Netrins are diffusible chemotropic factors for commissural axons in the embryonic spinal cord

Axonin-1, Nr-CAM, and Ng-CAM play different roles in the in vivo guidance of chick commissural neurons

Immunoglobulin/fibronectin type III-like cell adhesion molecules have been implicated in axon pathfinding based on their expression pattern in the developing nervous system and on their complex interactions described in vitro. The present in vivo study demonstrates that interactions by two of these molecules, axonin-1 on commissural growth cones and Nr-CAM on floor plate cells, are required for accurate pathfinding at the midline. When axonin-1 or Nr-CAM interactions were perturbed, many commissural axons failed to cross the midline and turned instead along the ipsilateral floor plate border. In contrast, though perturbation of Ng-CAM produced a defasciculation of the commissural neurites, it did not affect their guidance across the floor plate.

Semaphorin II can function as a selective inhibitor of specific synaptic arborizations

Previous studies showed that grasshopper semaphorin I, a transmembrane semaphorin, functions in vivo to steer a pair of growth cones, prevent defasciculation, and inhibit branching; and that chick collapsin, a secreted semaphorin, can function in vitro to cause growth cone collapse. Semaphorin II, a secreted semaphorin in Drosophila, is transiently expressed by a single large muscle during motoneuron outgrowth and synapse formation. To test the in vivo function of semaphorin II, we created transgenic Drosophila that generate ectopic semaphorin II expression by muscles that normally do not express it. The results show that semaphorin II can function in vivo as a selective target-derived signal that inhibits the formation of specific synaptic terminal arbors.

The axonal chemoattractant netrin-1 is also a chemorepellent for trochlear motor axons

Extending axons are guided in part by diffusible chemoattractants that lure them to their targets and by diffusible chemorepellents that keep them away from nontarget regions. Floor plate cells at the ventral midline of the neural tube express a diffusible chemoattractant, netrin-1, that attracts a group of ventrally directed axons. Here we report that floor plate cells also have a long-range repulsive effect on a set of axons, trochlear motor axons, that grow dorsally away from the floor plate in vivo. COS cells secreting recombinant netrin-1 mimic this effect, suggesting that netrin-1 is a bifunctional guidance cue that simultaneously attracts some axons to the floor plate while steering others away. This bifunctionality of netrin-1 in vertebrates mirrors the dual actions of UNC-6, a C. elegans homolog of netrin-1, which is involved in guiding both dorsal and ventral migrations in the nematode.

Semaphorin III can function as a selective chemorepellent to pattern sensory projections in the spinal cord

Distinct classes of primary sensory neurons in dorsal root ganglia subserve different sensory modalities, terminate in different dorsoventral locations in the spinal cord, and display different neurotrophin response profiles. Large diameter muscle afferents that terminate in the ventral spinal cord are NT-3 responsive, whereas small diameter afferents subserving pain and temperature are NGF responsive and terminate in the dorsal spinal cord. Previous in vitro studies showed that the developing ventral spinal cord secretes a diffusible factor that inhibits the growth of sensory axons. Here we show that this factor repels NGF-responsive axons but has little effect on NT-3-responsive axons. We also provide evidence implicating semaphorin III/collapsin, a diffusible guidance molecule expressed by ventral spinal cord cells, in mediating this effect. These results suggest that semaphorin III functions to pattern sensory projections by selectively repelling axons that normally terminate dorsally.

Murine semaphorin D/collapsin is a member of a diverse gene family and creates domains inhibitory for axonal extension

Members of the collapsin/semaphorin gene family have been proposed to act as growth cone guidance signals in vertebrates and invertebrates. To identify candidate molecules involved in axonal pathfinding during mouse embryogenesis, we isolated cDNAs encoding five new members of the semaphorin family (Sem A-Sem E). The murine semaphorin genes are differentially expressed in mesoderm and neuroectoderm before and during the time when axons select their pathways in the embryo. In explant cultures, recombinant Sem D/collapsin converts a matrix permissive for axonal growth into one that is inhibitory for neurites of peripheral ganglia. Our data demonstrate that semaphorins are a diverse family of molecules that may provide local signals to specify territories nonaccessible for growing axons.

