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de Miranda AS, Zhang CJ, Katsumoto A, Teixeira AL. Hippocampal adult neurogenesis: Does the immune system matter? J Neurol Sci 2016; 372:482-495. [PMID: 27838002 DOI: 10.1016/j.jns.2016.10.052] [Citation(s) in RCA: 69] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/04/2016] [Revised: 09/28/2016] [Accepted: 10/25/2016] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
Abstract
Adult hippocampal neurogenesis involves proliferation, survival, differentiation and integration of newborn neurons into pre-existing neuronal networks. Although its functional significance in the central nervous system (CNS) has not comprehensively elucidated, adult neurogenesis has been attributed a role in cognition, learning and memory. There is a growing body of evidence that CNS resident as well as peripheral immune cells participate in regulating hippocampal adult neurogenesis. Microglial cells are closely associated with neural stem/progenitor cell (NSPC) in the neurogenic niche engaged in a bidirectional communication with neurons, which may be important for adult neurogenesis. Microglial and neuronal crosstalk is mediated in part by CX3CL1/CX3CR1 signaling and a disruption in this pathway has been associated with impaired neurogenesis. It has been also reported that microglial neuroprotective or neurotoxic effects in adult neurogenesis occur in a context-dependent manner. Apart from microglia other brain resident and peripheral immune cells including pericytes, perivascular macrophages, mast cells and T-cells also modulate this phenomenon. It is worth mentioning that under some physiological circumstances such as normal aging there is a significant decrease in hippocampal neurogenesis. A role for innate and adaptive immune system in adult neurogenesis has been also reported during aging. Here, we review the current evidence regarding neuro-immune interactions in the regulation of neurogenesis under distinct conditions, including aging.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aline Silva de Miranda
- Neuroinflammation Research Center, Department of Neuroscience, Lerner Research Institute, Cleveland Clinic, Cleveland, OH, USA; Laboratory of Neurobiology "Conceição Machado", Department of Morphology, Federal University of Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, MG, Brazil; Interdisciplinary Laboratory of Medical Investigation, School of Medicine, Federal University of Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, MG, Brazil.
| | - Cun-Jin Zhang
- Neuroinflammation Research Center, Department of Neuroscience, Lerner Research Institute, Cleveland Clinic, Cleveland, OH, USA; Department of Neurology, Key Laboratory of Neurorepair and Regeneration, Tianjin and Ministry of Education, Tianjin Neurological Institute, Tianjin Medical University General Hospital, Tianjin, China
| | - Atsuko Katsumoto
- Neuroinflammation Research Center, Department of Neuroscience, Lerner Research Institute, Cleveland Clinic, Cleveland, OH, USA
| | - Antônio Lúcio Teixeira
- Interdisciplinary Laboratory of Medical Investigation, School of Medicine, Federal University of Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, MG, Brazil.
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Martínez-Moreno M, Batlle M, Ortega FJ, Gimeno-Bayón J, Andrade C, Mahy N, Rodríguez MJ. Diazoxide enhances excitotoxicity-induced neurogenesis and attenuates neurodegeneration in the rat non-neurogenic hippocampus. Neuroscience 2016; 333:229-43. [PMID: 27471195 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2016.07.032] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/21/2016] [Revised: 07/18/2016] [Accepted: 07/19/2016] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Diazoxide, a well-known mitochondrial KATP channel opener with neuroprotective effects, has been proposed for the effective and safe treatment of neuroinflammation. To test whether diazoxide affects the neurogenesis associated with excitotoxicity in brain injury, we induced lesions by injecting excitotoxic N-methyl-d-aspartate (NMDA) into the rat hippocampus and analyzed the effects of a daily oral administration of diazoxide on the induced lesion. Specific glial and neuronal staining showed that NMDA elicited a strong glial reaction associated with progressive neuronal loss in the whole hippocampal formation. Doublecortin immunohistochemistry and bromo-deoxyuridine (BrdU)-NeuN double immunohistochemistry revealed that NMDA also induced cell proliferation and neurogenesis in the lesioned non-neurogenic hippocampus. Furthermore, glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP)-positive cells in the injured hippocampus expressed transcription factor Sp8 indicating that the excitotoxic lesion elicited the migration of progenitors from the subventricular zone and/or the reprograming of reactive astrocytes. Diazoxide treatment attenuated the NMDA-induced hippocampal injury in rats, as demonstrated by decreases in the size of the lesion, neuronal loss and microglial reaction. Diazoxide also increased the number of BrdU/NeuN double-stained cells and elevated the number of Sp8-positive cells in the lesioned hippocampus. These results indicate a role for KATP channel activation in regulating excitotoxicity-induced neurogenesis in brain injury.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Martínez-Moreno
- Departament de Biomedicina, Institut d'Investigacions Biomèdiques August Pi i Sunyer (IDIBAPS), Institut de Neurociències, Universitat de Barcelona and Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red sobre Enfermedades Neurodegenerativas (CIBERNED), Barcelona, Spain
| | - M Batlle
- Departament de Biomedicina, Institut d'Investigacions Biomèdiques August Pi i Sunyer (IDIBAPS), Institut de Neurociències, Universitat de Barcelona and Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red sobre Enfermedades Neurodegenerativas (CIBERNED), Barcelona, Spain
| | - F J Ortega
- Departament de Biomedicina, Institut d'Investigacions Biomèdiques August Pi i Sunyer (IDIBAPS), Institut de Neurociències, Universitat de Barcelona and Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red sobre Enfermedades Neurodegenerativas (CIBERNED), Barcelona, Spain
| | - J Gimeno-Bayón
- Departament de Biomedicina, Institut d'Investigacions Biomèdiques August Pi i Sunyer (IDIBAPS), Institut de Neurociències, Universitat de Barcelona and Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red sobre Enfermedades Neurodegenerativas (CIBERNED), Barcelona, Spain
| | - C Andrade
- Departament de Biomedicina, Institut d'Investigacions Biomèdiques August Pi i Sunyer (IDIBAPS), Institut de Neurociències, Universitat de Barcelona and Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red sobre Enfermedades Neurodegenerativas (CIBERNED), Barcelona, Spain
| | - N Mahy
- Departament de Biomedicina, Institut d'Investigacions Biomèdiques August Pi i Sunyer (IDIBAPS), Institut de Neurociències, Universitat de Barcelona and Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red sobre Enfermedades Neurodegenerativas (CIBERNED), Barcelona, Spain
| | - M J Rodríguez
- Departament de Biomedicina, Institut d'Investigacions Biomèdiques August Pi i Sunyer (IDIBAPS), Institut de Neurociències, Universitat de Barcelona and Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red sobre Enfermedades Neurodegenerativas (CIBERNED), Barcelona, Spain.
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53
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Liu H, Song N. Molecular Mechanism of Adult Neurogenesis and its Association with Human Brain Diseases. J Cent Nerv Syst Dis 2016; 8:5-11. [PMID: 27375363 PMCID: PMC4915785 DOI: 10.4137/jcnsd.s32204] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/27/2015] [Revised: 04/07/2016] [Accepted: 05/30/2016] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Recent advances in neuroscience challenge the old dogma that neurogenesis occurs only during embryonic development. Mounting evidence suggests that functional neurogenesis occurs throughout adulthood. This review article discusses molecular factors that affect adult neurogenesis, including morphogens, growth factors, neurotransmitters, transcription factors, and epigenetic factors. Furthermore, we summarize and compare current evidence of associations between adult neurogenesis and human brain diseases such as Alzheimer’s disease, Parkinson’s disease, Huntington’s disease, and brain tumors.
