Detailed specificity analysis of antibodies binding to modified histone tails with peptide arrays

A Comparative Analysis and Review of lysyl Residues Affected by Posttranslational Modifications

Post-translational modification is the most common mechanism of regulating protein function. If phosphorylation is considered a key event in many signal transduction pathways, other modifications must be considered as well. In particular the side chain of lysine residues is a target of different modifications; notably acetylation, methylation, ubiquitylation, sumoylation, neddylation, etc. Mass spectrometry approaches combining highly sensitive instruments and specific enrichment strategies have enabled the identification of modified sites on a large scale. Here we make a comparative analysis of the most representative lysine modifications (ubiquitylation, acetylation, sumoylation and methylation) identified in the human proteome. This review focuses on conserved amino acids, secondary structures preference, subcellular localization of modified proteins, and signaling pathways where these modifications are implicated. We discuss specific differences and similarities between these modifications, characteristics of the crosstalk among lysine post translational modifications, and single nucleotide polymorphisms that could influence lysine post-translational modifications in humans.

Calibrating ChIP-Seq with Nucleosomal Internal Standards to Measure Histone Modification Density Genome Wide

Chromatin immunoprecipitation (ChIP) serves as a central experimental technique in epigenetics research, yet there are serious drawbacks: it is a relative measurement, which untethered to any external scale obscures fair comparison among experiments; it employs antibody reagents that have differing affinities and specificities for target epitopes that vary in abundance; and it is frequently not reproducible. To address these problems, we developed Internal Standard Calibrated ChIP (ICeChIP), wherein a native chromatin sample is spiked with nucleosomes reconstituted from recombinant and semisynthetic histones on barcoded DNA prior to immunoprecipitation. ICeChIP measures local histone modification densities on a biologically meaningful scale, enabling unbiased trans-experimental comparisons, and reveals unique insight into the nature of bivalent domains. This technology provides in situ assessment of the immunoprecipitation step, accommodating for many experimental pitfalls as well as providing a critical examination of untested assumptions inherent to conventional ChIP.

A Novel Multipeptide Microarray for the Specific and Sensitive Mapping of Linear IgE-Binding Epitopes of Food Allergens

BACKGROUND

The identification of B-cell epitopes of food allergens can possibly lead to novel diagnostic tools and therapeutic reagents for food allergy. We sought to develop a flexible, low-tech, cost-effective and reproducible multipeptide microarray for the research environment to enable large-scale screening of IgE epitopes of food allergens.

METHODS

Overlapping peptides (15-mer, 4 amino acid offset) covering the primary sequence of either peanut allergen Ara h 1 or all 3 subunits of the soybean allergen Gly m 5 were simultaneously synthesized in-house on a porous cellulose matrix. Identical peptide microarrays created with up to 384 duplicate peptide-cellulose microspots each were investigated for specificity and sensitivity in IgE immunodetection and in direct experimental comparison to the formerly established SPOT™ membrane technique.

RESULTS

The in-house microarray identified with 98% reproducibility the same IgE-binding peptides as the SPOT™ membrane technique. Additional IgE-binding peptides were identified using the microarray. While the sensitivity was increased between 2- and 20-fold, the amount of human serum required was reduced by at least two thirds over the SPOT™ membrane technique using the microarray. After subtraction of the potential background, we did not observe non-specific binding to the presented peptides on microarray.

CONCLUSIONS

The novel peptide microarray allows simple and cost-effective screening for potential epitopes of large allergenic legume seed storage proteins, and it could be adapted for other food allergens as well, to study allergenic epitopes at the individual subject level in large paediatric and adult study groups of food allergic subjects.

Somatic cancer mutations in the MLL3-SET domain alter the catalytic properties of the enzyme

BACKGROUND

Somatic mutations in epigenetic enzymes are frequently found in cancer tissues. The MLL3 H3K4-specific protein lysine monomethyltransferase is an important epigenetic enzyme, and it is among the most recurrently mutated enzymes in cancers. MLL3 mainly introduces H3K4me1 at enhancers.

