major transcription factors STAT3 and NF-κB, mutually responsible for COX-2 induction in response to IL-6. Moreover, STAT3 and NF-κB were simultaneously deactivated by kaempferol in acute inflammation, as shown by carrageenan-induced mouse paw edema model. The concomitant reduction in COX-2 expression in paw tissues suggested kaempferol’s role in mitigation of inflammation by targeting STAT3 and NF-κB.

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IL-6-induced COX-2 expression was attenuated by kaempferol in macrophages.

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The attenuation is attributed to simultaneous deactivation of STAT3 and NF-κB.

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The nuclear translocation of both transcription factors are prevented by kaempferol treatment.

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Kaempferol targets STAT3 and NF-κB and inhibits COX-2 expression to reduce carrageenan-induced mouse paw edema.

Multiple target-centric strategy to tame inflammation

Single-target inhibition is an unsatisfactory therapeutic option to treat multifactorial pathologies, brought into limelight 'paradox of inflammation' beside dearth of innovation, rationalizes a shift toward 'multiple-target' design concept in anti-inflammatory research field. To improvise, two platform strategies, drugs mixture or multitarget drugs, are plausible. Dual cyclooxygenase/lipoxygenase inhibitor 'licofelone' developed after the backfire of rofecoxib due to safety concerns has fetched first light of triumph of the latter strategy. As hitting multiple targets in restraint is perhaps more viable strategy rather than single target, this review, outlines the most germane multiple target agents of synthetic and natural origin placing clear advantage in favors of multitarget strategy as real therapeutic solution for inflammation.

Morusin shows potent antitumor activity for human hepatocellular carcinoma in vitro and in vivo through apoptosis induction and angiogenesis inhibition

Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is one of the most aggressive cancers with high mortality worldwide. Research and development of novel agents for HCC therapy is in demand, urgently. Morusin has been reported to exhibit potential cytotoxic activity in several cancer cell lines. However, whether it has potential antiangiogenic activity especially in HCC remains unclear. In the current study, we found that morusin exerted growth inhibition effects on human HCC cells (HepG2 and Hep3B) in vitro and human HCC cell (HepG2) xenografts in vivo. Moreover, apoptosis induction was observed in a dose-dependent manner after morusin treatment along with an increase in the expression of active caspase-3 and the Bax/Bcl-2 expression ratio. More importantly, morusin inhibited proliferation, migration, and tube formation of human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVECs) in vitro and downregulated angiogenic proteins in HCC cells and HUVECs. In vivo, tumor angiogenesis was also attenuated after morusin treatment. In addition, morusin suppressed constitutive as well as IL-6-induced STAT3 phosphorylation in HCC cells and corresponding tumor tissues. Overall, morusin has a potential anticancer effect on human HCC cells in vitro and in vivo by inducing apoptosis and inhibiting anti-angiogenesis. The corresponding mechanism might be associated with the attenuation of the IL-6/STAT3 signaling pathway. Morusin might serve as a promising novel anticancer agent in HCC therapy, and requires further study.

In Vitro Anti-Inflammatory Activity of Morus alba L. Stem Extract in LPS-Stimulated RAW 264.7 Cells

Morus alba L., also known as white mulberry or Mhon, has long been used in traditional medicines. This study was aimed to investigate anti-inflammatory activities of mulberry stem ethanolic extract (MSE) in lipopolysaccharide- (LPS-) stimulated RAW 264.7 macrophage cell line. The MSE was first prepared and then investigated for cell viability using the MTT assay. The anti-inflammatory activities were investigated through the inhibition of inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS), cyclooxygenase- (COX-) 2 mRNA expression, and iNOS protein expression using reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) assay and immunoblotting analysis, respectively. The inhibition of nitric oxide production of the MSE was also investigated using the Griess reaction assay. The MSE concentration ranging from 10 to 40 µg/ml yielded cell viability higher than 80%. The MSE at concentrations of 20 and 40 µg/ml demonstrated anti-inflammatory activity through the inhibition of nitric oxide production via suppression of both the iNOS mRNA and protein. It was also found to inhibit the expression of COX-2 mRNA in LPS-induced RAW 264.7 cells. This study is the first to report the anti-inflammatory potential of the extract prepared from the stem of mulberry.