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Affiliation(s)
- He Liu
- Department of Biology, Morosky College of Health Professions and Sciences, Gannon University, Erie, PA, USA
| | - Ni Song
- Division of Health Sciences & Workforce Technology, Lamar State College-Orange, Orange, TX, USA
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54
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Mukherjee SK, Wilhelm A, Antoniades CG. TAM receptor tyrosine kinase function and the immunopathology of liver disease. Am J Physiol Gastrointest Liver Physiol 2016; 310:G899-905. [PMID: 26867565 PMCID: PMC4935487 DOI: 10.1152/ajpgi.00382.2015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/02/2015] [Accepted: 01/28/2016] [Indexed: 01/31/2023]
Abstract
Tyro3, Axl, MERTK (TAM) receptor tyrosine kinases are implicated in the regulation of the innate immune response through clearance of apoptotic cellular debris and control of cytokine signaling cascades. As a result they are pivotal in regulating the inflammatory response to tissue injury. Within the liver, immune regulatory signaling is employed to prevent the overactivation of innate immunity in response to continual antigenic challenge from the gastrointestinal tract. In this review we appraise current understanding of the role of TAM receptor function in the regulation of both innate and adaptive immunity, with a focus on its impact upon hepatic inflammatory pathology.
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Affiliation(s)
- S. K. Mukherjee
- 1Division of Digestive Diseases, Department of Medicine, Imperial College London, London, United Kingdom; and
| | - A. Wilhelm
- 1Division of Digestive Diseases, Department of Medicine, Imperial College London, London, United Kingdom; and
| | - C. G. Antoniades
- 1Division of Digestive Diseases, Department of Medicine, Imperial College London, London, United Kingdom; and ,2Division of Transplantation Immunology & Mucosal Biology, Institute of Liver Sciences, King's College London, London, United Kingdom
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55
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Gerlach J, Donkels C, Münzner G, Haas CA. Persistent Gliosis Interferes with Neurogenesis in Organotypic Hippocampal Slice Cultures. Front Cell Neurosci 2016; 10:131. [PMID: 27242442 PMCID: PMC4870256 DOI: 10.3389/fncel.2016.00131] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/10/2015] [Accepted: 04/29/2016] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Neurogenesis in the adult hippocampus has become an intensively investigated research topic, as it is essential for proper hippocampal function and considered to bear therapeutic potential for the replacement of pathologically lost neurons. On the other hand, neurogenesis itself is frequently affected by CNS insults. To identify processes leading to the disturbance of neurogenesis, we made use of organotypic hippocampal slice cultures (OHSC), which, for unknown reasons, lose their neurogenic potential during cultivation. In the present study, we show by BrdU/Prox1 double-immunostaining that the generation of new granule cells drops by 90% during the first week of cultivation. Monitoring neurogenesis dynamically in OHSC from POMC-eGFP mice, in which immature granule cells are endogenously labeled, revealed a gradual decay of the eGFP signal, reaching 10% of initial values within 7 days of cultivation. Accordingly, reverse transcription quantitative polymerase chain reaction analysis showed the downregulation of the neurogenesis-related genes doublecortin and Hes5, a crucial target of the stem cell-maintaining Notch signaling pathway. In parallel, we demonstrate a strong and long-lasting activation of astrocytes and microglial cells, both, morphologically and on the level of gene expression. Enhancement of astroglial activation by treating OHSC with ciliary neurotrophic factor accelerated the loss of neurogenesis, whereas treatment with indomethacin or an antagonist of the purinergic P2Y12 receptor exhibited potent protective effects on the neurogenic outcome. Therefore, we conclude that OHSC rapidly lose their neurogenic capacity due to persistent inflammatory processes taking place after the slice preparation. As inflammation is also considered to affect neurogenesis in many CNS pathologies, OHSC appear as a useful tool to study this interplay and its molecular basis. Furthermore, we propose that modification of glial activation might bear the therapeutic potential of enabling neurogenesis under neuropathological conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Johannes Gerlach
- Department of Neurosurgery, Experimental Epilepsy Research, Medical Center - University of FreiburgFreiburg, Germany; Faculty of Medicine, University of FreiburgFreiburg, Germany; Faculty of Biology, University of FreiburgFreiburg, Germany
| | - Catharina Donkels
- Department of Neurosurgery, Experimental Epilepsy Research, Medical Center - University of FreiburgFreiburg, Germany; Faculty of Medicine, University of FreiburgFreiburg, Germany; Faculty of Biology, University of FreiburgFreiburg, Germany
| | - Gert Münzner
- Department of Neurosurgery, Experimental Epilepsy Research, Medical Center - University of FreiburgFreiburg, Germany; Faculty of Medicine, University of FreiburgFreiburg, Germany; Faculty of Biology, University of FreiburgFreiburg, Germany
| | - Carola A Haas
- Department of Neurosurgery, Experimental Epilepsy Research, Medical Center - University of FreiburgFreiburg, Germany; Faculty of Medicine, University of FreiburgFreiburg, Germany; BrainLinks-BrainTools, Cluster of Excellence, University of FreiburgFreiburg, Germany
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56
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Nowakowski TJ, Pollen AA, Di Lullo E, Sandoval-Espinosa C, Bershteyn M, Kriegstein AR. Expression Analysis Highlights AXL as a Candidate Zika Virus Entry Receptor in Neural Stem Cells. Cell Stem Cell 2016; 18:591-6. [PMID: 27038591 PMCID: PMC4860115 DOI: 10.1016/j.stem.2016.03.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 399] [Impact Index Per Article: 49.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/07/2016] [Revised: 03/18/2016] [Accepted: 03/21/2016] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
The recent outbreak of Zika virus (ZIKV) in Brazil has been linked to substantial increases in fetal abnormalities and microcephaly. However, information about the underlying molecular and cellular mechanisms connecting viral infection to these defects remains limited. In this study we have examined the expression of receptors implicated in cell entry of several enveloped viruses including ZIKV across diverse cell types in the developing brain. Using single-cell RNA-seq and immunohistochemistry, we found that the candidate viral entry receptor AXL is highly expressed by human radial glial cells, astrocytes, endothelial cells, and microglia in developing human cortex and by progenitor cells in developing retina. We also show that AXL expression in radial glia is conserved in developing mouse and ferret cortex and in human stem cell-derived cerebral organoids, highlighting multiple experimental systems that could be applied to study mechanisms of ZIKV infectivity and effects on brain development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tomasz J Nowakowski
- Eli and Edythe Broad Center of Regeneration Medicine and Stem Cell Research, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA 94143, USA; Department of Neurology, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA 94158, USA
| | - Alex A Pollen
- Eli and Edythe Broad Center of Regeneration Medicine and Stem Cell Research, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA 94143, USA; Department of Neurology, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA 94158, USA
| | - Elizabeth Di Lullo
- Eli and Edythe Broad Center of Regeneration Medicine and Stem Cell Research, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA 94143, USA; Department of Neurology, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA 94158, USA
| | - Carmen Sandoval-Espinosa
- Eli and Edythe Broad Center of Regeneration Medicine and Stem Cell Research, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA 94143, USA; Department of Neurology, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA 94158, USA
| | - Marina Bershteyn
- Eli and Edythe Broad Center of Regeneration Medicine and Stem Cell Research, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA 94143, USA; Department of Neurology, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA 94158, USA
| | - Arnold R Kriegstein
- Eli and Edythe Broad Center of Regeneration Medicine and Stem Cell Research, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA 94143, USA; Department of Neurology, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA 94158, USA.
