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Buratti FM, Manganelli M, Vichi S, Stefanelli M, Scardala S, Testai E, Funari E. Cyanotoxins: producing organisms, occurrence, toxicity, mechanism of action and human health toxicological risk evaluation. Arch Toxicol 2017; 91:1049-1130. [DOI: 10.1007/s00204-016-1913-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 258] [Impact Index Per Article: 36.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/27/2016] [Accepted: 12/13/2016] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
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52
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Popova AA, Koksharova OA. Neurotoxic Non-proteinogenic Amino Acid β-N-Methylamino-L-alanine and Its Role in Biological Systems. BIOCHEMISTRY (MOSCOW) 2017; 81:794-805. [PMID: 27677549 DOI: 10.1134/s0006297916080022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Abstract
Secondary metabolites of photoautotrophic organisms have attracted considerable interest in recent years. In particular, molecules of non-proteinogenic amino acids participating in various physiological processes and capable of producing adverse ecological effects have been actively investigated. For example, the non-proteinogenic amino acid β-N-methylamino-L-alanine (BMAA) is neurotoxic to animals including humans. It is known that BMAA accumulation via the food chain can lead to development of neurodegenerative diseases in humans such as Alzheimer's and Parkinson's diseases as well as amyotrophic lateral sclerosis. Moreover, BMAA can be mistakenly incorporated into a protein molecule instead of serine. Natural sources of BMAA and methods for its detection are discussed in this review, as well as the role of BMAA in metabolism of its producers and possible mechanisms of toxicity of this amino acid in different living organisms.
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Affiliation(s)
- A A Popova
- Institute of Molecular Genetics, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow, 123182, Russia.
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53
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Quantitative determination of the neurotoxin β-N-methylamino-L-alanine (BMAA) by capillary electrophoresis-tandem mass spectrometry. Anal Bioanal Chem 2016; 409:1481-1491. [PMID: 27909777 DOI: 10.1007/s00216-016-0091-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/13/2016] [Revised: 10/31/2016] [Accepted: 11/09/2016] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
Recent reports of the widespread occurrence of the neurotoxin β-N-methylamino-L-alanine (BMAA) in cyanobacteria and particularly seafood have raised concerns for public health. LC-MS/MS is currently the analytical method of choice for BMAA determinations but incomplete separation of isomeric and isobaric compounds, matrix suppression and conjugated forms are plausible limitations. In this study, capillary electrophoresis (CE) coupled with MS/MS has been developed as an alternative method for the quantitative determination of free BMAA. Using a bare fused silica capillary, a phosphate buffer (250 mM, pH 3.0) and UV detection, it was possible to separate BMAA from four isomers, but the limit of detection (LOD) of 0.25 μg mL-1 proved insufficient for analysis of typical samples. Coupling the CE to a triple quadrupole MS was accomplished using a custom sheath-flow interface. The best separation was achieved with a 5 M formic acid in water/acetonitrile (9:1) background electrolyte. Strong acid hydrolysis of lyophilized samples was used to release BMAA from conjugated forms. Field-amplified stacking after injection was achieved by lowering sample ionic strength with a cation-exchange cleanup procedure. Quantitation was accomplished using isotope dilution with deuterium-labelled BMAA as internal standard. An LOD for BMAA in solution of 0.8 ng mL-1 was attained, which was equivalent to 16 ng g-1 dry mass in samples using the specified extraction procedure. This was comparable with LC-MS/MS methods. The method displayed excellent resolution of amino acid isomers and had no interference from matrix components. The presence of BMAA in cycad, mussel and lobster samples was confirmed by CE-MS/MS, but not in an in-house cyanobacterial reference material, with quantitative results agreeing with those from LC-MS/MS. Graphical Abstract CE-MS separation and detection of BMAA, its isomers and the internal standard BMAA-d3.
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β-methylamino-L-alanine (BMAA) is not found in the brains of patients with confirmed Alzheimer's disease. Sci Rep 2016; 6:36363. [PMID: 27821863 PMCID: PMC5099567 DOI: 10.1038/srep36363] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/30/2016] [Accepted: 09/29/2016] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Controversy surrounds the proposed hypothesis that exposure to β-methylamino-L-alanine (BMAA) could play a role in various neurodegenerative conditions including Alzheimer's disease (AD). Here we present the results of the most comprehensive scientific study on BMAA detection ever undertaken on brain samples from patients pathologically confirmed to have suffered from AD, and those from healthy volunteers. Following the full validation of a highly accurate and sensitive mass spectrometric method, no trace of BMAA was detected in the diseased brain or in the control specimens. This contradicts the findings of other reports and calls into question the significance of this compound in neurodegenerative disease. We have attempted to explain the potential causes of misidentification of BMAA in these studies.
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Li A, Song J, Hu Y, Deng L, Ding L, Li M. New Typical Vector of Neurotoxin β-N-Methylamino-l-Alanine (BMAA) in the Marine Benthic Ecosystem. Mar Drugs 2016; 14:md14110202. [PMID: 27827914 PMCID: PMC5128745 DOI: 10.3390/md14110202] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/04/2016] [Revised: 10/01/2016] [Accepted: 10/27/2016] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
The neurotoxin β-N-methylamino-l-alanine (BMAA) has been identified as an environmental factor triggering neurodegenerative diseases such as Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis (ALS) and Alzheimer's disease (AD). We investigated the possible vectors of BMAA and its isomers 2,4-diaminobutyric acid (DAB) and N-2(aminoethyl)glycine (AEG) in marine mollusks collected from the Chinese coast. Sixty-eight samples of marine mollusks were collected along the Chinese coast in 2016, and were analyzed by an HILIC-MS/MS (hydrophilic interaction liquid chromatography with tandem quadrupole mass spectrometer) method without derivatization. BMAA was detected in a total of five samples from three species: Neverita didyma, Solen strictus, and Mytilus coruscus. The top three concentrations of free-form BMAA (0.99~3.97 μg·g-1 wet weight) were detected in N. didyma. DAB was universally detected in most of the mollusk samples (53/68) with no species-specific or regional differences (0.051~2.65 μg·g-1 wet weight). No AEG was detected in any mollusk samples tested here. The results indicate that the gastropod N. didyma might be an important vector of the neurotoxin BMAA in the Chinese marine ecosystem. The neurotoxin DAB was universally present in marine bivalve and gastropod mollusks. Since N. didyma is consumed by humans, we suggest that the origin and risk of BMAA and DAB toxins in the marine ecosystem should be further investigated in the future.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aifeng Li
- College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Ocean University of China, Qingdao 266100, China.