Morusin induces apoptosis by regulating expression of Bax and Survivin in human breast cancer cells

Morusin which has been isolated from the root bark of Morus alba L. (Moraceae) has previously demonstrated anticancer activity in various types of cancer cells such as hepatocellular carcinoma, glioma and prostate cancer. However, the effect of morusin on breast cancer cells remains unclear. In the present study, the potential of morusin as an anti-cancer agent in breast cancer was investigated. The results of the present study revealed that the treatment of morusin induced cell death in various human breast cancer cell lines, but exhibited little effect on normal human breast epithelial cells. In Annexin V-propidium iodide double staining assays, morusin significantly increased apoptosis in a dose-dependent manner in human breast cancer cells. The apoptosis marker proteins cleaved caspase 3 and 9 were consistently upregulated following treatment of cells with morusin in a time- and dose-dependent manner. Furthermore, morusin was demonstrated to modulate the expression of the anti-apoptotic protein Survivin and pro-apoptotic protein B-cell lymphoma 2-associated-x protein (Bax) in human breast cancer cells. These results indicate that morusin induces apoptosis by suppressing Survivin and inducing Bax proteins, suggesting that morusin is a potentially effective therapeutic agent for the treatment of patients with breast cancer.

Recent Advances in Nanoparticle-Mediated Delivery of Anti-Inflammatory Phytocompounds

Phytocompounds have been used in medicine for decades owing to their potential in anti-inflammatory applications. However, major difficulties in achieving sustained delivery of phyto-based drugs are related to their low solubility and cell penetration, and high instability. To overcome these disadvantages, nanosized delivery technologies are currently in use for sustained and enhanced delivery of phyto-derived bioactive compounds in the pharmaceutical sector. This review focuses on the recent advances in nanocarrier-mediated drug delivery of bioactive molecules of plant origin in the field of anti-inflammatory research. In particular, special attention is paid to the relationship between structure and properties of the nanocarrier and phytodrug release behavior.

The α-cyclodextrin complex of the Moringa isothiocyanate suppresses lipopolysaccharide-induced inflammation in RAW 264.7 macrophage cells through Akt and p38 inhibition

In the last decades, a growing need to discover new compounds for the prevention and treatment of inflammatory diseases has led researchers to consider drugs derived from natural products as a valid option in the treatment of inflammation-associated disorders. The purpose of the present study was to investigate the anti-inflammatory effects of a new formulation of Moringa oleifera-derived 4-(α-L-rhamnopyranosyloxy)benzyl isothiocyanate as a complex with alpha-cyclodextrin (moringin + α-CD) on lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-stimulated RAW 264.7 macrophage cells, a common model used for inflammation studies. In buffered/aqueous solution, the moringin + α-CD complex has enhanced the water solubility and stability of this isothiocyanate by forming a stable inclusion system. Our results showed that moringin + α-CD inhibits the production of inflammatory mediators in LPS-stimulated macrophages by down-regulation of pro-inflammatory cytokines (TNF-α and IL-1β), by preventing IκB-α phosphorylation, translocation of the nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB), and also via the suppression of Akt and p38 phosphorylation. In addition, as a consequence of upstream inhibition of the inflammatory pathway following treatment with moringin + α-CD, the modulation of the oxidative stress (results focused on the expression of iNOS and nitrotyrosine) and apoptotic pathway (Bax and Bcl-2) was demonstrated. Therefore, moringin + α-CD appears to be a new relevant helpful tool to use in clinical practice for inflammation-associated disorders.

Pulmonary delivery systems for polyphenols

This review reports on the beneficial pharmacological properties of naturally occurring polyphenols for the treatment of inflammatory pulmonary diseases. In addition, it presents an overview of the different types of inhalable formulations which have been developed in order to achieve efficient delivery of polyphenols to the respiratory tract. The main biological activities of polyphenols (anti-oxidant and anti-inflammatory) are covered, with particular emphasis on the studies describing their therapeutic effects on different factors and conditions characteristic of lung pathologies. Special focus is on the technological aspects which influence the pulmonary delivery of drugs. The various polyphenol-based inhalable formulations reported in the literature are examined with specific attention to the preparation methodologies, aerosol performance, lung deposition and in vitro and in vivo polyphenol uptake by the pulmonary epithelial cells.