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57
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Fourgeaud L, Través PG, Tufail Y, Leal-Bailey H, Lew ED, Burrola PG, Callaway P, Zagórska A, Rothlin CV, Nimmerjahn A, Lemke G. TAM receptors regulate multiple features of microglial physiology. Nature 2016; 532:240-244. [PMID: 27049947 PMCID: PMC5358512 DOI: 10.1038/nature17630] [Citation(s) in RCA: 370] [Impact Index Per Article: 46.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/26/2015] [Accepted: 03/01/2016] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Microglia are damage sensors for the central nervous system (CNS), and the phagocytes responsible for the routine non-inflammatory clearance of dead brain cells1. Here we show that the TAM receptor tyrosine kinases Mer and Axl2 regulate these microglial functions. We find that mice deficient in microglial Mer and Axl exhibit a marked accumulation of apoptotic cells (ACs) specifically in neurogenic regions of the adult CNS, and that microglial phagocytosis of the ACs generated during adult neurogenesis3,4 is normally driven by both TAM receptor ligands – Gas6 and Protein S5. Live two-photon imaging demonstrates that the microglial response to brain damage is also TAM-regulated, as TAM-deficient microglia display reduced process motility and delayed convergence to sites of injury. Finally, we show that microglial expression of Axl is prominently up-regulated in the inflammatory environment that develops in a mouse model of Parkinson’s disease6. Together, these results establish TAM receptors as both controllers of microglial physiology and potential targets for therapeutic intervention in CNS disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lawrence Fourgeaud
- Molecular Neurobiology Laboratory, The Salk Institute for Biological Studies, La Jolla, CA USA 92037
| | - Paqui G Través
- Molecular Neurobiology Laboratory, The Salk Institute for Biological Studies, La Jolla, CA USA 92037
| | - Yusuf Tufail
- Waitt Advanced Biophotonics Center, The Salk Institute for Biological Studies, La Jolla, CA USA 92037
| | - Humberto Leal-Bailey
- Molecular Neurobiology Laboratory, The Salk Institute for Biological Studies, La Jolla, CA USA 92037.,Neuroscience Masters Program, University of Strasbourg, Strasbourg, France
| | - Erin D Lew
- Molecular Neurobiology Laboratory, The Salk Institute for Biological Studies, La Jolla, CA USA 92037
| | - Patrick G Burrola
- Molecular Neurobiology Laboratory, The Salk Institute for Biological Studies, La Jolla, CA USA 92037
| | - Perri Callaway
- Molecular Neurobiology Laboratory, The Salk Institute for Biological Studies, La Jolla, CA USA 92037
| | - Anna Zagórska
- Molecular Neurobiology Laboratory, The Salk Institute for Biological Studies, La Jolla, CA USA 92037
| | - Carla V Rothlin
- Department of Immunobiology, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT USA 06520
| | - Axel Nimmerjahn
- Waitt Advanced Biophotonics Center, The Salk Institute for Biological Studies, La Jolla, CA USA 92037
| | - Greg Lemke
- Molecular Neurobiology Laboratory, The Salk Institute for Biological Studies, La Jolla, CA USA 92037.,Immunobiology and Microbial Pathogenesis Laboratory, The Salk Institute for Biological Studies, La Jolla, CA USA 92037
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58
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59
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Ren X, Wang F, Ji B, Gao C. TLR7 agonist induced repression of hepatocellular carcinoma via the TLR7-IKK-NF-κB-IL6 signaling pathway. Oncol Lett 2016; 11:2965-2970. [PMID: 27123047 PMCID: PMC4840696 DOI: 10.3892/ol.2016.4329] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/14/2014] [Accepted: 06/11/2015] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Toll-like receptors (TLRs) are key members of innate immunity, involved in the defense against diseases, and evidence has revealed that TLR4/5 is involved in the carcinogenesis of hepatic cancer. TLR7 belongs to the TLR family, and its roles in immune-associated hepatic diseases have been well characterized; however, the consequences of agonist targeting of TLR7 in hepatic cancer have not previously been reported. The present study aimed to investigate the effects and underlying mechanisms of Imiquimod, a TLR7 agonist, on hepatic carcinogenesis by affecting the self-renewal of hepatic cancer stem cells. To detect the effects of this TLR7 agonist on hepatic cancer cells an MTT assay, mammosphere formation assay, ALDEFLUOR™ fluorescence-based stem cell sorting was used, and the potential signaling involved in the mechanism was investigated by western blot analysis. The TLR7 agonist Imiquimod demonstrated inhibitory effects on the cell proliferation and mammosphere formation of hepatic cells and stem cells, and decreased stem cell number (P<0.01). These effects may be achieved via the TLR7/IκB kinase/nuclear factor-κB/interleukin-6 signaling pathway, with decreased levels of Snail expression. The present study demonstrated the effects and mechanisms of the TLR7 agonist on hepatic cancer occurred via suppression of the self-renewal of cancer stem cells, indicating novel potential functions of the TLR7 agonist in the treatment of HCC.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xingbin Ren
- Department of Clinical Laboratory, Linyi People's Hospital, Linyi, Shandong 276003, P.R China
| | - Fei Wang
- Department of Pain Management, Linyi People's Hospital, Linyi, Shandong 276003, P.R China
| | - Baoju Ji
- Department of Clinical Laboratory, Linyi People's Hospital, Linyi, Shandong 276003, P.R China
| | - Chunhai Gao
- Department of Clinical Laboratory, Linyi People's Hospital, Linyi, Shandong 276003, P.R China
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Abstract
Immunomodulators regulate stem cell activity at all stages of development as well as during adulthood. Embryonic stem cell (ESC) proliferation as well as neurogenic processes during embryonic development are controlled by factors of the immune system. We review here immunophenotypic expression patterns of different stem cell types, including ESC, neural (NSC) and tissue-specific mesenchymal stem cells (MSC), and focus on immunodulatory properties of these cells. Immune and inflammatory responses, involving actions of cytokines as well as toll-like receptor (TLR) signaling are known to affect the differentiation capacity of NSC and MSC. Secretion of pro- and anti-inflammatory messengers by MSC have been observed as the consequence of TLR and cytokine activation and promotion of differentiation into specified phenotypes. As result of augmented differentiation capacity, stem cells secrete angiogenic factors including vascular endothelial growth factor, resulting in multifactorial actions in tissue repair. Immunoregulatory properties of tissue specific adult stem cells are put into the context of possible clinical applications.
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61
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The TAM receptor Mertk protects against neuroinvasive viral infection by maintaining blood-brain barrier integrity. Nat Med 2015; 21:1464-72. [PMID: 26523970 PMCID: PMC4674389 DOI: 10.1038/nm.3974] [Citation(s) in RCA: 103] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/17/2015] [Accepted: 09/16/2015] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
The TAM receptors Tyro3, Axl, and Mertk are receptor tyrosine kinases that dampen host innate immune responses following engagement with their ligands, Gas6 and Protein S, which recognize phosphatidylserine on apoptotic cells. In a form of apoptotic mimicry, many enveloped viruses display phosphatidylserine on the outer leaflet of their membranes, enabling TAM receptor activation and down-regulation of antiviral responses. Accordingly, we hypothesized that a deficiency of TAM receptors would enhance antiviral responses and protect against viral infection. Unexpectedly, mice lacking Mertk and/or Axl but not Tyro3 exhibited greater vulnerability to infection with neuroinvasive West Nile and La Crosse viruses. This phenotype was associated with increased blood-brain barrier permeability, which enhanced virus entry into and infection of the brain. Activation of Mertk synergized with IFN-β to tighten cell junctions and prevent virus transit across brain microvascular endothelial cells. Because TAM receptors restrict pathogenesis of neuroinvasive viruses, these findings have implications for TAM antagonists that are currently in clinical development.