Floor plate chemoattracts crossed axons and chemorepels uncrossed axons in the vertebrate brain

In the bilaterally symmetrical vertebrate CNS, all developing axons must choose between remaining on the same side of the midline or growing across it. The mechanism underlying this axonal pathfinding is, however, poorly understood. Here we demonstrate that the ventral midline floor plate (FP) chemorepels two types of ipsilaterally projecting axons, one from the alar plate and another from the basal plate in the mesencephalon. We further demonstrate that the FP chemoattracts contralaterally projecting myelencephalic as well as metencephalic axons. The FP at all axial levels displayed both chemoattractive and chemorepellent activities, suggesting that FP chemoattraction and chemorepulsion may be at work throughout the neuraxis. Chemotropic guidance by the FP may therefore play a key role in the establishment of neuronal projection laterality.

In situ hybridization reveals transient laminin B-chain expression by individual glial and muscle cells in embryonic leech central nervous system

Laminin, which strongly stimulates axon outgrowth in vitro, appears transiently within the central nervous system (CNS) in embryos. After CNS injury, laminin reportedly reappears along axonal pathways only in animal species in which central axon regeneration is successful, including the leech Hirudo medicinalis. Although glia have been suspected of making CNS laminin, in adult leeches glia are not required for laminin synthesis and evidently microglia, not present in the early embryo, produce laminin. To determine which embryonic cells make laminin, a 1.2 kb DNA fragment of leech laminin B1 chain, with homology to Drosophila, human, and mouse B1 laminins and rat S laminin, was isolated using reverse-transcription and degenerate polymerase chain reaction (PCR) cloning. In situ hybridization revealed that laminin expression began before embryonic day 8, and by days 8 and 9 it was seen in paired CNS muscle cells. By late day 9, the two neuropil glial cells began to express laminin. Lucifer Yellow dye was injected intracellularly and muscle cells stimulated to contract, confirming the identities of muscle and glial cells. Packet glial cells began to express B1 laminin by embryonic day 12. By day 15, the cells of the perineurial sheath expressed B1 laminin, whereas it was no longer detectable in CNS muscle and glia. The results agree with published immunohistochemistry showing laminin within the CNS among growing axons by day 8, and only later in the perineurial sheath, by which time laminin disappears from within the CNS. Therefore, different cells synthesize laminin in the embryo and during repair in adults.

Guidance of cerebellofugal axons in the rat embryo: directed growth toward the floor plate and subsequent elongation along the longitudinal axis

To elucidate guidance mechanisms of brain commissural axons, we examined the navigation of cerebellofugal axons. Axons were labeled by implantation of the fluorescent tracer Dil into the cerebellar plate (CP) of fixed, flat whole-mount embryonic rat brain. Axons initially grew straight toward the ventral midline floor plate (FP) in the rostral hindbrain and then, after crossing it, made a right-angled turn to grow either caudally or rostrally along the longitudinal axis. In collagen gel culture, CP axons showed directed growth toward both FP explants and heterologous cells expressing netrin-1, a FP-derived chemoattractant for spinal commissural axons. These results suggest that CP axons are guided to the midline by FP-derived chemoattractant(s) and then reoriented, possibly by another guidance cue, for longitudinal extension. Considering that the basic structures of the neural tube, including the FP, extend up to the caudal diencephalon, these results suggest that common guidance mechanisms operate for ventrally decussating commissural axons in both the brain and spinal cord.

Boundaries and inhibitory molecules in developing neural tissues

Numerous studies of the past decade have illuminated the importance of intercellular adhesion events for neural pattern formation. It has been documented that members of the Ig and cadherin gene superfamilies, that glycoproteins and, probably to some extent, proteoglycans of the extracellular matrix play a role in this context. Recent observations suggest that, in addition to adhesive interactions, repulsive and/or inhibitory phenoma are also of importance in regulating neural pattern formation. Several molecules are under study which are considered possible mediators of inhibitory interactions in the nervous system. The hypothesis has been advanced that some of these might be partially responsible for restrictive, boundary-like properties ascribed to glial cells in developing and regenerating tissues. The current review summarizes these studies and focusses on molecular aspects of boundary and compartmentation phenomena.

Fasciclin III as a synaptic target recognition molecule in Drosophila

Fasciclin III, a cell adhesion molecule of the immunoglobulin superfamily, is expressed by motor neuron RP3 and its synaptic targets (muscle cells 6 and 7) during embryonic neuromuscular development of Drosophila. We report here that RP3 often incorrectly innervates neighbouring non-target muscle cells when these cells misexpress fasciclin III, but still innervates normal targets in the fasciclin III null mutant. Fasciclin III manipulations do not influence target selections by other motor neurons, including fasciclin III-expressing RP1. We propose that fasciclin III acts as a synaptic target recognition molecule for motor neuron RP3, and also that its absence can be compensated for by other molecule(s).