Elucidation of the possible mechanism of analgesic actions of butanol leaf fraction of Olax subscorpioidea Oliv

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Preparations of Olax subscorpioidea have been used traditionally for the management of pains, inflammatory diseases, yellow fever, cancer and rheumatism. Previously, the analgesic activity of its leaf extract have been reported. Furthermore, an analgesic assay guided fractionation showed that the butanol soluble fraction is the most active. However, the mechanism of this activity remains to be elucidated. This present study investigated the possible pharmacological mechanisms involved in the analgesic activity of the butanol leaf fraction of Olax subscorpioidea (BFOS) using the acetic acid induced writhing test in mice.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Animals were orally administered distilled water (10ml/kg), BFOS (1,000mg/kg) and morphine (10mg/kg) 60minutes before i.p administration of acetic acid and the resulting writhing were counted for 10minutes. To establish the possible mechanism(s) of action of BFOS, separate group of animals were pretreated with naloxone (2mg/kg, i.p), prazosin (1mg/kg, i.p), yohimbine (1mg/kg, i.p), propranolol (20mg/kg, i.p), metergoline (2mg/kg, i.p), glibenclamide (5mg/kg, i.p) and l-arginine (50mg/kg, i.p) 15minutes before BFOS.

RESULTS

BFOS and morphine showed marked analgesic activities (p<0.001); the pretreatment of animals with naloxone, metergoline and l-arginine significantly (p<0.05 and p<0.001) reduced the analgesic activity of BFOS; however, pretreatment with prazosin, yohimbine, propranolol and glinbenclamide showed no effect on its analgesic activity.

CONCLUSION

Results obtained in this study suggest the involvement of opioidergic, serotonergic and nitric oxide-l-arginine pathways in the analgesic effect of butanol leaf fraction of Olax subscorpioidea.

Treating leishmaniasis in Amazonia: A review of ethnomedicinal concepts and pharmaco-chemical analysis of traditional treatments to inspire modern phytotherapies

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Cutaneous and mucocutaneous leishmaniasis are neglected tropical diseases that occur in all intertropical regions of the world. Amazonian populations have developed an abundant knowledge of the disease and its remedies. Therefore, we undertook to review traditional antileishmanial plants in Amazonia and have developed new tools to analyze this somewhat dispersed information.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

A literature review of traditional remedies for cutaneous/mucocutaneous leishmaniasis in the Amazon was conducted and the data obtained was used to calculate distribution indexes designed to highlight the most relevant uses in Amazonia. The cultural distribution index represents the distribution rate of a given taxon among different cultural groups and was calculated as the ratio of the number of groups using the taxon to the total number of groups cited. The geographical distribution index allowed us to quantify spatial distribution of a taxon's uses in Amazonia and was calculated geometrically by measuring the average distance between the points where uses have been reported and the barycenter of those points. The general distribution index was defined as an arithmetic combination of the previous two and provides information on both cultural and spatial criteria.

RESULTS

475 use reports, concerning 291 botanical species belonging to 83 families have been gathered depicted from 29 sources. Uses concern 34 cultural groups. While the use of some taxa appears to be Pan-Amazonian, some others are clearly restricted to small geographical regions. Particular attention has been paid to the recipes and beliefs surrounding treatments. Topical application of the remedies dominated the other means of administration and this deserves particular attention as the main treatments against Neotropical leishmaniasis are painful systemic injections. The data set was analyzed using the previously defined distribution indexes and the most relevant taxa were further discussed from a phytochemical and pharmacological point of view.

CONCLUSIONS

The Amazonian biodiversity and cultural heritage host a fantastic amount of data whose systematic investigation should allow a better large-scale understanding of the dynamics of traditional therapies and the consequent discovery of therapeutic solutions for neglected diseases. Distribution indices are indeed powerful tools for emphasizing the most relevant treatments against a given disease and should be very useful in the meta-analysis of other regional pharmacopeia. This focus on renowned remedies that have not yet benefitted from extended laboratory studies, could stimulate future research on new treatments of natural origin for leishmaniasis.