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62
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Carulla P, Llorens F, Matamoros-Angles A, Aguilar-Calvo P, Espinosa JC, Gavín R, Ferrer I, Legname G, Torres JM, del Río JA. Involvement of PrP(C) in kainate-induced excitotoxicity in several mouse strains. Sci Rep 2015; 5:11971. [PMID: 26155834 PMCID: PMC4648388 DOI: 10.1038/srep11971] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/19/2015] [Accepted: 06/12/2015] [Indexed: 01/14/2023] Open
Abstract
The cellular prion protein (PrP(C)) has been associated with a plethora of cellular functions ranging from cell cycle to neuroprotection. Mice lacking PrP(C) show an increased susceptibility to epileptic seizures; the protein, then, is neuroprotective. However, lack of experimental reproducibility has led to considering the possibility that other factors besides PrP(C) deletion, such as the genetic background of mice or the presence of so-called "Prnp flanking genes", might contribute to the reported susceptibility. Here, we performed a comparative analysis of seizure-susceptibility using characterized Prnp(+/+) and Prnp(0/0) mice of B6129, B6.129, 129/Ola or FVB/N genetic backgrounds. Our study indicates that PrP(C) plays a role in neuroprotection in KA-treated cells and mice. For this function, PrP(C) should contain the aa32-93 region and needs to be linked to the membrane. In addition, some unidentified "Prnp-flanking genes" play a role parallel to PrP(C) in the KA-mediated responses in B6129 and B6.129 Prnp(0/0) mice.
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Affiliation(s)
- Patricia Carulla
- 1] Molecular and Cellular Neurobiotechnology, Institute of Bioengineering of Catalonia (IBEC), Parc Científic de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain [2] Department of Cell Biology, Universitat de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain [3] Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red sobre Enfermedades Neurodegenerativas (CIBERNED), Barcelona, Spain
| | - Franc Llorens
- 1] Molecular and Cellular Neurobiotechnology, Institute of Bioengineering of Catalonia (IBEC), Parc Científic de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain [2] Department of Cell Biology, Universitat de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain [3] Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red sobre Enfermedades Neurodegenerativas (CIBERNED), Barcelona, Spain [4] German Center for Neurodegenerative Diseases (DZNE), Robert-Koch Str. 40, 37075, Göttingen, Germany
| | - Andreu Matamoros-Angles
- 1] Molecular and Cellular Neurobiotechnology, Institute of Bioengineering of Catalonia (IBEC), Parc Científic de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain [2] Department of Cell Biology, Universitat de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain [3] Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red sobre Enfermedades Neurodegenerativas (CIBERNED), Barcelona, Spain
| | | | - Juan Carlos Espinosa
- Centro de Investigación en Sanidad Animal (CISA-INIA), Valdeolmos, Madrid, Spain
| | - Rosalina Gavín
- 1] Molecular and Cellular Neurobiotechnology, Institute of Bioengineering of Catalonia (IBEC), Parc Científic de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain [2] Department of Cell Biology, Universitat de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain [3] Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red sobre Enfermedades Neurodegenerativas (CIBERNED), Barcelona, Spain
| | - Isidre Ferrer
- 1] Institut de Neuropatologia, IDIBELL-Hospital Universitari de Bellvitge, Hospitalet de Llobregat, Barcelona, Spain [2] Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red de Enfermedades Neurodegenerativas (CIBERNED), Barcelona, Spain
| | - Giuseppe Legname
- Laboratory of Prion Biology, Department of Neuroscience, Scuola Internazionale Superiore di Studi Avanzati (SISSA), Trieste, Italy
| | - Juan Maria Torres
- Centro de Investigación en Sanidad Animal (CISA-INIA), Valdeolmos, Madrid, Spain
| | - José A del Río
- 1] Molecular and Cellular Neurobiotechnology, Institute of Bioengineering of Catalonia (IBEC), Parc Científic de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain [2] Department of Cell Biology, Universitat de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain [3] Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red sobre Enfermedades Neurodegenerativas (CIBERNED), Barcelona, Spain
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63
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Meng L, Jiang X, Ji R. Role of neurotrophin in the taste system following gustatory nerve injury. Metab Brain Dis 2015; 30:605-13. [PMID: 25381474 DOI: 10.1007/s11011-014-9626-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/02/2014] [Accepted: 10/30/2014] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Taste system is a perfect system to study degeneration and regeneration after nerve injury because the taste system is highly plastic and the regeneration is robust. Besides, degeneration and regeneration can be easily measured since taste buds arise in discrete locations, and nerves that innervate them can be accurately quantified. Neurotrophins are a family of proteins that regulate neural survival, function, and plasticity after nerve injury. Recent studies have shown that neurotrophins play an important role in the developmental and mature taste system, indicating neurtrophin might also regulate taste system following gustatory nerve injury. This review will summarize how taste system degenerates and regenerates after gustatory nerve cut and conclude potential roles of neurotrophin in regulating the process.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lingbin Meng
- Department of Anatomical Sciences and Neurobiology, University of Louisville, School of Medicine, Louisville, KY, 40202, USA
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Ji R, Meng L, Li Q, Lu Q. TAM receptor deficiency affects adult hippocampal neurogenesis. Metab Brain Dis 2015; 30:633-44. [PMID: 25487541 PMCID: PMC4414696 DOI: 10.1007/s11011-014-9636-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/14/2014] [Accepted: 11/17/2014] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
Abstract
The Tyro3, Axl and Mertk (TAM) subfamily of receptor protein tyrosine kinases functions in cell growth, differentiation, survival, and most recently found, in the regulation of immune responses and phagocytosis. All three receptors and their ligands, Gas6 (growth arrest-specific gene 6) and protein S, are expressed in the central nervous system (CNS). TAM receptors play pivotal roles in adult hippocampal neurogenesis. Loss of these receptors causes a comprised neurogenesis in the dentate gyrus of adult hippocampus. TAM receptors have a negative regulatory effect on microglia and peripheral antigen-presenting cells, and play a critical role in preventing overproduction of pro-inflammatory cytokines detrimental to the proliferation, differentiation, and survival of adult neuronal stem cells (NSCs). Besides, these receptors also play an intrinsic trophic function in supporting NSC survival, proliferation, and differentiation into immature neurons. All these events collectively ensure a sustained neurogenesis in adult hippocampus.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rui Ji
- Department of Ophthalmology and Visual Sciences, University of Louisville School of Medicine, Louisville, KY 40202, USA
- Department of Anatomical Sciences and Neurobiology, University of Louisville School of Medicine, Louisville, KY 40202, USA
| | - Lingbin Meng
- Department of Anatomical Sciences and Neurobiology, University of Louisville School of Medicine, Louisville, KY 40202, USA
| | - Qiutang Li
- Department of Ophthalmology and Visual Sciences, University of Louisville School of Medicine, Louisville, KY 40202, USA
| | - Qingxian Lu
- Department of Ophthalmology and Visual Sciences, University of Louisville School of Medicine, Louisville, KY 40202, USA
- Department of Anatomical Sciences and Neurobiology, University of Louisville School of Medicine, Louisville, KY 40202, USA
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65
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Hsu CC, Chen SH, Lin CH, Yung MC. Human recombinant factor VIIa may improve heat intolerance in mice by attenuating hypothalamic neuronal apoptosis and damage. Apoptosis 2015; 19:1484-96. [PMID: 25033928 DOI: 10.1007/s10495-014-1020-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
Intolerance to heat exposure is believed to be associated with hypothalamo-pituitary-adrenocortical (HPA) axis impairment [reflected by decreases in blood concentrations of both adrenocorticotrophic-hormone (ACTH) and corticosterone]. The purpose of this study was to determine the effect of human recombinant factor VIIa (rfVIIa) on heat intolerance, HPA axis impairment, and hypothalamic inflammation, ischemic and oxidative damage, and apoptosis in mice under heat stress. Immediately after heat stress (41.2 °C for 1 h), mice were treated with vehicle (1 mL/kg of body weight) or rfVIIa (65-270 µg/kg of body weight) and then returned to room temperature (26 °C). Mice still alive on day 4 of heat exposure were considered survivors. Cellular ischemia markers (e.g., glutamate, lactate-to-pyruvate ratio), oxidative damage markers (e.g., nitric oxide metabolite, hydroxyl radials), and pro-inflammatory cytokines (e.g., interleukin-6, interleukin-1β, tumor necrosis factor-α) in hypothalamus were determined. In addition, blood concentrations of both ACTH and corticosterone were measured. Hypothalamic cell damage was assessed by determing the neuronal damage scores, whereas the hypothalamic cell apoptosis was determined by assessing the numbers of cells stained with terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase-mediated αUTP nick-end labeling, caspase-3-positive cells, and platelet endothelial cell adhesion molecula-1-positive cells in hypothalamus. Compared with vehicle-treated heated mice, rfVIIa-treated heated mice had significantly higher fractional survival (8/10 vs 1/10), lesser thermoregulatory deficit (34.1 vs 24.8 °C), lesser extents of ischemic, oxidative, and inflammatory markers in hypothalamus, lesser neuronal damage scores and apoptosis in hypothalamus, and lesser HPA axis impairment. Human recombinant factor VIIa appears to exert a protective effect against heatstroke by attenuating hypothalamic cell apoptosis (due to ischemic, inflammatory, and oxidative damage) in mice.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chuan-Chih Hsu