- Key Laboratory of Marine Environment and Ecology, Ocean University of China, Ministry of Education, Qingdao 266100, China.
| | - Jialiang Song
- College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Ocean University of China, Qingdao 266100, China.
| | - Yang Hu
- College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Ocean University of China, Qingdao 266100, China.
| | - Longji Deng
- College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Ocean University of China, Qingdao 266100, China.
| | - Ling Ding
- College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Ocean University of China, Qingdao 266100, China.
| | - Meihui Li
- College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Ocean University of China, Qingdao 266100, China.
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Rosén J, Westerberg E, Hellenäs KE, Salomonsson ML. A new method for analysis of underivatized free β-methylamino-alanine: Validation and method comparison. Toxicon 2016; 121:105-108. [PMID: 27592200 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2016.08.021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/13/2016] [Revised: 08/24/2016] [Accepted: 08/30/2016] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
A new method was developed for analysis of free β-Methylamino-alanine (BMAA) in biological matrices. The method is based on direct analysis of the underivatized molecule, using an amide column for separation by Hydrophilic Interaction Liquid Chromatography (HILIC) and detection by tandem mass spectrometry (MS/MS) using a deuterium labeled internal standard. The use of Ultra-High Performance Liquid Chromatography (UHPLC) combined with MS/MS detection allowed for high chromatographic resolution and a low limit of detection (0.025 μg/g wet weight (ww) in mussels). The method was validated by analyzing spiked blank mussels from the Baltic Sea (0.15-4.4 μg/g (ww), trueness 99%-105%, RSD 2%-8%). An inter-laboratory comparative analysis of extracts of mussel was performed. The mussels were extracted according to an established protocol for analysis of free BMAA, and the extracts were then analyzed in parallel by the new method and a validated procedure based on detection of BMAA derivatized with dansyl chloride. Both methods detected BMAA in similar concentrations. Thus, derivatization with dansyl chloride did not influence the results compared to direct detection. The new method presents an alternative to the commonly applied derivatization step, and is proved through validation and method comparison to reliably identify and quantify free BMAA at low concentration levels.
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Affiliation(s)
- Johan Rosén
- National Food Agency, Box 622, SE-751 26, Uppsala, Sweden.
| | | | | | - Matilda L Salomonsson
- Section of Chemical Analysis, Department of Chemistry, Environment and Feed Hygiene, National Veterinary Institute (SVA), SE-751 89 Uppsala, Sweden; Division of Analytical Pharmaceutical Chemistry, Uppsala University, BMC, SE-751 23 Uppsala, Sweden
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57
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Novak M, Hercog K, Žegura B. Assessment of the mutagenic and genotoxic activity of cyanobacterial toxin beta-N-methyl-amino-L-alanine in Salmonella typhimurium. Toxicon 2016; 118:134-40. [DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2016.04.047] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/31/2016] [Revised: 04/27/2016] [Accepted: 04/28/2016] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
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Cirés S, Ballot A. A review of the phylogeny, ecology and toxin production of bloom-forming Aphanizomenon spp. and related species within the Nostocales (cyanobacteria). HARMFUL ALGAE 2016; 54:21-43. [PMID: 28073477 DOI: 10.1016/j.hal.2015.09.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 85] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/21/2015] [Accepted: 09/22/2015] [Indexed: 05/16/2023]
Abstract
The traditional genus Aphanizomenon comprises a group of filamentous nitrogen-fixing cyanobacteria of which several memebers are able to develop blooms and to produce toxic metabolites (cyanotoxins), including hepatotoxins (microcystins), neurotoxins (anatoxins and saxitoxins) and cytotoxins (cylindrospermopsin). This genus, representing geographically widespread and extensively studied cyanobacteria, is in fact heterogeneous and composed of at least five phylogenetically distant groups (Aphanizomenon, Anabaena/Aphanizomenon like cluster A, Cuspidothrix, Sphaerospermopsis and Chrysosporum) whose taxonomy is still under revision. This review provides a thorough insight into the phylogeny, ecology, biogeography and toxicogenomics (cyr, sxt, and ana genes) of the five best documented "Aphanizomenon" species with special relevance for water risk assessment: Aphanizomenon flos-aquae, Aphanizomenon gracile, Cuspidothrix issatschenkoi, Sphaerospermopsis aphanizomenoides and Chrysosporum ovalisporum. Aph. flos-aquae, Aph. gracile and C. issatschenkoi have been reported from temperate areas only whereas S. aphanizomenoides shows the widest distribution from the tropics to temperate areas. Ch. ovalisporum is found in tropical, subtropical and Mediterranean areas. While all five species show moderate growth rates (0.1-0.4day-1) within a wide range of temperatures (15-30°C), Aph. gracile and A. flos-aquae can grow from around (or below) 10°C, whereas Ch. ovalisporum and S. aphanizomenoides are much better competitors at high temperatures over 30°C or even close to 35°C. A. gracile has been confirmed as the producer of saxitoxins and cylindrospermopsin, C. issatschenkoi of anatoxins and saxitoxins and Ch. ovalisporum of cylindrospermopsin. The suspected cylindrospermopsin or anatoxin-a production of A. flos-aquae or microcystin production of S. aphanizomenoides is still uncertain. This review includes a critical discussion on the the reliability of toxicity reports and on the invasive potential of "Aphanizomenon" species in a climate change scenario, together with derived knowledge gaps and research needs. As a whole, this work is intended to represent a key reference for scientists and water managers involved in the major challenges of identifying, preventing and mitigating toxic Aphanizomenon blooms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Samuel Cirés
- Departamento de Biología, Darwin, 2, Universidad Autónoma de Madrid, 28049 Madrid, Spain; College of Marine and Environmental Sciences, James Cook University, Townsville 4811, QLD, Australia.