Human Stem Cell-Derived Endothelial-Hepatic Platform for Efficacy Testing of Vascular-Protective Metabolites from Nutraceuticals

Atherosclerosis underlies many cardiovascular and cerebrovascular diseases. Nutraceuticals are emerging as a therapeutic moiety for restoring vascular health. Unlike small-molecule drugs, the complexity of ingredients in nutraceuticals often confounds evaluation of their efficacy in preclinical evaluation. It is recognized that the liver is a vital organ in processing complex compounds into bioactive metabolites. In this work, we developed a coculture system of human pluripotent stem cell-derived endothelial cells (hPSC-ECs) and human pluripotent stem cell-derived hepatocytes (hPSC-HEPs) for predicting vascular-protective effects of nutraceuticals. To validate our model, two compounds (quercetin and genistein), known to have anti-inflammatory effects on vasculatures, were selected. We found that both quercetin and genistein were ineffective at suppressing inflammatory activation by interleukin-1β owing to limited metabolic activity of hPSC-ECs. Conversely, hPSC-HEPs demonstrated metabolic capacity to break down both nutraceuticals into primary and secondary metabolites. When hPSC-HEPs were cocultured with hPSC-ECs to permit paracrine interactions, the continuous turnover of metabolites mitigated interleukin-1β stimulation on hPSC-ECs. We observed significant reductions in inflammatory gene expressions, nuclear translocation of nuclear factor κB, and interleukin-8 production. Thus, integration of hPSC-HEPs could accurately reproduce systemic effects involved in drug metabolism in vivo to unravel beneficial constituents in nutraceuticals. This physiologically relevant endothelial-hepatic platform would be a great resource in predicting the efficacy of complex nutraceuticals and mechanistic interrogation of vascular-targeting candidate compounds. Stem Cells Translational Medicine 2017;6:851-863.

Mohamed G, I. M. Khedr A, M. Aljaeid B. Anti-oxidant and Anti-Inflammatory Cyclic Diarylheptanoids from Alnus japonica Stem Bark

A new cyclic diarylheptanoid namely alnuheptanoid B (3), along with four known cyclic diarylheptanoids: myricanone (1), (+)-S-myricanol (2), myricanone 5-O- -D-glucopyranoside (4), and (+)-S-myricanol 5-O- -D-glucopyranoside (5) were isolated from the EtOAc fraction of Alnus japonica Steud (family: Betulaceae) stem bark. Their structures were established by different spectroscopic analyses, as well as optical rotation measurement. Compounds 1, 2, 4, and 5 are isolated for the first time from A. japonica. The antioxidant and anti-inflammatory activities of compounds (1-5) were assessed using DPPH assay and carrageenin induced rat paw edema model, respectively. They displayed significant antioxidant activity in relation to propyl gallate (standard antioxidant) at concentration 50 µM. Compound 2 demonstrated anti-inflammatory effect at a dose 10 mg/kg compared with indomethacin (positive control).

Protein-bound Vaccinium fruit polyphenols decrease IgE binding to peanut allergens and RBL-2H3 mast cell degranulation in vitro

Peanut allergy is a worldwide health concern.

Antibacterial and Antiadhesive Activities of Extracts from Edible Plants against Soft Drink Spoilage by Asaia spp

This study was conducted to investigate the antibacterial and antiadhesive activities of ethanol extracts from five edible plant parts: cinnamon bark ( Cinnamomum zeylanicum ), licorice root ( Glycyrrhiza radix ), nettle leaves ( Urtica dioica ), green tea leaves ( Camellia sinensis ), and elderberry flowers ( Sambucus nigra ). The chemical constituents of the extracts were identified using high-performance liquid chromatography and liquid chromatography plus mass spectrometry. Six strains of Asaia lannensis and Asaia bogorensis bacteria isolated from spoiled commercial fruit-flavored noncarbonated mineral water were used. Bacterial adhesion to polystyrene as an attachment substrate in culture media supplemented with 10% plant extract was evaluated using luminometric measurement of the ATP extracted from adhered cells. The viability of the adhered and planktonic cells was assessed using the plate count method, and the relative adhesion coefficient was calculated. All tested crude extracts contained flavonols (kaempferol, quercetin, and their derivatives), flavanols (catechin and derivatives), flavanones (glabrol, licorice glycoside A, and liquiritin), and phenolic acids (gallic, quinic, chlorogenic, neochlorogenic, caffeic, coumaric, and ferulic). The culture medium with 10% elderberry extract provided the least favorable environment for all tested bacterial strains. Extracts from green tea, cinnamon, and licorice also had significant inhibitory effects on the adhesion of the tested bacterial strains. This research suggests that the addition of selected edible plant extracts could improve the microbial stability of noncarbonated soft drinks.