- Division of Cardiovascular Surgery, Department of Surgery, School of Medicine, College of Medicine, Taipei Medical University Hospital, Taipei Medical University, Taipei, 112, Taiwan
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Pushkov D, Nicholson JD, Michowiz S, Novitzky I, Weiss S, Ben Hemou M, Hochhauser E, Goldenberg-Cohen N. Relative neuroprotective effects hyperbaric oxygen treatment and TLR4 knockout in a mouse model of temporary middle cerebral artery occlusion. Int J Neurosci 2015; 126:174-81. [PMID: 25562174 DOI: 10.3109/00207454.2014.1002609] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/02/2023]
Abstract
PURPOSE To examine the effects of hyperbaric oxygen (HBO) therapy and knockout of toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4) on the outcome of temporary middle cerebral artery occlusion (MCAO) in a mouse model. MATERIALS AND METHODS MCAO was induced in anesthetized male C57Bl/6 mice (WT) and TLR4 knockout mice (TLR4(-/-)) using an intra-arterial filament method. After 30 or 90 min, the filament was removed, and the mice were given either no treatment (WT and TLR4(-/-) groups) or HBO (WT only). Mice were euthanized 24 h after MCAO, and the brain infarct area was examined using 2,3,5-triphenyltetrazolium chloride (TTC) staining. RESULTS In the WT group, without treatment, lesion volume was 120 ± 13 mm(3) in the mice subjected to 30 min' MCAO and 173 ± 23 mm(3) in the mice subjected to 90 min' MCAO. Respective values with HBO treatment were 66.5 ± 36.7 mm(3) and 53.2 ± 17.2 mm(3). The difference was significant only for 90-minute MCAO (p < 0.01, nonparametric test). In the TLR4(-/-) group (all untreated), lesion volume was 95.9 ± 17.9 after 90 min of MCAO, which was significantly lower than in the untreated WT animals (p < 0.05, nonparametric test). CONCLUSIONS A single treatment of HBO immediately after MCAO followed by 24 h' reperfusion significantly reduces edema and may improve perfusion. TLR4 knockout protects mice from MCAO damage, but to a lesser extent than HBO treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dennis Pushkov
- a Department of Neurosurgery, Rabin Medical Center, Beilinson Campus, Petach Tikva, Israel
| | - James D Nicholson
- c Sackler Faculty of Medicine, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv, Israel.,d The Krieger Eye Research Laboratory, Felsenstein Medical Research Center, Petach Tikva, Israel
| | - Shalom Michowiz
- a Department of Neurosurgery, Rabin Medical Center, Beilinson Campus, Petach Tikva, Israel.,c Sackler Faculty of Medicine, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv, Israel
| | - Ivan Novitzky
- a Department of Neurosurgery, Rabin Medical Center, Beilinson Campus, Petach Tikva, Israel
| | - Shirel Weiss
- c Sackler Faculty of Medicine, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv, Israel.,d The Krieger Eye Research Laboratory, Felsenstein Medical Research Center, Petach Tikva, Israel
| | - Moshe Ben Hemou
- c Sackler Faculty of Medicine, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv, Israel.,d The Krieger Eye Research Laboratory, Felsenstein Medical Research Center, Petach Tikva, Israel
| | - Edith Hochhauser
- c Sackler Faculty of Medicine, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv, Israel.,e Laboratory of Cardiac Research, Felsenstein Medical Research Center, Petach Tikva, Israel
| | - Nitza Goldenberg-Cohen
- b Pediatric Ophthalmology Unit, Schneider Children's Medical Center of Israel, Petach Tikva, Israel.,c Sackler Faculty of Medicine, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv, Israel.,d The Krieger Eye Research Laboratory, Felsenstein Medical Research Center, Petach Tikva, Israel
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Johnson K, Ji R. TAM receptors: two pathways to regulate adult neurogenesis. Neural Regen Res 2015; 10:344-5. [PMID: 25878570 PMCID: PMC4396084 DOI: 10.4103/1673-5374.153671] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 02/06/2015] [Indexed: 01/05/2023] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Kassandra Johnson
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Louisville School of Medicine, Louisville, KY 40202, USA
| | - Rui Ji
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Louisville School of Medicine, Louisville, KY 40202, USA
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Huang C, Lu X, Wang J, Tong L, Jiang B, Zhang W. Inhibition of endogenous heat shock protein 70 attenuates inducible nitric oxide synthase induction via disruption of heat shock protein 70/Na(+) /H(+) exchanger 1-Ca(2+) -calcium-calmodulin-dependent protein kinase II/transforming growth factor β-activated kinase 1-nuclear factor-κB signals in BV-2 microglia. J Neurosci Res 2015; 93:1192-202. [PMID: 25691123 DOI: 10.1002/jnr.23571] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/17/2014] [Revised: 12/24/2014] [Accepted: 01/08/2015] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
Inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) critically contributes to inflammation and host defense. The inhibition of heat shock protein 70 (Hsp70) prevents iNOS induction in lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-stimulated macrophages. However, the role and mechanism of endogenous Hsp70 in iNOS induction in microglia remains unclear. This study addresses this issue in BV-2 microglia, showing that Hsp70 inhibition or knockdown prevents LPS-induced iNOS protein expression and nitric oxide production. Real-time PCR experiments showed that LPS-induced iNOS mRNA transcription was blocked by Hsp70 inhibition. Further studies revealed that the inhibition of Hsp70 attenuated LPS-stimulated nuclear translocation and phosphorylation of nuclear factor (NF)-κB as well as the degradation of inhibitor of κB (IκB)-α and phosphorylation of IκB kinase β (IKKβ). This prevention effect of Hsp70 inhibition on IKKβ-NF-κB activation was found to be dependent on the Ca(2+) /calcium-calmodulin-dependent protein kinase II (CaMKII)/transforming growth factor β-activated kinase 1 (TAK1) signals based on the following observations: 1) chelation of intracellular Ca(2+) or inhibition of CaMKII reduced LPS-induced increases in TAK1 phosphorylation and 2) Hsp70 inhibition reduced LPS-induced increases in CaMKII/TAK1 phosphorylation, intracellular pH value, [Ca(2+) ]i , and CaMKII/TAK1 association. Mechanistic studies showed that Hsp70 inhibition disrupted the association between Hsp70 and Na(+) /H(+) exchanger 1 (NHE1), which is an important exchanger responsible for Ca(2+) influx in LPS-stimulated cells. These studies demonstrate that the inhibition of endogenous Hsp70 attenuates the induction of iNOS, which likely occurs through the disruption of NHE1/Hsp70-Ca(2+) -CaMKII/TAK1-NF-κB signals in BV-2 microglia, providing further insight into the functions of Hsp70 in the CNS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chao Huang
- Department of Pharmacology, School of Medicine, Nantong University, Nantong, Jiangsu, People's Republic of China
| | - Xu Lu
- Department of Pharmacology, School of Medicine, Nantong University, Nantong, Jiangsu, People's Republic of China
| | - Jia Wang
- Department of Pharmacology, School of Medicine, Nantong University, Nantong, Jiangsu, People's Republic of China
| | - Lijuan Tong
- Department of Pharmacology, School of Medicine, Nantong University, Nantong, Jiangsu, People's Republic of China
| | - Bo Jiang
- Department of Pharmacology, School of Medicine, Nantong University, Nantong, Jiangsu, People's Republic of China
| | - Wei Zhang
- Department of Pharmacology, School of Medicine, Nantong University, Nantong, Jiangsu, People's Republic of China
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69
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Rothlin CV, Carrera-Silva EA, Bosurgi L, Ghosh S. TAM receptor signaling in immune homeostasis. Annu Rev Immunol 2015; 33:355-91. [PMID: 25594431 DOI: 10.1146/annurev-immunol-032414-112103] [Citation(s) in RCA: 307] [Impact Index Per Article: 34.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
The TAM receptor tyrosine kinases (RTKs)-TYRO3, AXL, and MERTK-together with their cognate agonists GAS6 and PROS1 play an essential role in the resolution of inflammation. Deficiencies in TAM signaling have been associated with chronic inflammatory and autoimmune diseases. Three processes regulated by TAM signaling may contribute, either independently or collectively, to immune homeostasis: the negative regulation of the innate immune response, the phagocytosis of apoptotic cells, and the restoration of vascular integrity. Recent studies have also revealed the function of TAMs in infectious diseases and cancer. Here, we review the important milestones in the discovery of these RTKs and their ligands and the studies that underscore the functional importance of this signaling pathway in physiological immune settings and disease.