| | - Andreas Ballot
- Norwegian Institute for Water Research (NIVA), Gaustadalléen 21, 0349 Oslo, Norway
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59
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Harke MJ, Steffen MM, Gobler CJ, Otten TG, Wilhelm SW, Wood SA, Paerl HW. A review of the global ecology, genomics, and biogeography of the toxic cyanobacterium, Microcystis spp. HARMFUL ALGAE 2016; 54:4-20. [PMID: 28073480 DOI: 10.1016/j.hal.2015.12.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 524] [Impact Index Per Article: 65.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/21/2015] [Accepted: 12/22/2015] [Indexed: 05/03/2023]
Abstract
This review summarizes the present state of knowledge regarding the toxic, bloom-forming cyanobacterium, Microcystis, with a specific focus on its geographic distribution, toxins, genomics, phylogeny, and ecology. A global analysis found documentation suggesting geographic expansion of Microcystis, with recorded blooms in at least 108 countries, 79 of which have also reported the hepatatoxin microcystin. The production of microcystins (originally "Fast-Death Factor") by Microcystis and factors that control synthesis of this toxin are reviewed, as well as the putative ecophysiological roles of this metabolite. Molecular biological analyses have provided significant insight into the ecology and physiology of Microcystis, as well as revealed the highly dynamic, and potentially unstable, nature of its genome. A genetic sequence analysis of 27 Microcystis species, including 15 complete/draft genomes are presented. Using the strictest biological definition of what constitutes a bacterial species, these analyses indicate that all Microcystis species warrant placement into the same species complex since the average nucleotide identity values were above 95%, 16S rRNA nucleotide identity scores exceeded 99%, and DNA-DNA hybridization was consistently greater than 70%. The review further provides evidence from around the globe for the key role that both nitrogen and phosphorus play in controlling Microcystis bloom dynamics, and the effect of elevated temperature on bloom intensification. Finally, highlighted is the ability of Microcystis assemblages to minimize their mortality losses by resisting grazing by zooplankton and bivalves, as well as viral lysis, and discuss factors facilitating assemblage resilience.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matthew J Harke
- Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences, Lamont-Doherty Earth Observatory, Columbia University, Palisades, NY 10964, United States
| | - Morgan M Steffen
- James Madison University, Department of Biology, 951 Carrier Dr., Harrisonburg, VA 22807, United States.
| | - Christopher J Gobler
- Stony Brook University, School of Marine and Atmospheric Sciences, 239 Montauk Hwy, Southampton, NY 11968, United States
| | - Timothy G Otten
- Oregon State University, Department of Microbiology, Nash Hall 226, Corvallis, OR 97331, United States
| | - Steven W Wilhelm
- University of Tennessee, Department of Microbiology, 1414 West Cumberland Ave., Knoxville, TN 37996, United States
| | - Susanna A Wood
- Cawthron Institute, Private Bag 2, Nelson, New Zealand and Environmental Research Institute, University of Waikato, Hamilton, New Zealand
| | - Hans W Paerl
- University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Institute of Marine Sciences, 3431 Arendell Street, Morehead City, NC 28557, United States
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60
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Pearson LA, Dittmann E, Mazmouz R, Ongley SE, D'Agostino PM, Neilan BA. The genetics, biosynthesis and regulation of toxic specialized metabolites of cyanobacteria. HARMFUL ALGAE 2016; 54:98-111. [PMID: 28073484 DOI: 10.1016/j.hal.2015.11.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 66] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/05/2015] [Accepted: 11/06/2015] [Indexed: 05/28/2023]
Abstract
The production of toxic metabolites by cyanobacterial blooms represents a significant threat to the health of humans and ecosystems worldwide. Here we summarize the current state of the knowledge regarding the genetics, biosynthesis and regulation of well-characterized cyanotoxins, including the microcystins, nodularin, cylindrospermopsin, saxitoxins and anatoxins, as well as the lesser-known marine toxins (e.g. lyngbyatoxin, aplysiatoxin, jamaicamides, barbamide, curacin, hectochlorin and apratoxins).
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Affiliation(s)
- Leanne A Pearson
- Biotechnology and Biomolecular Sciences, The University of New South Wales, Sydney 2052, NSW, Australia
| | - Elke Dittmann
- Institut für Biochemie und Biologie, Mikrobiologie, Universität Potsdam, Potsdam-Golm 14476, Germany
| | - Rabia Mazmouz
- Biotechnology and Biomolecular Sciences, The University of New South Wales, Sydney 2052, NSW, Australia
| | - Sarah E Ongley
- Biotechnology and Biomolecular Sciences, The University of New South Wales, Sydney 2052, NSW, Australia
| | - Paul M D'Agostino
- Biotechnology and Biomolecular Sciences, The University of New South Wales, Sydney 2052, NSW, Australia
| | - Brett A Neilan
- Biotechnology and Biomolecular Sciences, The University of New South Wales, Sydney 2052, NSW, Australia.
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61
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Carmichael WW, Boyer GL. Health impacts from cyanobacteria harmful algae blooms: Implications for the North American Great Lakes. HARMFUL ALGAE 2016; 54:194-212. [PMID: 28073476 DOI: 10.1016/j.hal.2016.02.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 267] [Impact Index Per Article: 33.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/02/2016] [Revised: 02/05/2016] [Accepted: 02/05/2016] [Indexed: 05/17/2023]
Abstract
Harmful cyanobacterial blooms (cHABs) have significant socioeconomic and ecological costs, which impact drinking water, fisheries, agriculture, tourism, real estate, water quality, food web resilience and habitats, and contribute to anoxia and fish kills. Many of these costs are well described, but in fact are largely unmeasured. Worldwide cHABs can produce toxins (cyanotoxins), which cause acute or chronic health effects in mammals (including humans) and other organisms. There are few attempts to characterize the full health-related effects other than acute incidences, which may go unrecorded. At present these are difficult to access and evaluate and may be ascribed to other causes. Such information is fundamental to measure the full costs of cHABs and inform the need for often-costly management and remediation. This paper synthesizes information on cHABs occurrence, toxicology and health effects, and relates this to past and current conditions in the Great Lakes, a major global resource which supplies 84% of the surface water in North America. This geographic region has seen a significant resurgence of cHABs since the 1980s. In particular we focus on Lake Erie, where increased reporting of cHABs has occurred from the early 1990's. We evaluate available information and case reports of cHAB-related illness and death and show that cHABs occur throughout the basin, with reports of animal illness and death, especially dogs and livestock. Lake Erie has consistently experienced cHABs and cyanotoxins in the last decade with probable cases of human illness, while the other Great Lakes show intermittent cHABs and toxins, but no confirmed reports on illness or toxicity. The dominant toxigenic cyanobacterium is the genus Microcystis known to produce microcystins. The presence of other cyanotoxins (anatoxin-a, paralytic shellfish toxins) implicates other toxigenic cyanobacteria such as Anabaena (Dolichospermum) and Lyngbya.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wayne W Carmichael
- Department of Biological Sciences, Wright State University, Dayton, OH 45435, USA.