RESULTS

We investigated the enzymatic properties of MLL3 variants that carry somatic cancer mutations. Asn4848 is located at the cofactor binding sites, and the N4848S exchange renders the enzyme inactive. Tyr4884 is part of an aromatic pocket at the active center of the enzyme, and Y4884C converts MLL3 from a monomethyltransferase with substrate preference for H3K4me0 to a trimethyltransferase with H3K4me1 as preferred substrate. Expression of Y4884C leads to aberrant H3K4me3 formation in cells.

CONCLUSIONS

Our data show that different somatic cancer mutations of MLL3 affect the enzyme activity in distinct and opposing manner highlighting the importance of experimentally studying the effects of somatic cancer mutations in key regulatory enzymes in order to develop and apply targeted tumor therapy.

Contemporary proteomic strategies for clinical epigenetic research and potential impact for the clinic

Novel proteomic methods are revealing the intricacy of the epigenetic landscape affecting gene regulation and improving our knowledge of the pathogenesis of complex diseases. Despite the enormous amount of data regarding epigenetic modifications present in DNA and histones, deciphering their biological relevance in the context of the disease and health is currently still an ongoing process. Here, we consider the relationship between epigenetic research in tumorigenesis and the prospect of knowledge transfer to clinical use, focusing primarily on the epigenetic histone post-translational modifications, which could be used as biomarkers. We additionally focus on the use of proteomic techniques in research and evaluate their usefulness in clinical setting.

Specificity Analysis of Histone Modification-Specific Antibodies or Reading Domains on Histone Peptide Arrays

Histone posttranslational modifications (PTMs) have a crucial role in chromatin regulation and dynamics. They are specifically bound by so-called reading domains, which mediate the biological effects of histone PTMs. On a similar note, antibodies are invaluable reagents in chromatin biology for the detection, characterization, and mapping of histone PTMs. Despite these central roles in chromatin research and biology, the specificity of many antibodies and reading domains has been insufficiently characterized and documented. Here we describe in detail the application of the MODified™ Histone Peptide Array for the investigation of the binding specificity of histone binding antibodies or domains. The array contains 384 histone tail peptides carrying 59 posttranslational modifications in different combinations which can be used to study the primary binding specificity, but at the same time also allow to determine the combinatorial effect of secondary marks on antibody or reading domain binding.

Application of histone modification-specific interaction domains as an alternative to antibodies

Post-translational modifications (PTMs) of histones constitute a major chromatin indexing mechanism, and their proper characterization is of highest biological importance. So far, PTM-specific antibodies have been the standard reagent for studying histone PTMs despite caveats such as lot-to-lot variability of specificity and binding affinity. Herein, we successfully employed naturally occurring and engineered histone modification interacting domains for detection and identification of histone PTMs and ChIP-like enrichment of different types of chromatin. Our results demonstrate that histone interacting domains are robust and highly specific reagents that can replace or complement histone modification antibodies. These domains can be produced recombinantly in Escherichia coli at low cost and constant quality. Protein design of reading domains allows for generation of novel specificities, addition of affinity tags, and preparation of PTM binding pocket variants as matching negative controls, which is not possible with antibodies.

A comparison of control samples for ChIP-seq of histone modifications

The advent of high-throughput sequencing has allowed genome wide profiling of histone modifications by Chromatin ImmunoPrecipitation (ChIP) followed by sequencing (ChIP-seq). In this assay the histone mark of interest is enriched through a chromatin pull-down assay using an antibody for the mark. Due to imperfect antibodies and other factors, many of the sequenced fragments do not originate from the histone mark of interest, and are referred to as background reads. Background reads are not uniformly distributed and therefore control samples are usually used to estimate the background distribution at any given genomic position. The Encyclopedia of DNA Elements (ENCODE) Consortium guidelines suggest sequencing a whole cell extract (WCE, or “input”) sample, or a mock ChIP reaction such as an IgG control, as a background sample. However, for a histone modification ChIP-seq investigation it is also possible to use a Histone H3 (H3) pull-down to map the underlying distribution of histones. In this paper we generated data from a hematopoietic stem and progenitor cell population isolated from mouse fetal liver to compare WCE and H3 ChIP-seq as control samples. The quality of the control samples is estimated by a comparison to pull-downs of histone modifications and to expression data. We find minor differences between WCE and H3 ChIP-seq, such as coverage in mitochondria and behavior close to transcription start sites. Where the two controls differ, the H3 pull-down is generally more similar to the ChIP-seq of histone modifications. However, the differences between H3 and WCE have a negligible impact on the quality of a standard analysis.