Aqueous extract from Ipomoea asarifolia (Convolvulaceae) leaves and its phenolic compounds have anti-inflammatory activity in murine models of edema, peritonitis and air-pouch inflammation

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Ipomoea asarifolia (Desr.) Roem. and Schult.(Convolvulaceae), popularly known as salsa or salsa-brava, is a plant of which the decoction of leaves is used in folk medicine to treat various inflammatory disorders such of dermatitis, scabies, symptoms of syphilis, skin ulcers and external wounds. However, little is known about possible compounds and mechanisms of action of the plant to support the activities reported by popular use.

AIM OF THE STUDY

The study aimed to identify bioactive molecules present in the crude extract of I. asarifolia leaves and investigate the anti-inflammatory potential of this extract in different experimental in vivo models to improve the understanding on that activity.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

Aqueous extract of I. asarifolia leaves was prepared by decoction (1:10 m/v) and its chromatographic profile was obtained by high performance liquid chromatography coupled with diode array detector (HPLC-DAD) and liquid chromatography diode array detector coupled with mass spectrometry (LC-DAD-MS). The potential anti-inflammatory activity of the extract was assessed using the following in vivo models: xylene-induced ear edema (20, 30 and 40mg/kg), evaluating the degree of edema formation; carrageenan-induced peritonitis (10, 20 and 30mg/kg), evaluating leukocyte migration and cytokine levels (IL-1β, IL-6, IL-12 and TNF-α) at 4h; zymosan-induced air pouch inflammation (20, 30 and 40mg/kg), evaluating the kinetics of leukocyte migration by total and differential counts at 6, 24 and 48h. The same tests were conducted using pure compounds identified in the aqueous extract from I. asarifolia leaves in different doses for each experimental model.

RESULTS

The compounds identified in the aqueous extract of I. asarifolia leaves by HPLC-DAD and LC-DAD-MS were rutin, chlorogenic acid and caffeic acid. The extract significantly reduced ear edema induced by xylene (81%, 85% and 86% for doses of 20, 30 and 40mg/kg, respectively, p<0.001), as well as cell migration in experimental models of peritonitis (70%, 78% and 83% for doses of 10, 20 and 30mg/kg, respectively, p<0.001) and air pouch inflammation (58%, 67% and 53% for doses of 20, 30 and 40mg/kg, respectively, p<0.001). In addition, the extract demonstrated the ability to significantly inhibit the production of cytokines IL-1β, IL-6, IL-12 and TNF-α (p<0.001). The secondary metabolites tested (rutin, chlorogenic acid and caffeic acid) also showed the ability to significantly (p<0.001) decrease the parameters analyzed above.

CONCLUSION

This is the first study to identify and confirm these phenolic compounds in I. asarifolia leaves extract and to suggest that these compounds contribute to the anti-inflammatory activity in vivo, as reported by ethnomedicinal use of this plant. Through the different experimental models performed, we can conclude that the results obtained with the aqueous extract from I. asarifolia leaves support its popular use for the treatment of inflammatory disorders.

Celastrol modulates inflammation through inhibition of the catalytic activity of mediators of arachidonic acid pathway: Secretory phospholipase A2 group IIA, 5-lipoxygenase and cyclooxygenase-2

Elevated production of arachidonic acid (AA)-derived pro-inflammatory eicosanoids due to the concerted action of secretory phospholipase A₂ group IIA (sPLA₂IIA), 5-lipoxygenase (5-LOX) and cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) is a common feature of many inflammatory disorders. Hence, modulation of the bioactivity of these 3 enzymes is an important strategy to control inflammation. However, the failure of drugs specific for an individual enzyme (sPLA₂IIA-, 5-LOX- or COX-2) and the success of 5-LOX/COX-2 dual inhibitors in effectively controlling inflammation in clinical trials prompted us to evaluate a common inhibitor for sPLA₂IIA, 5-LOX and COX-2 enzymes. Celastrol, a quinone methide triterpene, was selected in this regard through molecular docking studies. We provide the first evidence for celastrol's ability to inhibit the catalytic activity of sPLA₂IIA, 5-LOX and COX-2 enzymes. Celastrol significantly inhibited the catalytic activity of sPLA₂IIA (IC₅₀=6μM) in vitro, which is independent of substrate and calcium concentration. In addition, celastrol inhibited the catalytic activities of 5-LOX (IC₅₀=5μM) and COX-2 (IC₅₀=20μM) in vitro; sPLA₂IIA-induced edema and carrageenan-induced edema in mice; and lipopolysaccharide-stimulated production of PGE₂ in human neutrophils. Thus, celastrol modulates inflammatory responses by targeting multiple enzymes of AA pathway.