| | - Gregory L Boyer
- Department of Chemistry, State University of New York-College of Environmental Science and Forestry, Syracuse, NY 13210, USA
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62
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Faassen EJ, Antoniou MG, Beekman-Lukassen W, Blahova L, Chernova E, Christophoridis C, Combes A, Edwards C, Fastner J, Harmsen J, Hiskia A, Ilag LL, Kaloudis T, Lopicic S, Lürling M, Mazur-Marzec H, Meriluoto J, Porojan C, Viner-Mozzini Y, Zguna N. A Collaborative Evaluation of LC-MS/MS Based Methods for BMAA Analysis: Soluble Bound BMAA Found to Be an Important Fraction. Mar Drugs 2016; 14:md14030045. [PMID: 26938542 PMCID: PMC4820299 DOI: 10.3390/md14030045] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/15/2015] [Revised: 01/26/2016] [Accepted: 02/06/2016] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Exposure to β-N-methylamino-l-alanine (BMAA) might be linked to the incidence of amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, Alzheimer’s disease and Parkinson’s disease. Analytical chemistry plays a crucial role in determining human BMAA exposure and the associated health risk, but the performance of various analytical methods currently employed is rarely compared. A CYANOCOST initiated workshop was organized aimed at training scientists in BMAA analysis, creating mutual understanding and paving the way towards interlaboratory comparison exercises. During this workshop, we tested different methods (extraction followed by derivatization and liquid chromatography coupled to tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) analysis, or directly followed by LC-MS/MS analysis) for trueness and intermediate precision. We adapted three workup methods for the underivatized analysis of animal, brain and cyanobacterial samples. Based on recovery of the internal standard D3BMAA, the underivatized methods were accurate (mean recovery 80%) and precise (mean relative standard deviation 10%), except for the cyanobacterium Leptolyngbya. However, total BMAA concentrations in the positive controls (cycad seeds) showed higher variation (relative standard deviation 21%–32%), implying that D3BMAA was not a good indicator for the release of BMAA from bound forms. Significant losses occurred during workup for the derivatized method, resulting in low recovery (<10%). Most BMAA was found in a trichloroacetic acid soluble, bound form and we recommend including this fraction during analysis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elisabeth J Faassen
- Aquatic Ecology & Water Quality Management Group, Wageningen University, P.O. Box 47, Wageningen 6700 DD, The Netherlands.
| | - Maria G Antoniou
- Department of Environmental Science and Technology, Cyprus University of Technology, 3036 Lemesos, Cyprus.
| | - Wendy Beekman-Lukassen
- Aquatic Ecology & Water Quality Management Group, Wageningen University, P.O. Box 47, Wageningen 6700 DD, The Netherlands.
| | - Lucie Blahova
- Faculty of Science, RECETOX, Masaryk University, Kamenice 5, 625 00 Brno, Czech Republic.
| | - Ekaterina Chernova
- Saint-Petersburg Scientific-Research Centre for Ecological Safety, Russian Academy of Sciences, 18, Korpusnaya street, St. Petersburg 197110, Russia.
| | - Christophoros Christophoridis
- Laboratory of Catalytic-Photocatalytic Processes and Environmental Analysis, Institute of Nanoscience & Nanotechnology, National Center for Scientific Research "Demokritos", Patriarchou Grigoriou & Neapoleos, 15310 Agia Paraskevi, Athens, Greece.
| | - Audrey Combes
- Department of Analytical, Bioanalytical Sciences and Miniaturization (LSABM), UMR CBI 8231 ESPCI ParisTech/CNRS, PSL Research University, ESPCI ParisTech, 75005 Paris, France.
| | - Christine Edwards
- Pharmacy & Life Sciences, Robert Gordon University, Aberdeen AB10 7GJ, UK.
| | - Jutta Fastner
- Drinking-Water Resources and Water Treatment, Federal Environment Agency, Schichauweg 58, 12307 Berlin, Germany.
| | - Joop Harmsen
- Alterra, P.O. Box 47, Wageningen 6700 DD, The Netherlands.
| | - Anastasia Hiskia
- Laboratory of Catalytic-Photocatalytic Processes and Environmental Analysis, Institute of Nanoscience & Nanotechnology, National Center for Scientific Research "Demokritos", Patriarchou Grigoriou & Neapoleos, 15310 Agia Paraskevi, Athens, Greece.
| | - Leopold L Ilag
- Department of Environmental Science and Analytical Chemistry, Stockholm University, SE-10691 Stockholm, Sweden.
| | - Triantafyllos Kaloudis
- Water Quality Department, Division of Quality, Research and Development (R&D), Athens Water Supply and Sewerage Company (EYDAP SA), 156 Oropou str., 11146 Athens, Greece.
| | - Srdjan Lopicic
- Institute for Pathological Physiology, School of Medicine, University of Belgrade, 11000 Belgrade, Serbia.
| | - Miquel Lürling
- Aquatic Ecology & Water Quality Management Group, Wageningen University, P.O. Box 47, Wageningen 6700 DD, The Netherlands.
- NIOO-KNAW, Droevendaalsesteeg 10, Wageningen 6708 PB, The Netherlands.
| | - Hanna Mazur-Marzec
- Department of Marine Biotechnology, University of Gdansk, Al. Marszalka Pilsudskiego 46, Gdynia 81-378, Poland.
| | - Jussi Meriluoto
- Biochemistry, Faculty of Science and Engineering, Åbo Akademi University, Tykistökatu 6A 3rd Floor, Turku 20520, Finland.
| | - Cristina Porojan
- Mass Spectrometry Research Centre (MSRC) and PROTEOBIO Research Groups, Department of Physical Sciences, Cork Institute of Technology, Rossa Avenue, Bishopstown, V92 F9WY, Co. Cork, Ireland.
| | - Yehudit Viner-Mozzini
- Kinneret Limnological Laboratory, Israel Oceanographic & Limnological Research, P.O. Box 447, Migdal 14950, Israel.
| | - Nadezda Zguna
- Department of Environmental Science and Analytical Chemistry, Stockholm University, SE-10691 Stockholm, Sweden.
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63
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Otten TG, Paerl HW. Health Effects of Toxic Cyanobacteria in U.S. Drinking and Recreational Waters: Our Current Understanding and Proposed Direction. Curr Environ Health Rep 2016; 2:75-84. [PMID: 26231244 DOI: 10.1007/s40572-014-0041-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
Cyanobacterial-derived water quality impairment issues are a growing concern worldwide. In addition to their ecological impacts, these organisms are prolific producers of bioactive secondary metabolites, many of which are known human intoxicants. To date only a handful of these compounds have been thoroughly studied and their toxicological risks estimated. While there are currently no national guidelines in place to deal with this issue, it is increasingly likely that within the next several years guidelines will be implemented. The intent of this review is to survey all relevant literature pertaining to cyanobacterial harmful algal bloom secondary metabolites, to inform a discussion on how best to manage this global public health threat.