Histone modifications and a choice of variant: a language that helps the genome express itself

Covalent post-translational modifications on histones impact chromatin structure and function. Their misfunction, along with perturbations or mutations in genes that regulate their dynamic status, has been observed in several diseases. Thus, targeting histone modifications represents attractive opportunities for therapeutic intervention and biomarker discovery. The best approach to address this challenge is to paint a comprehensive picture integrating the growing number of modifications on individual residues and their combinatorial association, the corresponding modifying enzymes, and effector proteins that bind modifications. Furthermore, how they are imposed in a distinct manner during the cell cycle and on specific histone variants are important dimensions to consider. Firstly, this report highlights innovative technologies used to characterize histone modifications, and the corresponding enzymes and effector proteins. Secondly, we examine the recent progress made in understanding the dynamics and maintenance of histone modifications on distinct variants. We also discuss their roles as potential carriers of epigenetic information. Finally, we provide examples of initiatives to exploit histone modifications in cancer management, with the potential for new therapeutic opportunities.

Histone target selection within chromatin: an exemplary case of teamwork

Histone modifiers like acetyltransferases, methyltransferases, and demethylases are critical regulators of most DNA-based nuclear processes, de facto controlling cell cycle progression and cell fate. These enzymes perform very precise post-translational modifications on specific histone residues, which in turn are recognized by different effector modules/proteins. We now have a better understanding of how these enzymes exhibit such specificity. As they often reside in multisubunit complexes, they use associated factors to target their substrates within chromatin structure and select specific histone mark-bearing nucleosomes. In this review, we cover the current understanding of how histone modifiers select their histone targets. We also explain how different experimental approaches can lead to conflicting results about the histone specificity and function of these enzymes.

ChIP-less analysis of chromatin states

Background

Histone post-translational modifications (PTMs) are key epigenetic regulators in chromatin-based processes. Increasing evidence suggests that vast combinations of PTMs exist within chromatin histones. These complex patterns, rather than individual PTMs, are thought to define functional chromatin states. However, the ability to interrogate combinatorial histone PTM patterns at the nucleosome level has been limited by the lack of direct molecular tools.

Results

Here we demonstrate an efficient, quantitative, antibody-free, chromatin immunoprecipitation-less (ChIP-less) method for interrogating diverse epigenetic states. At the heart of the workflow are recombinant chromatin reader domains, which target distinct chromatin states with combinatorial PTM patterns. Utilizing a newly designed combinatorial histone peptide microarray, we showed that three reader domains (ATRX-ADD, ING2-PHD and AIRE-PHD) displayed greater specificity towards combinatorial PTM patterns than corresponding commercial histone antibodies. Such specific recognitions were employed to develop a chromatin reader-based affinity enrichment platform (matrix-assisted reader chromatin capture, or MARCC). We successfully applied the reader-based platform to capture unique chromatin states, which were quantitatively profiled by mass spectrometry to reveal interconnections between nucleosomal histone PTMs. Specifically, a highly enriched signature that harbored H3K4me0, H3K9me2/3, H3K79me0 and H4K20me2/3 within the same nucleosome was identified from chromatin enriched by ATRX-ADD. This newly reported PTM combination was enriched in heterochromatin, as revealed by the associated DNA.

Conclusions

Our results suggest the broad utility of recombinant reader domains as an enrichment tool specific to combinatorial PTM patterns, which are difficult to probe directly by antibody-based approaches. The reader affinity platform is compatible with several downstream analyses to investigate the physical coexistence of nucleosomal PTM states associated with specific genomic loci. Collectively, the reader-based workflow will greatly facilitate our understanding of how distinct chromatin states and reader domains function in gene regulatory mechanisms.