Modulation of chemotropism in the developing spinal cord by substance P

Developing axons find their targets through direct contact with cues in the extracellular environment and in response to gradients of diffusible factors. The floor plate, a neuroepithelial structure, guides developing commissural axons in the spinal cord by release of chemoattractants. Floor plate cells express neurokinin-1 receptors, and a transiently appearing subpopulation of commissural axons contains substance P, the neuropeptide ligand for this receptor. Substance P increases the amount of axon outgrowth from dorsal horn explants cocultured with floor plate explants. Results of experiments with embryonic rats suggest that substance P released from pioneering neuronal pathways may regulate the release of chemoattractants from floor plate cells.

Mutations disrupting neuronal connectivity in the Drosophila visual system

The photoreceptor neurons (R cells) of the Drosophila compound eye elaborate a precise array of neuronal connections in the brain. These projections exhibit target specificity and create topographic maps (retinotopy). We have screened histologically for mutations disrupting R cell connectivity in developing tissue. Eighty mutations were isolated from over 6000 ethylmethane sulfonate-mutagenized lines. Characterization of these mutations included genetic mosaic analysis to determine whether the gene is required in the retina or in the optic ganglia. Most mutations were found to affect connectivity indirectly by disrupting development more generally in the eye or brain. Genes were identified as candidates for playing direct roles in R cell connectivity by affecting axonal outgrowth (eddy), target recognition (limbo and nonstop), and retinotopy (limbo).

Targeted disruption of Ca(2+)-calmodulin signaling in Drosophila growth cones leads to stalls in axon extension and errors in axon guidance

Ca(2+)-calmodulin (CaM) function was selectively disrupted in a specific subset of growth cones in transgenic Drosophila embryos in which a specific enhancer element drives the expression of the kinesin motor domain fused to a CaM antagonist peptide (kinesin-antagonist or KA, which blocks CaM binding to target proteins) or CaM itself (kinesin-CaM or KC, which acts as a Ca(2+)-binding protein). In both KA and KC mutant embryos, specific growth cones exhibit dosage-dependent stalls in axon extension and errors in axon guidance, including both defects in fasciculation and abnormal crossings of the midline. These results demonstrate an in vivo function for Ca(2+)-CaM signaling in growth cone extension and guidance and suggest that Ca(2+)-CaM may in part regulate specific growth cone decisions, including when to defasciculate and whether or not to cross the midline.

Genetic ablation of IGFBP-2 suggests functional redundancy in the IGFBP family

Gene targeting allows mutations to be introduced selectively into any mouse locus of interest. This approach has already been used to demonstrate that insulin-like growth factor (IGF) peptides and receptors are required in vivo for normal prenatal growth. One of the IGFBP genes, IGFBP-2, has also been disrupted using gene targeting, and homozgyous null BP-2 mice are characterized by a decreased spleen size most apparent during early postnatal stages and increased adult circulating levels of several other IGFBPs. These alterations are considered less dramatic than the phenotypes initially predicted based on the fetal IGFBP-2 expression pattern, although several physiological paradigms can be envisioned that will provide additional tests for specific aspects of IGFBP function. Since all six IGFBP genes are expressed during prenatal rodent development, as well as in adult tissues, the IGFBP-2 null phenotype must also be compared with genetic ablations involving members of other gene families and in the context of the other IGFBP expression patterns in rodent embryonic, extraembryonic, and uterine tissues.

Developmental expression of the lipocalin Lazarillo and its role in axonal pathfinding in the grasshopper embryo

This article describes the expression pattern and functional analysis of Lazarillo, a novel cell surface glycoprotein expressed in the embryonic grasshopper nervous system, and a member of the lipocalin family. Lazarillo is expressed by a subset of neuroblasts, ganglion mother cells and neurons of the central nervous system, by all sensory neurons of the peripheral nervous system, and by a subset of neurons of the enteric nervous system. It is also present in a few non neuronal cells associated mainly with the excretory system. A monoclonal antibody raised against Lazarillo perturbs the extent and direction of growth of identified commissural pioneer neurons. We propose that Lazarillo is the receptor for a midline morphogen involved in the outgrowth and guidance of these neurons.