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70
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Ji R, Meng L, Jiang X, CVM NK, Ding J, Li Q, Lu Q. TAM receptors support neural stem cell survival, proliferation and neuronal differentiation. PLoS One 2014; 9:e115140. [PMID: 25514676 PMCID: PMC4267817 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0115140] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/28/2014] [Accepted: 11/18/2014] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Tyro3, Axl and Mertk (TAM) receptor tyrosine kinases play multiple functional roles by either providing intrinsic trophic support for cell growth or regulating the expression of target genes that are important in the homeostatic regulation of immune responses. TAM receptors have been shown to regulate adult hippocampal neurogenesis by negatively regulation of glial cell activation in central nervous system (CNS). In the present study, we further demonstrated that all three TAM receptors were expressed by cultured primary neural stem cells (NSCs) and played a direct growth trophic role in NSCs proliferation, neuronal differentiation and survival. The cultured primary NSCs lacking TAM receptors exhibited slower growth, reduced proliferation and increased apoptosis as shown by decreased BrdU incorporation and increased TUNEL labeling, than those from the WT NSCs. In addition, the neuronal differentiation and maturation of the mutant NSCs were impeded, as characterized by less neuronal differentiation (β-tubulin III+) and neurite outgrowth than their WT counterparts. To elucidate the underlying mechanism that the TAM receptors play on the differentiating NSCs, we examined the expression profile of neurotrophins and their receptors by real-time qPCR on the total RNAs from hippocampus and primary NSCs; and found that the TKO NSC showed a significant reduction in the expression of both nerve growth factor (NGF) and brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), but accompanied by compensational increases in the expression of the TrkA, TrkB, TrkC and p75 receptors. These results suggest that TAM receptors support NSCs survival, proliferation and differentiation by regulating expression of neurotrophins, especially the NGF.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rui Ji
- Department of Ophthalmology and Visual Sciences, University of Louisville School of Medicine, Louisville, Kentucky, 40202, United States of America
- Department of Anatomical Sciences and Neurobiology, University of Louisville School of Medicine, Louisville, Kentucky, 40202, United States of America
| | - Lingbin Meng
- Department of Anatomical Sciences and Neurobiology, University of Louisville School of Medicine, Louisville, Kentucky, 40202, United States of America
| | - Xin Jiang
- Department of Radiation Oncology, The First Hospital of Jilin University, Changchun, 130021, China
| | - Naresh Kumar CVM
- Department of Ophthalmology and Visual Sciences, University of Louisville School of Medicine, Louisville, Kentucky, 40202, United States of America
| | - Jixiang Ding
- Birth Defects Center, University of Louisville School of Dentistry, Louisville, Kentucky, 40202, United States of America
| | - Qiutang Li
- Department of Ophthalmology and Visual Sciences, University of Louisville School of Medicine, Louisville, Kentucky, 40202, United States of America
| | - Qingxian Lu
- Department of Ophthalmology and Visual Sciences, University of Louisville School of Medicine, Louisville, Kentucky, 40202, United States of America
- Department of Anatomical Sciences and Neurobiology, University of Louisville School of Medicine, Louisville, Kentucky, 40202, United States of America
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71
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Graham DK, DeRyckere D, Davies KD, Earp HS. The TAM family: phosphatidylserine sensing receptor tyrosine kinases gone awry in cancer. Nat Rev Cancer 2014; 14:769-85. [PMID: 25568918 DOI: 10.1038/nrc3847] [Citation(s) in RCA: 504] [Impact Index Per Article: 50.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
The TYRO3, AXL (also known as UFO) and MERTK (TAM) family of receptor tyrosine kinases (RTKs) are aberrantly expressed in multiple haematological and epithelial malignancies. Rather than functioning as oncogenic drivers, their induction in tumour cells predominately promotes survival, chemoresistance and motility. The unique mode of maximal activation of this RTK family requires an extracellular lipid–protein complex. For example, the protein ligand, growth arrest-specific protein 6 (GAS6), binds to phosphatidylserine (PtdSer) that is externalized on apoptotic cell membranes, which activates MERTK on macrophages. This triggers engulfment of apoptotic material and subsequent anti-inflammatory macrophage polarization. In tumours, autocrine and paracrine ligands and apoptotic cells are abundant, which provide a survival signal to the tumour cell and favour an anti-inflammatory, immunosuppressive microenvironment. Thus, TAM kinase inhibition could stimulate antitumour immunity, reduce tumour cell survival, enhance chemosensitivity and diminish metastatic potential.
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72
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Abstract
The control of cellular growth and proliferation is key to the maintenance of homeostasis. Survival, proliferation, and arrest are regulated, in part, by Growth Arrest Specific 6 (Gas6) through binding to members of the TAM receptor tyrosine kinase family. Activation of the TAM receptors leads to downstream signaling through common kinases, but the exact mechanism within each cellular context varies and remains to be completely elucidated. Deregulation of the TAM family, due to its central role in mediating cellular proliferation, has been implicated in multiple diseases. Axl was cloned as the first TAM receptor in a search for genes involved in the progression of chronic to acute-phase leukemia, and has since been established as playing a critical role in the progression of cancer. The oncogenic nature of Axl is demonstrated through its activation of signaling pathways involved in proliferation, migration, inhibition of apoptosis, and therapeutic resistance. Despite its recent discovery, significant progress has been made in the development of effective clinical therapeutics targeting Axl. In order to accurately define the role of Axl in normal and diseased processes, it must be analyzed in a cell type-specific context.