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Affiliation(s)
- Timothy G Otten
- Department of Microbiology, Oregon State University, 226 Nash Hall, Corvallis, OR, 97331, USA,
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64
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Lage S, Burian A, Rasmussen U, Costa PR, Annadotter H, Godhe A, Rydberg S. BMAA extraction of cyanobacteria samples: which method to choose? ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND POLLUTION RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2016; 23:338-50. [PMID: 26304815 DOI: 10.1007/s11356-015-5266-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/24/2015] [Accepted: 08/17/2015] [Indexed: 05/03/2023]
Abstract
β-N-Methylamino-L-alanine (BMAA), a neurotoxin reportedly produced by cyanobacteria, diatoms and dinoflagellates, is proposed to be linked to the development of neurological diseases. BMAA has been found in aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems worldwide, both in its phytoplankton producers and in several invertebrate and vertebrate organisms that bioaccumulate it. LC-MS/MS is the most frequently used analytical technique in BMAA research due to its high selectivity, though consensus is lacking as to the best extraction method to apply. This study accordingly surveys the efficiency of three extraction methods regularly used in BMAA research to extract BMAA from cyanobacteria samples. The results obtained provide insights into possible reasons for the BMAA concentration discrepancies in previous publications. In addition and according to the method validation guidelines for analysing cyanotoxins, the TCA protein precipitation method, followed by AQC derivatization and LC-MS/MS analysis, is now validated for extracting protein-bound (after protein hydrolysis) and free BMAA from cyanobacteria matrix. BMAA biological variability was also tested through the extraction of diatom and cyanobacteria species, revealing a high variance in BMAA levels (0.0080-2.5797 μg g(-1) DW).
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Affiliation(s)
- Sandra Lage
- Department of Ecology, Environment and Plant Sciences, Stockholm University, 10654, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Alfred Burian
- Department of Ecology, Environment and Plant Sciences, Stockholm University, 10654, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Ulla Rasmussen
- Department of Ecology, Environment and Plant Sciences, Stockholm University, 10654, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Pedro Reis Costa
- IPMA - Instituto Português do Mar e da Atmosfera, 1449 006, Lisbon, Portugal
| | | | - Anna Godhe
- Department of Biological and Environmental Sciences, University of Gothenburg, 40530, Gothenburg, Sweden
| | - Sara Rydberg
- Department of Ecology, Environment and Plant Sciences, Stockholm University, 10654, Stockholm, Sweden.
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65
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BMAA detected as neither free nor protein bound amino acid in blue mussels. Toxicon 2016; 109:45-50. [DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2015.11.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/23/2015] [Revised: 09/30/2015] [Accepted: 11/05/2015] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
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66
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Réveillon D, Séchet V, Hess P, Amzil Z. Systematic detection of BMAA (β-N-methylamino-l-alanine) and DAB (2,4-diaminobutyric acid) in mollusks collected in shellfish production areas along the French coasts. Toxicon 2015; 110:35-46. [PMID: 26615827 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2015.11.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/16/2015] [Revised: 11/09/2015] [Accepted: 11/18/2015] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
The neurotoxin β-N-methylamino-l-alanine (BMAA) is naturally present in some microalgal species in the marine environment. The accumulation of BMAA has widely been observed in filter-feeding bivalves that are known to consume primary producers constituting the base of complex aquatic food webs. This study was performed to assess the occurrence of BMAA and isomers in mollusks collected from nine representative shellfish production areas located on the three French coasts (Channel, Atlantic and Mediterranean sites). The use of a highly selective and sensitive HILIC-MS/MS method, with D5DAB as internal standard, revealed the systematic detection of BMAA and DAB, in concentrations ranging from 0.20 to 6.7 μg g(-1) dry weight of digestive gland tissues of mollusks. While we detected BMAA in four strains of diatoms in a previous study, here BMAA was only detected in one diatom species previously not investigated out of the 23 microalgal species examined (belonging to seven classes). The concentrations of BMAA and DAB in mussels and oysters were similar at different sampling locations and despite the high diversity of phytoplankton populations that mollusks feed on at these locations. Only small variations of BMAA and DAB levels were observed and these were not correlated to any of the phytoplankton species reported. Therefore, extensive research should be performed on both origin and metabolism of BMAA in shellfish. The levels observed in this study are similar to those found in other studies in France or elsewhere. A previous study had related such levels to a cluster of Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis in the South of France; hence the widespread occurrence of BMAA in shellfish from all coasts in France found in this study suggests the need for further epidemiological and toxicological studies to establish the levels that are relevant for a link between the consumption of BMAA-containing foodstuffs and neurodegenerative diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Damien Réveillon
- Ifremer, Laboratoire Phycotoxines, rue de l'Ile d'Yeu, BP 21105, F-44311 Nantes, France.
| | - Véronique Séchet
- Ifremer, Laboratoire Phycotoxines, rue de l'Ile d'Yeu, BP 21105, F-44311 Nantes, France
| | - Philipp Hess
- Ifremer, Laboratoire Phycotoxines, rue de l'Ile d'Yeu, BP 21105, F-44311 Nantes, France
| | - Zouher Amzil
- Ifremer, Laboratoire Phycotoxines, rue de l'Ile d'Yeu, BP 21105, F-44311 Nantes, France
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67
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Salomonsson ML, Fredriksson E, Alfjorden A, Hedeland M, Bondesson U. Seafood sold in Sweden contains BMAA: A study of free and total concentrations with UHPLC-MS/MS and dansyl chloride derivatization. Toxicol Rep 2015; 2:1473-1481. [PMID: 28962490 PMCID: PMC5598248 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxrep.2015.11.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/27/2015] [Revised: 11/07/2015] [Accepted: 11/07/2015] [Indexed: 12/05/2022] Open
Abstract