Biochemical systems approaches for the analysis of histone modification readout

Chromatin is the macromolecular nucleoprotein complex that governs the organization of genetic material in the nucleus of eukaryotic cells. In chromatin, DNA is packed with histone proteins into nucleosomes. Core histones are prototypes of hyper-modified proteins, being decorated by a large number of site-specific reversible and irreversible post-translational modifications (PTMs), which contribute to the maintenance and modulation of chromatin plasticity, gene activation, and a variety of other biological processes and disease states. The observations of the variety, frequency and co-occurrence of histone modifications in distinct patterns at specific genomic loci have led to the idea that hPTMs can create a molecular barcode, read by effector proteins that translate it into a specific transcriptional state, or process, on the underlying DNA. However, despite the fact that this histone-code hypothesis was proposed more than 10 years ago, the molecular details of its working mechanisms are only partially characterized. In particular, two questions deserve specific investigation: how the different modifications associate and synergize into patterns and how these PTM configurations are read and translated by multi-protein complexes into a specific functional outcome on the genome. Mass spectrometry (MS) has emerged as a versatile tool to investigate chromatin biology, useful for both identifying and validating hPTMs, and to dissect the molecular determinants of histone modification readout systems. We review here the MS techniques and the proteomics methods that have been developed to address these fundamental questions in epigenetics research, emphasizing approaches based on the proteomic dissection of distinct native chromatin regions, with a critical evaluation of their present challenges and future potential. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled: Molecular mechanisms of histone modification function.

Genomic architecture of histone 3 lysine 27 trimethylation during late ovine skeletal muscle development

The ruminant developmental transition from late foetus to lamb is associated with marked changes in skeletal muscle structure and function that reflect programming for new physiological demands following birth. To determine whether epigenetic changes are involved in this transition, we investigated the genomic architecture of the chromatin modification, histone 3 lysine 27 trimethylation (H3K27me3), which typically regulates early life developmental processes; however, its role in later life processes is unclear. Chromatin immunoprecipitation coupled with next‐generation sequencing was used to map H3K27me3 nucleosomes in ovine longissimus lumborum skeletal muscle at 100 days of gestation and 12 weeks post‐partum. In both states, H3K27me3 modification was associated with genes, transcription start sites and CpG islands and with transcriptional silencing. The H3K27me3 peaks consisted of two major categories, promoter specific and regional, with the latter the dominant feature. Genes encoding homeobox transcription factors regulating early life development and genes involved in neural functions, particularly gated ion channels, were strongly modified by H3K27me3. Gene promoters differentially modified by H3K27me3 in the foetus and lamb were enriched for gated ion channels, which may reflect changes in neuromuscular function. However, most modified genes showed no changes, indicating that H3K27me3 does not have a large role in late muscle maturation. Notably, promyogenic transcription factors were strongly modified with H3K27me3 but showed no differences between the late gestation foetus and lamb, likely reflecting their lack of involvement in the myofibre fusion process occurring in this transition. H3K27me3 is a major architectural feature of the epigenetic landscape of ruminant skeletal muscle, and it comments on gene transcription and gene function in the context of late skeletal muscle development.

Development and mechanistic studies of an optimized receptor for trimethyllysine using iterative redesign by dynamic combinatorial chemistry

Iterative monomer redesign leads to a Kme₃-peptide receptor with 10-fold tighter affinity and 5-fold improved selectivity over Kme₂ than the original receptor. Thermodynamic analysis provides insight into this improvement.

Catch and measure-mass spectrometry-based immunoassays in biomarker research

Mass spectrometry-based (MS) methods are effective tools for discovering protein biomarker candidates that can differentiate between physiological and pathophysiological states. Promising candidates are validated in studies comprising large patient cohorts. Here, targeted protein analytics are used to increase sample throughput. Methods involving antibodies, such as sandwich immunoassays or Western blots, are commonly applied at this stage. Highly-specific and sensitive mass spectrometry-based immunoassays that have been established in recent years offer a suitable alternative to sandwich immunoassays for quantifying proteins. Mass Spectrometric ImmunoAssays (MSIA) and Stable Isotope Standards and Capture by Anti-Peptide Antibodies (SISCAPA/iMALDI) are two prominent types of MS-based immunoassays in which the capture is done either at the protein or the peptide level. We present an overview of these emerging types of immunoassays and discuss their suitability for the discovery and validation of protein biomarkers. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled: Biomarkers: A Proteomic Challenge.