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73
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Brown JA, Sherrod SD, Goodwin CR, Brewer B, Yang L, Garbett KA, Li D, McLean JA, Wikswo JP, Mirnics K. Metabolic consequences of interleukin-6 challenge in developing neurons and astroglia. J Neuroinflammation 2014; 11:183. [PMID: 25374324 PMCID: PMC4233071 DOI: 10.1186/s12974-014-0183-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/25/2014] [Accepted: 10/11/2014] [Indexed: 02/02/2023] Open
Abstract
Background Maternal immune activation and subsequent interleukin-6 (IL-6) induction disrupt normal brain development and predispose the offspring to developing autism and schizophrenia. While several proteins have been identified as having some link to these developmental disorders, their prevalence is still small and their causative role, if any, is not well understood. However, understanding the metabolic consequences of environmental predisposing factors could shed light on disorders such as autism and schizophrenia. Methods To gain a better understanding of the metabolic consequences of IL-6 exposure on developing central nervous system (CNS) cells, we separately exposed developing neuron and astroglia cultures to IL-6 for 2 hours while collecting effluent from our gravity-fed microfluidic chambers. By coupling microfluidic technologies to ultra-performance liquid chromatography-ion mobility-mass spectrometry (UPLC-IM-MS), we were able to characterize the metabolic response of these CNS cells to a narrow window of IL-6 exposure. Results Our results revealed that 1) the use of this technology, due to its superb media volume:cell volume ratio, is ideally suited for analysis of cell-type-specific exometabolome signatures; 2) developing neurons have low secretory activity at baseline, while astroglia show strong metabolic activity; 3) both neurons and astroglia respond to IL-6 exposure in a cell type-specific fashion; 4) the astroglial response to IL-6 stimulation is predominantly characterized by increased levels of metabolites, while neurons mostly depress their metabolic activity; and 5) disturbances in glycerophospholipid metabolism and tryptophan/kynurenine metabolite secretion are two putative mechanisms by which IL-6 affects the developing nervous system. Conclusions Our findings are potentially critical for understanding the mechanism by which IL-6 disrupts brain function, and they provide information about the molecular cascade that links maternal immune activation to developmental brain disorders. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s12974-014-0183-6) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jacquelyn A Brown
- Department of Psychiatry, 465 21st Avenue South, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN, 37232, USA. .,Vanderbilt Institute for Integrative Biosystems Research and Education, 6809 Stevenson Center, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN, 37235, USA.
| | - Stacy D Sherrod
- Vanderbilt Institute for Integrative Biosystems Research and Education, 6809 Stevenson Center, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN, 37235, USA. .,Department of Physics and Astronomy, 6301 Stevenson Center, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN, 37235, USA.
| | - Cody R Goodwin
- Vanderbilt Institute for Integrative Biosystems Research and Education, 6809 Stevenson Center, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN, 37235, USA. .,Department of Chemistry, 5421 Stevenson Center, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN, 37235, USA.
| | - Bryson Brewer
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, 333 Olin Hall, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN, 37235, USA.
| | - Lijie Yang
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, 333 Olin Hall, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN, 37235, USA.
| | - Krassimira A Garbett
- Department of Psychiatry, 465 21st Avenue South, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN, 37232, USA.
| | - Deyu Li
- Vanderbilt Institute for Integrative Biosystems Research and Education, 6809 Stevenson Center, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN, 37235, USA. .,Department of Mechanical Engineering, 333 Olin Hall, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN, 37235, USA.
| | - John A McLean
- Vanderbilt Institute for Integrative Biosystems Research and Education, 6809 Stevenson Center, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN, 37235, USA. .,Department of Chemistry, 5421 Stevenson Center, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN, 37235, USA.
| | - John P Wikswo
- Vanderbilt Institute for Integrative Biosystems Research and Education, 6809 Stevenson Center, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN, 37235, USA. .,Department of Physics and Astronomy, 6301 Stevenson Center, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN, 37235, USA. .,Department of Biomedical Engineering, 5824 Stevenson Center, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, 37235, TN, USA. .,Department of Molecular Physiology and Biophysics, 702 Light Hall, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN, 37232, USA.
| | - Károly Mirnics
- Department of Psychiatry, 465 21st Avenue South, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN, 37232, USA. .,Vanderbilt Institute for Integrative Biosystems Research and Education, 6809 Stevenson Center, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN, 37235, USA. .,Vanderbilt Kennedy Center for Research on Human Development, 110 Magnolia Circle, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN, 37203, USA. .,Department of Psychiatry, University of Szeged, 6725, Szeged, Hungary.
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75
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Lewis ND, Hill JD, Juchem KW, Stefanopoulos DE, Modis LK. RNA sequencing of microglia and monocyte-derived macrophages from mice with experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis illustrates a changing phenotype with disease course. J Neuroimmunol 2014; 277:26-38. [PMID: 25270668 DOI: 10.1016/j.jneuroim.2014.09.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 71] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/09/2014] [Revised: 09/07/2014] [Accepted: 09/15/2014] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
The role of microglia and monocyte-derived macrophages in experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis pathogenesis has been controversial. To gain insight into their respective roles, we developed a method for differentiating between microglia and monocyte-derived macrophages in the CNS by flow cytometry utilizing anti-CD44 antibodies. We used this system to monitor changes in cell number, activation status, and gene expression by RNA sequencing over the course of disease. This in vivo characterization and RNA-Seq dataset improves our understanding of macrophage biology in the brain under inflammatory conditions and may lead to strategies to identify therapies for neuroinflammatory diseases.
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MESH Headings
- Animals
- Antigens, CD/genetics
- Antigens, CD/metabolism
- Base Sequence/genetics
- Base Sequence/physiology
- Cell Proliferation
- Disease Models, Animal
- Encephalomyelitis, Autoimmune, Experimental/chemically induced
- Encephalomyelitis, Autoimmune, Experimental/immunology
- Encephalomyelitis, Autoimmune, Experimental/pathology
- Female
- Flow Cytometry
- Macrophages, Peritoneal/metabolism
- Mice
- Mice, Inbred C57BL
- Microglia/metabolism
- Myelin-Oligodendrocyte Glycoprotein/toxicity
- Peptide Fragments/toxicity
- Signal Transduction/immunology
- Time Factors
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Affiliation(s)
- Nuruddeen D Lewis
- Department of Immunology and Inflammation, Boehringer Ingelheim Pharmaceuticals Inc., Ridgefield, CT 06877-0368, USA
| | - Jonathan D Hill
- Department of Research Networking, Boehringer Ingelheim Pharmaceuticals Inc., Ridgefield, CT, 06877-0368, USA
| | - Kathryn W Juchem
- Department of Immunology and Inflammation, Boehringer Ingelheim Pharmaceuticals Inc., Ridgefield, CT 06877-0368, USA
| | - Dimitria E Stefanopoulos
- Department of Immunology and Inflammation, Boehringer Ingelheim Pharmaceuticals Inc., Ridgefield, CT 06877-0368, USA
| | - Louise K Modis
- Department of Immunology and Inflammation, Boehringer Ingelheim Pharmaceuticals Inc., Ridgefield, CT 06877-0368, USA.
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Abstract
The interleukin-6 (IL-6) is a pleiotropic cytokine that plays a key role in interaction between immune and nervous system. Although IL-6 has neurotrophic properties and beneficial effects in the CNS, its overexpression is generally detrimental, adding to the pathophysiology associated with CNS disorders. The source of the increase in peripheral IL-6 remains to be established and varies among different pathologies, but has been found to be associated with cognitive dysfunction in several pathologies. This comprehensive review provides an update summary of the studies performed in humans concerning the role of central and peripheral IL-6 in cognitive dysfunction in dementias and in other systemic diseases accompained by cognitive dysfuction such as cardiovascular, liver disease, Behçet's disease and systemic lupus erythematosus. Further research is needed to correlate specific deficits in IL-6 and its receptors in pathologies characterized by cognitive dysfunction and to understand how systemic IL-6 affects high cerebral function in order to open new directions in pharmacological treatments that modulate IL-6 signalling.