β-N-Methylamino-l-alanine (BMAA) is a potential neurotoxin associated with the aquatic environment. Validated analytical methods for the quantification of both free and total concentrations of BMAA were used in an investigation of seafood purchased from different grocery stores in Uppsala, Sweden. The analysis was performed using ultra high performance liquid chromatography-electrospray ionization-tandem mass spectrometry (UHPLC-ESI-MS/MS) and detection of BMAA as a dansyl derivate. The determined concentrations of free BMAA (after a simple trichloroacetic acid extraction) in mussels and scallops were up to 0.46 μg g-1 wet homogenate. The total BMAA (after hydrochloric acid hydrolysis) levels were between 0.29 and 7.08 μg g-1 wet mussel homogenate. The highest concentration of total BMAA was found in imported cooked and canned mussels which contained about ten times the quantity of BMAA measured in domestic cooked and frozen mussels. In this study it was also concluded that BMAA could be detected in seafood origin from four different continents. The risks associated with human exposure to BMAA through food are unknown today. However, the results of this study show that imported seafood in Sweden contain BMAA, indicating that this area needs more investigation, including a risk assessment regarding the consumption of e.g., mussels, scallops and crab.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matilda L. Salomonsson
- Section of Chemical Analysis, Department of Chemistry, Environment and Feed Hygiene, National Veterinary Institute (SVA), SE-751 89 Uppsala, Sweden
- Division of Analytical Pharmaceutical Chemistry, Uppsala University, BMC, SE-751 23 Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Elisabeth Fredriksson
- Section of Chemical Analysis, Department of Chemistry, Environment and Feed Hygiene, National Veterinary Institute (SVA), SE-751 89 Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Anders Alfjorden
- Section of Fish, Department of Animal Health and Antimicrobial Strategies, National Veterinary Institute (SVA), SE-751 89 Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Mikael Hedeland
- Section of Chemical Analysis, Department of Chemistry, Environment and Feed Hygiene, National Veterinary Institute (SVA), SE-751 89 Uppsala, Sweden
- Division of Analytical Pharmaceutical Chemistry, Uppsala University, BMC, SE-751 23 Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Ulf Bondesson
- Section of Chemical Analysis, Department of Chemistry, Environment and Feed Hygiene, National Veterinary Institute (SVA), SE-751 89 Uppsala, Sweden
- Division of Analytical Pharmaceutical Chemistry, Uppsala University, BMC, SE-751 23 Uppsala, Sweden
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68
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Faassen EJ, García-Altares M, Mendes e Mello M, Lürling M. Trans generational effects of the neurotoxin BMAA on the aquatic grazer Daphnia magna. AQUATIC TOXICOLOGY (AMSTERDAM, NETHERLANDS) 2015; 168:98-107. [PMID: 26465128 DOI: 10.1016/j.aquatox.2015.09.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/21/2014] [Revised: 08/13/2015] [Accepted: 09/29/2015] [Indexed: 06/05/2023]
Abstract
β-N-Methylamino-l-alanine (BMAA) is a neurotoxin that is suspected to play a role in the neurological diseases amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, Alzheimer's disease and Parkinson's disease. BMAA has been detected in phytoplankton and globally, the main exposure routes for humans to BMAA are through direct contact with phytoplankton-infested waters and consumption of BMAA-contaminated fish and invertebrates. As BMAA can be transferred from mothers to offspring in mammals, BMAA exposure is expected to have transgenerational effects. The aim of our study was to determine whether maternal exposure to BMAA affects offspring fitness in zooplankton. We performed a multigenerational life history experiment and a multigenerational uptake experiment with the water flea Daphnia magna as a model species. In both experiments, offspring from nonexposed and exposed mothers were raised in clean and BMAA-containing medium. Direct exposure to 110μg/l BMAA reduced survival, somatic growth, reproduction and population growth. Maternal exposure did not affect D. magna fitness: animals from exposed mothers that were raised in clean medium had a higher mortality and produced lighter neonates than the controls, but this did not result in lower population growth rates. No evidence of adaptation was found. Instead, multigeneration exposure to BMAA had a negative effect: animals that were exposed during two generations had a lower brood viability and neonate weight than animals born from unexposed mothers, but raised in BMAA-containing medium. Maternal transfer of BMAA was observed, but BMAA concentrations in neonates raised in BMAA containing medium were similar for animals born from exposed and unexposed mothers. Our results indicate that zooplankton might be an important vector for the transfer of BMAA along the pelagic food chain, but whether BMAA plays a role in preventing zooplankton from controlling cyanobacterial blooms needs further investigation.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Mariana Mendes e Mello
- Wageningen University, P.O. Box 47, Wageningen, 6700 DD, The Netherlands; Universidade Federal de Juiz de Fora, Juiz de Fora, MG 36036-900, Brazil.
| | - Miquel Lürling
- Wageningen University, P.O. Box 47, Wageningen, 6700 DD, The Netherlands; NIOO-KNAW, Droevendaalsesteeg 10, Wageningen, 6708 PB, The Netherlands.
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69
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Beach DG, Kerrin ES, Quilliam MA. Selective quantitation of the neurotoxin BMAA by use of hydrophilic-interaction liquid chromatography-differential mobility spectrometry-tandem mass spectrometry (HILIC-DMS-MS/MS). Anal Bioanal Chem 2015; 407:8397-409. [PMID: 26396078 DOI: 10.1007/s00216-015-9012-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/22/2015] [Revised: 08/19/2015] [Accepted: 08/26/2015] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
The neurotoxin β-N-methylamino-L-alanine (BMAA) has been reported in cyanobacteria and shellfish, raising concerns about widespread human exposure. However, inconsistent results for BMAA analysis have led to controversy. Liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) is the most appropriate method for analysis of BMAA, but the risk of interference from isomers, other sample components, and the electrospray background is still present. We have investigated differential mobility spectrometry (DMS) as an ion filter to improve selectivity in the hydrophilic interaction liquid chromatographic (HILIC)-MS/MS determination of BMAA. We obtained standards for two BMAA isomers not previously analyzed by HILIC-MS, β-amino-N-methylalanine and 3,4-diaminobutanoic acid, and the typically used 2,4-diaminobutanoic acid and N-(2-aminoethyl)glycine. DMS separation of BMAA from these isomers was achieved and optimized conditions were used to develop a sensitive and highly selective multidimensional HILIC-DMS-MS/MS method. This work revealed current technical limitations of DMS for trace quantitation, and practical solutions were implemented. Accurate control of low levels of DMS carrier gas modifier was essential, but required external metering. The linearity of our optimized method was excellent from 0.01 to 6 μmol L(-1). The instrumental LOD was 0.4 pg BMAA injected on-column and the estimated method LOD was 20 ng g(-1) dry weight for BMAA in sample matrix. The method was used to analyze cycad plant tissue, a cyanobacterial reference material, and mussel tissues, by use of isotope-dilution quantitation with deuterated BMAA. This confirmed the presence of BMAA and several of its isomers in cycad and mussel tissues, including commercially available mussel tissue reference materials certified for other biotoxins. Graphical Abstract Differential Mobility Spectrometry is used to increases the selectivity of BMAA analysis by HILIC-MS/MS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel G Beach
- Measurement Science and Standards, National Research Council Canada, 1411 Oxford Street, Halifax, NS, B3H 3Z1, Canada.