From spots to beads-PTM-peptide bead arrays for the characterization of anti-histone antibodies

Antibodies that recognize PTMs of histones play a central role in epigenetic proteomic research. Modification-specific antibodies are employed in chromatin immunoprecipitation, for Western blotting and during the immunoprecipitation steps for MS-based global proteomic analyses. Knowledge about the antibodies' off-target binding is essential for the interpretation of experimental data. To address this challenge we developed a fast and cost efficient system for generating peptide bead arrays. We employed this method to establish a bead-based peptide array containing 384 peptides displaying phosphorylated, acetylated, methylated, and citrullinated N-terminal regions of histones H2A, H2B, H3 and H4 and controls. We profiled the binding of 40 PTM-specific antibodies important for epigenetic proteomic research.

The Tudor domain of the PHD finger protein 1 is a dual reader of lysine trimethylation at lysine 36 of histone H3 and lysine 27 of histone variant H3t

PHF1 associates with the Polycomb repressive complex 2 and it was demonstrated to stimulate its H3K27-trimethylation activity. We studied the interaction of the PHF1 Tudor domain with modified histone peptides and found that it recognizes H3K36me3 and H3tK27me3 (on the histone variant H3t) and that it uses the same trimethyllysine binding pocket for the interaction with both peptides. Since both peptide sequences are very different, this result indicates that reading domains can have dual specificities. Sub-nuclear localization studies of full-length PHF1 in human HEK293 cells revealed that it co-localizes with K27me3, but not with K36me3, and that this co-localization depends on the trimethyllysine binding pocket indicating that K27me3 is an in vivo target for the PHF1 Tudor domain. Our data suggest that PHF1 binds to H3tK27me3 in human chromatin, and H3t has a more general role in Polycomb regulation.

Site-specific NMR mapping and time-resolved monitoring of serine and threonine phosphorylation in reconstituted kinase reactions and mammalian cell extracts

We outline NMR protocols for site-specific mapping and time-resolved monitoring of protein phosphorylation reactions using purified kinases and mammalian cell extracts. These approaches are particularly amenable to intrinsically disordered proteins and unfolded, regulatory protein domains. We present examples for the ¹⁵N isotope-labeled N-terminal transactivation domain of human p53, which is either sequentially reacted with recombinant enzymes or directly added to mammalian cell extracts and phosphorylated by endogenous kinases. Phosphorylation reactions with purified enzymes are set up in minutes, whereas NMR samples in cell extracts are prepared within 1 h. Time-resolved NMR measurements are performed over minutes to hours depending on the activities of the probed kinases. Phosphorylation is quantitatively monitored with consecutive 2D ¹H-¹⁵N band-selective optimized-flip-angle short-transient (SOFAST)-heteronuclear multiple-quantum (HMQC) NMR experiments, which provide atomic-resolution insights into the phosphorylation levels of individual substrate residues and time-dependent changes thereof, thereby offering unique advantages over western blotting and mass spectrometry.

Chemically modified tandem repeats in proteins: natural combinatorial peptide libraries

Many proteins composed of tandem repeats (a linear motif, directly repeated within the sequence) are substrates for post-translational modifications (PTMs). Tandem repeats are also dynamic in number, presumably due to instability in the underlying DNA sequence. These observations lead to a hypothesis that cells use a combination of PTMs and variability in repeat number to mediate protein function. Evidence of these processes co-regulating diverse aspects of cellular function can be found in all organisms from bacteria to humans, suggesting a common but poorly described mechanism for regulating and diversifying protein function. This review highlights several examples whereby protein modifications and repetitive protein domains impart diversity. Lastly, it speculates on the possibility of using chemically modified repetitive amino acid sequences to develop peptide-based biomolecules with novel functions.

Deciphering post-translational modification codes

Post-translational modifications (PTMs) occur on nearly all proteins. Many domains within proteins are modified on multiple amino acid sidechains by diverse enzymes to create a myriad of possible protein species. How these combinations of PTMs lead to distinct biological outcomes is only beginning to be understood. This manuscript highlights several examples of combinatorial PTMs in proteins, and describes recent technological developments, which are driving our ability to understand how PTM patterns may "code" for biological outcomes.