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Affiliation(s)
- Isabel Trapero
- Department of Nursing, University of Valencia, 46010, Valencia, Spain
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77
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Sierra A, Navascués J, Cuadros MA, Calvente R, Martín-Oliva D, Ferrer-Martín RM, Martín-Estebané M, Carrasco MC, Marín-Teva JL. Expression of inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) in microglia of the developing quail retina. PLoS One 2014; 9:e106048. [PMID: 25170849 PMCID: PMC4149512 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0106048] [Citation(s) in RCA: 58] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/11/2014] [Accepted: 07/28/2014] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS), which produce large amounts of nitric oxide (NO), is induced in macrophages and microglia in response to inflammatory mediators such as LPS and cytokines. Although iNOS is mainly expressed by microglia that become activated in different pathological and experimental situations, it was recently reported that undifferentiated amoeboid microglia can also express iNOS during normal development. The aim of this study was to investigate the pattern of iNOS expression in microglial cells during normal development and after their activation with LPS by using the quail retina as model. iNOS expression was analyzed by iNOS immunolabeling, western-blot, and RT-PCR. NO production was determined by using DAR-4M AM, a reliable fluorescent indicator of subcellular NO production by iNOS. Embryonic, postnatal, and adult in situ quail retinas were used to analyze the pattern of iNOS expression in microglial cells during normal development. iNOS expression and NO production in LPS-treated microglial cells were investigated by an in vitro approach based on organotypic cultures of E8 retinas, in which microglial cell behavior is similar to that of the in situ retina, as previously demonstrated in our laboratory. We show here that amoeboid microglia in the quail retina express iNOS during normal development. This expression is stronger in microglial cells migrating tangentially in the vitreal part of the retina and is downregulated, albeit maintained, when microglia differentiate and become ramified. LPS treatment of retina explants also induces changes in the morphology of amoeboid microglia compatible with their activation, increasing their lysosomal compartment and upregulating iNOS expression with a concomitant production of NO. Taken together, our findings demonstrate that immature microglial cells express iNOS during normal development, suggesting a certain degree of activation. Furthermore, LPS treatment induces overactivation of amoeboid microglia, resulting in a significant iNOS upregulation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ana Sierra
- Departamento de Biología Celular, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad de Granada, Granada, Spain
| | - Julio Navascués
- Departamento de Biología Celular, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad de Granada, Granada, Spain
| | - Miguel A. Cuadros
- Departamento de Biología Celular, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad de Granada, Granada, Spain
| | - Ruth Calvente
- Departamento de Biología Celular, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad de Granada, Granada, Spain
| | - David Martín-Oliva
- Departamento de Biología Celular, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad de Granada, Granada, Spain
| | - Rosa M. Ferrer-Martín
- Departamento de Biología Celular, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad de Granada, Granada, Spain
| | - María Martín-Estebané
- Departamento de Biología Celular, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad de Granada, Granada, Spain
| | - María-Carmen Carrasco
- Departamento de Biología Celular, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad de Granada, Granada, Spain
| | - José L. Marín-Teva
- Departamento de Biología Celular, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad de Granada, Granada, Spain
- * E-mail:
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Nguyen KQN, Tsou WI, Calarese DA, Kimani SG, Singh S, Hsieh S, Liu Y, Lu B, Wu Y, Garforth SJ, Almo SC, Kotenko SV, Birge RB. Overexpression of MERTK receptor tyrosine kinase in epithelial cancer cells drives efferocytosis in a gain-of-function capacity. J Biol Chem 2014; 289:25737-49. [PMID: 25074939 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m114.570838] [Citation(s) in RCA: 72] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
MERTK, a member of the TAM (TYRO3, AXL, and MERTK) receptor tyrosine kinases, has complex and diverse roles in cell biology. On the one hand, knock-out of MERTK results in age-dependent autoimmunity characterized by failure of apoptotic cell clearance, while on the other, MERTK overexpression in cancer drives classical oncogene pathways leading to cell transformation. To better understand the interplay between cell transformation and efferocytosis, we stably expressed MERTK in human MCF10A cells, a non-tumorigenic breast epithelial cell line devoid of endogenous MERTK. While stable expression of MERTK in MCF10A resulted in enhanced motility and AKT-mediated chemoprotection, MERTK-10A cells did not form stable colonies in soft agar, or enhance proliferation compared with parental MCF10A cells. Concomitant to chemoresistance, MERTK also stimulated efferocytosis in a gain-of-function capacity. However, unlike AXL, MERTK activation was highly dependent on apoptotic cells, suggesting MERTK may preferentially interface with phosphatidylserine. Consistent with this idea, knockdown of MERTK in breast cancer cells MDA-MB 231 reduced efferocytosis, while transient or stable expression of MERTK stimulated apoptotic cell clearance in all cell lines tested. Moreover, human breast cancer cells with higher endogenous MERTK showed higher levels of efferocytosis that could be blocked by soluble TAM receptors. Finally, through MERTK, apoptotic cells induced PD-L1 expression, an immune checkpoint blockade, suggesting that cancer cells may adopt MERTK-driven efferocytosis as an immune suppression mechanism for their advantage. These data collectively identify MERTK as a significant link between cancer progression and efferocytosis, and a potentially unrealized tumor-promoting event when MERTK is overexpressed in epithelial cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Khanh-Quynh N Nguyen
- From the Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University Hospital Cancer Center
| | - Wen-I Tsou
- From the Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University Hospital Cancer Center, Center for Immunity and Inflammation, New Jersey Medical School, and
| | - Daniel A Calarese
- Department of Biochemistry, Albert Einstein College of Medicine of Yeshiva University, Bronx, New York 10461
| | - Stanley G Kimani
- From the Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University Hospital Cancer Center
| | - Sukhwinder Singh
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, Flow Cytometry and Immunology Core Laboratory, Rutgers Biomedical and Health Sciences, Newark, New Jersey 07103
| | - Shelly Hsieh
- Rutgers, New Jersey Medical School of Yeshiva University, Newark, New Jersey 07103
| | - Yongzhang Liu
- Institute of Biophysics and Attardi Institute of Mitochondrial Biomedicine, School of Life Sciences, Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou 325035, China, and
| | - Bin Lu
- Institute of Biophysics and Attardi Institute of Mitochondrial Biomedicine, School of Life Sciences, Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou 325035, China, and
| | - Yi Wu
- Cyrus Tang Hematology Center, Soochow University, Suzhou, Jiangsu 215123, China
| | - Scott J Garforth
- Department of Biochemistry, Albert Einstein College of Medicine of Yeshiva University, Bronx, New York 10461
| | - Steve C Almo
- Department of Biochemistry, Albert Einstein College of Medicine of Yeshiva University, Bronx, New York 10461
| | - Sergei V Kotenko
- From the Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University Hospital Cancer Center, Center for Immunity and Inflammation, New Jersey Medical School, and
| | - Raymond B Birge
- From the Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University Hospital Cancer Center,
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79
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Kim DY, Rhee I, Paik J. Metabolic circuits in neural stem cells. Cell Mol Life Sci 2014; 71:4221-41. [PMID: 25037158 DOI: 10.1007/s00018-014-1686-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/28/2014] [Revised: 06/25/2014] [Accepted: 07/14/2014] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Metabolic activity indicative of cellular demand is emerging as a key player in cell fate decision. Numerous studies have demonstrated that diverse metabolic pathways have a critical role in the control of the proliferation, differentiation and quiescence of stem cells. The identification of neural stem/progenitor cells (NSPCs) and the characterization of their development and fate decision process have provided insight into the regenerative potential of the adult brain. As a result, the potential of NSPCs in cell replacement therapies for neurological diseases is rapidly growing. The aim of this review is to discuss the recent findings on the crosstalk among key regulators of NSPC development and the metabolic regulation crucial for the function and cell fate decisions of NSPCs. Fundamental understanding of the metabolic circuits in NSPCs may help to provide novel approaches for reactivating neurogenesis to treat degenerative brain conditions and cognitive decline.
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Affiliation(s)
- Do-Yeon Kim
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, Weill Cornell Medical College, New York City, NY, 10065, USA
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