| | - Elliott S Kerrin
- Measurement Science and Standards, National Research Council Canada, 1411 Oxford Street, Halifax, NS, B3H 3Z1, Canada.,Department of Chemistry, Dalhousie University, 6274 Coburg Road, Halifax, NS, B3H 4R2, Canada
| | - Michael A Quilliam
- Measurement Science and Standards, National Research Council Canada, 1411 Oxford Street, Halifax, NS, B3H 3Z1, Canada.,Department of Chemistry, Dalhousie University, 6274 Coburg Road, Halifax, NS, B3H 4R2, Canada
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70
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Réveillon D, Abadie E, Séchet V, Masseret E, Hess P, Amzil Z. β-N-methylamino-l-alanine (BMAA) and isomers: Distribution in different food web compartments of Thau lagoon, French Mediterranean Sea. MARINE ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH 2015; 110:8-18. [PMID: 26254582 DOI: 10.1016/j.marenvres.2015.07.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 66] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/22/2015] [Revised: 07/21/2015] [Accepted: 07/27/2015] [Indexed: 05/03/2023]
Abstract
The neurotoxin BMAA (β-N-methylamino-l-alanine) and its isomer DAB (2,4-diaminobutyric acid) have been detected in seafood worldwide, including in Thau lagoon (French Mediterranean Sea). A cluster of amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS), a neurodegenerative disease associated with BMAA, has also been observed in this region. Mussels, periphyton (i.e. biofilms attached to mussels) and plankton were sampled between July 2013 and October 2014, and analyzed using HILIC-MS/MS. BMAA, DAB and AEG (N-(2-aminoethyl)glycine) were found in almost all the samples of the lagoon. BMAA and DAB were present at 0.58 and 0.83, 2.6 and 3.3, 4.0 and 7.2 μg g(-1) dry weight in plankton collected with nets, periphyton and mussels, respectively. Synechococcus sp., Ostreococcus tauri, Alexandrium catenella and eight species of diatoms were cultured and screened for BMAA and analogs. While Synechococcus sp., O. tauri and A. catenella did not produce BMAA under our culture conditions, four diatoms species contained both BMAA and DAB. Hence, diatoms may be a source of BMAA for mussels. Unlike other toxins produced by microalgae, BMAA and DAB were detected in significant amounts in tissues other than digestive glands in mussels.
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Affiliation(s)
- Damien Réveillon
- Ifremer, Laboratoire Phycotoxines, Rue de l'Ile d'Yeu, BP 21105, F-44311, Nantes, France.
| | - Eric Abadie
- Ifremer, Laboratoire Environnement Ressources Languedoc-Roussillon, UMR MARBEC (IRD - Ifremer - Univ. Montpellier - CNRS), Avenue Jean Monnet, CS30171 Sète, Cedex 3, France
| | - Véronique Séchet
- Ifremer, Laboratoire Phycotoxines, Rue de l'Ile d'Yeu, BP 21105, F-44311, Nantes, France
| | - Estelle Masseret
- Université de Montpellier, UMR MARBEC (IRD - Ifremer - Univ. Montpellier - CNRS), cc93, Place Eugène Bataillon, 34095, Montpellier, Cedex 5, France
| | - Philipp Hess
- Ifremer, Laboratoire Phycotoxines, Rue de l'Ile d'Yeu, BP 21105, F-44311, Nantes, France
| | - Zouher Amzil
- Ifremer, Laboratoire Phycotoxines, Rue de l'Ile d'Yeu, BP 21105, F-44311, Nantes, France
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71
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Baptista MS, Vasconcelos RGW, Ferreira PC, Almeida CMR, Vasconcelos VM. Assessment of the non-protein amino acid BMAA in Mediterranean mussel Mytilus galloprovincialis after feeding with estuarine cyanobacteria. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND POLLUTION RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2015; 22:12501-10. [PMID: 25903181 DOI: 10.1007/s11356-015-4516-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/04/2015] [Accepted: 04/07/2015] [Indexed: 05/03/2023]
Abstract
To determine whether 2-amino-3-methylaminopropanoic acid (BMAA) could be taken up by marine organisms from seawater or their diet mussels Mytilus galloprovincialis, collected from the North Atlantic Portuguese shore, were exposed to seawater doped with BMAA standard (for up to 48 h) or fed with cyanobacteria (for up to 15 days). Mussels were able to uptake BMAA when exposed to seawater. Mussels fed with cyanobacteria Synechocystis salina showed a rise in BMAA concentration during feeding and a decline in concentration during the subsequent depuration period. Cells from the gills and hepatopancreas of mussels fed with S. salina showed lessened metabolic activity in mussels fed for longer periods of time. A hot acidic digestion (considered to account for total BMAA) was compared with a proteolytic digestion, using pepsin, trypsin and chymotrypsin. The latter was able to extract from mussels approximately 30% of total BMAA. Implications for BMAA trophic transfers in marine ecosystems are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mafalda S Baptista
- CIMAR/CIIMAR-Interdisciplinary Centre of Marine and Environmental Research, Universityof Porto, Rua dos Bragas 289, 4050-123, Porto, Portugal,
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72
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Berntzon L, Ronnevi L, Bergman B, Eriksson J. Detection of BMAA in the human central nervous system. Neuroscience 2015; 292:137-47. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2015.02.032] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/28/2015] [Accepted: 02/16/2015] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
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73
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Improved detection of β-N-methylamino-l-alanine using N-hydroxysuccinimide ester of N-butylnicotinic acid for the localization of BMAA in blue mussels (Mytilus edulis). Anal Bioanal Chem 2015; 407:3743-50. [DOI: 10.1007/s00216-015-8597-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/04/2014] [Revised: 02/10/2015] [Accepted: 02/24/2015] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
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74
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Lage S, Annadotter H, Rasmussen U, Rydberg S. Biotransfer of β-N-methylamino-L-alanine (BMAA) in a eutrophicated freshwater lake. Mar Drugs 2015; 13:1185-201. [PMID: 25738330 PMCID: PMC4377979 DOI: 10.3390/md13031185] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/25/2014] [Revised: 02/10/2015] [Accepted: 02/15/2015] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
β-N-Methylamino-l-alanine (BMAA), a neurotoxic non-protein amino acid, plays a significant role as an environmental risk factor in neurodegenerative diseases, such as amyotrophic lateral sclerosis. BMAA producers occur globally, colonizing almost all habitats and represent species from distinct phytoplanktonic groups, i.e., cyanobacteria, diatoms, and dinoflagellates. Bioaccumulation of BMAA in invertebrate and vertebrate organisms has also been registered around the globe. In the Baltic Sea, BMAA has been detected in several commercial fish species, raising the question of the bioaccumulation of BMAA in Swedish limnic systems. Here we find the presence of BMAA in water samples from Lake Finjasjön and identify its bioaccumulation patterns in both plankti-benthivorous and piscivorous fish, according to fish species, total weight, gender, and season of collection. For the first time, a large number of fish individuals were used in order to draw conclusions on BMAA bioaccumulation in a closed ecological community based on a statistical approach. We may, therefore, conclude that feeding patterns (plankti-benthivorous) and increased age of fish may lead to a higher tissue concentration of BMAA.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sandra Lage
- Department of Ecology, Environment and Plant Sciences, Stockholm University, 10654 Stockholm, Sweden.
| | | | - Ulla Rasmussen
- Department of Ecology, Environment and Plant Sciences, Stockholm University, 10654 Stockholm, Sweden.
| | - Sara Rydberg
- Department of Ecology, Environment and Plant Sciences, Stockholm University, 10654 Stockholm, Sweden.