ChAP-MS: a method for identification of proteins and histone posttranslational modifications at a single genomic locus

The field of epigenomics has been transformed by chromatin immunoprecipitation approaches that provide for the localization of a defined protein or posttranslationally modified protein to specific chromosomal sites. While these approaches have helped us conceptualize epigenetic mechanisms, the field has been limited by the inability to define features such as the proteome and histone modifications at a specific genomic locus in an unbiased manner. We developed an unbiased approach whereby a unique native genomic locus was isolated, which was followed by high-resolution proteomic identification of specifically associated proteins and histone posttranslational modifications. This chromatin affinity purification with mass spectrometry (ChAP-MS) technique was used to specifically enrich a ~1,000 base pair section of GAL1 chromatin under transcriptionally active and repressive conditions, as well as to identify the specifically bound proteins and histone posttranslational modifications. ChAP-MS should yield insight into the regulatory mechanisms of transcription and help identify factors that epigenetically control chromatin function.

Poly-acetylated chromatin signatures are preferred epitopes for site-specific histone H4 acetyl antibodies

Antibodies specific for histone post-translational modifications (PTMs) have been central to our understanding of chromatin biology. Here, we describe an unexpected and novel property of histone H4 site-specific acetyl antibodies in that they prefer poly-acetylated histone substrates. By all current criteria, these antibodies have passed specificity standards. However, we find these site-specific histone antibodies preferentially recognize chromatin signatures containing two or more adjacent acetylated lysines. Significantly, we find that the poly-acetylated epitopes these antibodies prefer are evolutionarily conserved and are present at levels that compete for these antibodies over the intended individual acetylation sites. This alarming property of acetyl-specific antibodies has far-reaching implications for data interpretation and may present a challenge for the future study of acetylated histone and non-histone proteins.

The SET8 H4K20 protein lysine methyltransferase has a long recognition sequence covering seven amino acid residues

The SET8 histone lysine methyltransferase, which monomethylates the histone 4 lysine 20 residue plays important roles in cell cycle control and genomic stability. By employing peptide arrays we have shown that it has a long recognition sequence motif covering seven amino acid residues, viz. R(17)-H(18)-(R(19)KY)-K(20)-(V(21)ILFY)-(L(22)FY)-R(23). Celluspots peptide array methylation studies confirmed specific monomethylation of H4K20 and revealed that the symmetric and asymmetric methylation on R(17) of the H4 tail inhibits methylation on H4K20. Similarly, dimethylation of the R located at the -3 position also reduced methylation of p53 K382 which had been shown previously to be methylated by SET8. Based on the derived specificity profile, we identified 4 potential non-histone substrate proteins. After relaxing the specificity profile, we identified several more candidate substrates and showed efficient methylation of 20 novel non-histone peptides by SET8. However, apart from H4 and p53 none of the identified novel peptide targets was methylated at the protein level. Since H4 and p53 both contain the target lysine in an unstructured part of the protein, we conclude that the long recognition sequence of SET8 makes it difficult to methylate a lysine in a folded region of a protein, because amino acid side chains essential for recognition will be buried.

Ligand binding assays in the 21st century laboratory: recommendations for characterization and supply of critical reagents

Critical reagents are essential components of ligand binding assays (LBAs) and are utilized throughout the process of drug discovery, development, and post-marketing monitoring. Successful lifecycle management of LBA critical reagents minimizes assay performance problems caused by declining reagent activity and can mitigate the risk of delays during preclinical and clinical studies. Proactive reagent management assures adequate supply. It also assures that the quality of critical reagents is appropriate and consistent for the intended LBA use throughout all stages of the drug development process. This manuscript summarizes the key considerations for the generation, production, characterization, qualification, documentation, and management of critical reagents in LBAs, with recommendations for antibodies (monoclonal and polyclonal), engineered proteins, peptides, and their conjugates. Recommendations are given for each reagent type on basic and optional characterization profiles, expiration dates and storage temperatures, and investment in a knowledge database system. These recommendations represent a consensus among the authors and should be used to assist bioanalytical laboratories in the implementation of a best practices program for critical reagent life cycle management.

Application of Celluspots peptide arrays for the analysis of the binding specificity of epigenetic reading domains to modified histone tails

Background

Epigenetic reading domains are involved in the regulation of gene expression and chromatin state by interacting with histones in a post-translational modification specific manner. A detailed knowledge of the target modifications of reading domains, including enhancing and inhibiting secondary modifications, will lead to a better understanding of the biological signaling processes mediated by reading domains.