Expression of HGF/SF, HGF1/MSP, and c-met suggests new functions during early chick development

We report the cloning of fulllength cDNAs for a plasminogen-related growth factor, hepatocyte growth factor/scatter factor (HGF/SF), its tyrosine kinase receptor, c-met, and a close member of the same family, hepatocyte growth factor-like/macrophage stimulating protein (HGF1/MSP), from the chick. We have used these cDNAs to provide the first report of the expression of this family of growth factors and the c-met receptor at early stages of vertebrate development. RNAase protection and wholemount in situ hybridization were used on chick embryos between formation of the primitive streak and early organogenesis. We find patterns of expression for HGF/SF and its receptor c-met consistent with their known roles in epithelial-mesenchymal transformation and angiogenesis. In addition, these genes and HGF1/MSP are expressed in discrete locations within developing somites, suggesting a role in paraxial mesodermal development. Very strong and early expression of HGF/SF in the elevating limb buds suggests its involvement in limb outgrowth. HGF1/MSP is expressed in the notochord and then in the prospective floor plate region and could play a role in development of the neural tube. Interestingly, c-met is often more closely associated with HGF1/MSP than with its known ligand, HGF/SF, raising the possibility that c-met expression may be induced by HGF1/MSP.

Neural development. Chemoattractants for navigating axons

Newly identified proteins that seem to act as diffusible attractants for circumferentially growing axons in the vertebrate embryonic spinal cord are related to a protein that directs circumferential axon growth in the nematode.

Genetic analysis of Fasciclin II in Drosophila: defasciculation, refasciculation, and altered fasciculation

The Drosophila neural cell adhesion molecule Fasciclin II (Fas II) is expressed dynamically on a subset of embryonic CNS axons, many of which selectively fasciculate in the vMP2, MP1, and FN3 pathways. Here we show complementary fasII loss-of-function and gain-of-function phenotypes. Loss-of-function fasII mutations lead to the complete or partial defasciculation of all three pathways. Gain-of-function conditions, using a specific control element to direct increased levels of Fas II on the axons in these three pathways, rescue the loss-of-function phenotype. Moreover, the gain-of-function can alter fasciculation by abnormally fusing pathways together, in one case apparently by preventing normal defasciculation. These results define an in vivo function for Fas II as a neuronal recognition molecule that controls one mechanism of growth cone guidance-selective axon fasciculation--and genetically separates this function from other aspects of outgrowth and directional guidance.

Neural recognition molecules in disease and regeneration

The genetic analysis of inherited human diseases of the nervous system and the characterization of transgenic mice deficient in neural recognition molecules is opening up a new dimension in understanding the cellular and molecular mechanisms underlying neuro-developmental and -degenerative diseases, as well as in delineating the functions of recognition molecules in cell-cell interactions. Progress in identifying recognition molecules that inhibit neurite outgrowth and further characterization of the mechanisms that promote neurite outgrowth are shedding more light on the processes of regeneration in the mature nervous system. In the adult, recognition functions are fine-tuned by glycan moeities associated with neural recognition molecules, and successful neurite outgrowth is likely to depend on the delicate balance between growth-promoting and inhibitory recognition cues.

Inhibitory factors controlling growth cone motility and guidance

Recent advances in the identification of factors that inhibit axon extension lead us to suggest that there exist at least two functionally distinct categories of inhibitory factors: those that inhibit the motile apparatus of the growth cone, and those that destabilize interactions of the growth cone with the substratum. These two types of inhibitory factors could play an important role in growth cone guidance.

The netrins define a family of axon outgrowth-promoting proteins homologous to C. elegans UNC-6

In vertebrates, commissural axons pioneer a circumferential pathway to the floor plate at the ventral midline of the embryonic spinal cord. Floor plate cells secrete a diffusible factor that promotes the outgrowth of commissural axons in vitro. We have purified from embryonic chick brain two proteins, netrin-1 and netrin-2, that each possess commissural axon outgrowth-promoting activity, and we have also identified a distinct activity that potentiates their effects. Cloning of cDNAs encoding the two netrins shows that they are homologous to UNC-6, a laminin-related protein required for the circumferential migration of cells and axons in C. elegans. This homology suggests that growth cones in the vertebrate spinal cord and the nematode are responsive to similar molecular cues.