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75
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Réveillon D, Abadie E, Séchet V, Brient L, Savar V, Bardouil M, Hess P, Amzil Z. Beta-N-methylamino-L-alanine: LC-MS/MS optimization, screening of cyanobacterial strains and occurrence in shellfish from Thau, a French Mediterranean lagoon. Mar Drugs 2014; 12:5441-67. [PMID: 25405857 PMCID: PMC4245540 DOI: 10.3390/md12115441] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/04/2014] [Revised: 10/28/2014] [Accepted: 11/06/2014] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
β-N-methylamino-l-alanine (BMAA) is a neurotoxic non-protein amino acid suggested to be involved in neurodegenerative diseases. It was reported to be produced by cyanobacteria, but also found in edible aquatic organisms, thus raising concern of a widespread human exposure. However, the chemical analysis of BMAA and its isomers are controversial, mainly due to the lack of selectivity of the analytical methods. Using factorial design, we have optimized the chromatographic separation of underivatized analogues by a hydrophilic interaction chromatography coupled to tandem mass spectrometry (HILIC-MS/MS) method. A combination of an effective solid phase extraction (SPE) clean-up, appropriate chromatographic resolution and the use of specific mass spectral transitions allowed for the development of a highly selective and sensitive analytical procedure to identify and quantify BMAA and its isomers (in both free and total form) in cyanobacteria and mollusk matrices (LOQ of 0.225 and 0.15 µg/g dry weight, respectively). Ten species of cyanobacteria (six are reported to be BMAA producers) were screened with this method, and neither free nor bound BMAA could be found, while both free and bound DAB were present in almost all samples. Mussels and oysters collected in 2009 in the Thau Lagoon, France, were also screened, and bound BMAA and its two isomers, DAB and AEG, were observed in all samples (from 0.6 to 14.4 µg/g DW), while only several samples contained quantifiable free BMAA.
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Affiliation(s)
- Damien Réveillon
- Ifremer (French Research Institute for the Exploitation of the Seas), Phycotoxins Laboratory, rue de l'Ile d'Yeu, BP 21105, F-44311 Nantes, France.
| | - Eric Abadie
- Ifremer (French Research Institute for the Exploitation of the Seas), Laboratoire Environnement Ressources du Languedoc Roussillon (LER-LR) F-34203 Sète, France.
| | - Véronique Séchet
- Ifremer (French Research Institute for the Exploitation of the Seas), Phycotoxins Laboratory, rue de l'Ile d'Yeu, BP 21105, F-44311 Nantes, France.
| | - Luc Brient
- UMR Eco-Bio-Université de Rennes I, F-35042 Rennes, France.
| | - Véronique Savar
- Ifremer (French Research Institute for the Exploitation of the Seas), Phycotoxins Laboratory, rue de l'Ile d'Yeu, BP 21105, F-44311 Nantes, France.
| | - Michèle Bardouil
- Ifremer (French Research Institute for the Exploitation of the Seas), Phycotoxins Laboratory, rue de l'Ile d'Yeu, BP 21105, F-44311 Nantes, France.
| | - Philipp Hess
- Ifremer (French Research Institute for the Exploitation of the Seas), Phycotoxins Laboratory, rue de l'Ile d'Yeu, BP 21105, F-44311 Nantes, France.
| | - Zouher Amzil
- Ifremer (French Research Institute for the Exploitation of the Seas), Phycotoxins Laboratory, rue de l'Ile d'Yeu, BP 21105, F-44311 Nantes, France.
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76
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McCarron P, Logan AC, Giddings SD, Quilliam MA. Analysis of β-N-methylamino-L-alanine (BMAA) in spirulina-containing supplements by liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry. AQUATIC BIOSYSTEMS 2014; 10:5. [PMID: 25120905 PMCID: PMC4130116 DOI: 10.1186/2046-9063-10-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/05/2014] [Accepted: 08/04/2014] [Indexed: 05/03/2023]
Abstract
Over the last decade the amino acid beta-N-methylamino-L-alanine (BMAA) has come under intense scrutiny. International laboratory and epidemiological research continues to support the hypothesis that environmental exposure to BMAA (e.g., through dietary practices, water supply) can promote the risk of various neurodegenerative diseases. A wide variety of cyanobacteria spp. have previously been reported to produce BMAA, with production levels dependent upon species, strain and environmental conditions. Since spirulina (Arthrospira spp.) is a member of the cyanobacteria phylum frequently consumed via dietary supplements, the presence of BMAA in such products may have public health implications. In the current work, we have analyzed ten spirulina-containing samples for the presence of BMAA; six pure spirulina samples from two separate raw materials suppliers, and four commercially-available multi-ingredient products containing 1.45 g of spirulina per 8.5 g serving. Because of controversy surrounding the measurement of BMAA, we have used two complementary liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) methods: one based on reversed phase LC (RPLC) with derivatization and the other based on hydrophilic interaction LC (HILIC). Potential matrix effects were corrected for by internal standardization using a stable isotope labeled BMAA standard. BMAA was not detected at low limits of detection (80 ng/g dry weight) in any of these product samples. Although these results are reassuring, BMAA analyses should be conducted on a wider sample selection and, perhaps, as part of ongoing spirulina production quality control testing and specifications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pearse McCarron
- National Research Council Canada, Measurement Science and Standards, Biotoxin Metrology, 1411 Oxford St, Halifax, NS B3H 3Z1, Canada
| | - Alan C Logan
- CAMNR, 23679 Calabasas Road Suite 542, Calabasas, CA 91302, USA
| | - Sabrina D Giddings
- National Research Council Canada, Measurement Science and Standards, Biotoxin Metrology, 1411 Oxford St, Halifax, NS B3H 3Z1, Canada
| | - Michael A Quilliam
- National Research Council Canada, Measurement Science and Standards, Biotoxin Metrology, 1411 Oxford St, Halifax, NS B3H 3Z1, Canada
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