Results

We describe the application of Celluspots peptide arrays which contain 384 histone peptides carrying 59 post translational modifications in different combinations as an inexpensive, reliable and fast method for initial screening for specific interactions of reading domains with modified histone peptides. To validate the method, we tested the binding specificities of seven known epigenetic reading domains on Celluspots peptide arrays, viz. the HP1ß and MPP8 Chromo domains, JMJD2A and 53BP1 Tudor domains, Dnmt3a PWWP domain, Rag2 PHD domain and BRD2 Bromo domain. In general, the binding results agreed with literature data with respect to the primary specificity of the reading domains, but in almost all cases we obtained additional new information concerning the influence of secondary modifications surrounding the target modification.

Conclusions

We conclude that Celluspots peptide arrays are powerful screening tools for studying the specificity of putative reading domains binding to modified histone peptides.

The ATRX-ADD domain binds to H3 tail peptides and reads the combined methylation state of K4 and K9

Mutations in the ATRX protein are associated with the alpha-thalassemia and mental retardation X-linked syndrome (ATR-X). Almost half of the disease-causing mutations occur in its ATRX-Dnmt3-Dnmt3L (ADD) domain. By employing peptide arrays, chromatin pull-down and peptide binding assays, we show specific binding of the ADD domain to H3 histone tail peptides containing H3K9me3. Peptide binding was disrupted by the presence of the H3K4me3 and H3K4me2 modification marks indicating that the ATRX-ADD domain has a combined readout of these two important marks (absence of H3K4me2 and H3K4me3 and presence of H3K9me3). Disease-causing mutations reduced ATRX-ADD binding to H3 tail peptides. ATRX variants, which fail in the H3K9me3 interaction, show a loss of heterochromatic localization in cells, which indicates the chromatin targeting function of the ADD domain of ATRX. Disruption of H3K9me3 binding may be a general pathogenicity pathway of ATRX mutations in the ADD domain which may explain the clustering of disease mutations in this part of the ATRX protein.

Operating on chromatin, a colorful language where context matters

Histones, the fundamental packaging elements of eukaryotic DNA, are highly decorated with a diverse set of post-translational modifications (PTMs) that are recognized to govern the structure and function of chromatin. Ten years ago, we put forward the histone code hypothesis, which provided a model to explain how single and/or combinatorial PTMs on histones regulate the diverse activities associated with chromatin (e.g., gene transcription). At that time, there was a limited understanding of both the number of PTMs that occur on histones and the proteins that place, remove, and interpret them. Since the conception of this hypothesis, the field has witnessed an unprecedented advance in our understanding of the enzymes that contribute to the establishment of histone PTMs, as well as the diverse effector proteins that bind them. While debate continues as to whether histone PTMs truly constitute a strict "code," it is becoming clear that PTMs on histone proteins function in elaborate combinations to regulate the many activities associated with chromatin. In this special issue, we celebrate the 50th anniversary of the landmark publication of the lac operon with a review that provides a current view of the histone code hypothesis, the lessons we have learned over the last decade, and the technologies that will drive our understanding of histone PTMs forward in the future.

Influence of combinatorial histone modifications on antibody and effector protein recognition

Increasing evidence suggests that histone posttranslational modifications (PTMs) function in a combinatorial fashion to regulate the diverse activities associated with chromatin. Yet how these patterns of histone PTMs influence the adapter proteins known to bind them is poorly understood. In addition, how histone-specific antibodies are influenced by these same patterns of PTMs is largely unknown. Here we examine the binding properties of histone-specific antibodies and histone-interacting proteins using peptide arrays containing a library of combinatorially modified histone peptides. We find that modification-specific antibodies are more promiscuous in their PTM recognition than expected and are highly influenced by neighboring PTMs. Furthermore, we find that the binding of histone-interaction domains from BPTF, CHD1, and RAG2 to H3 lysine 4 trimethylation is also influenced by combinatorial PTMs. These results provide further support for the histone code hypothesis and raise specific concerns with the quality of the currently available modification-specific histone antibodies.