Biomedical Applications of Biodegradable Polymers

Poly[(ethylene oxide)-co-(methylene ethylene oxide)]: A hydrolytically-degradable poly(ethylene oxide) platform

A facile method for imparting hydrolytic degradability to poly(ethylene oxide) (PEO), compatible with current PEGylation strategies, is presented. By incorporating methylene ethylene oxide (MEO) units into the parent PEO backbone, complete degradation was defined by the molar incorporation of MEO, and the structure of the degradation byproducts was consistent with an acid-catalyzed vinyl-ether hydrolysis mechanism. The hydrolytic degradation of poly[(ethylene oxide)-co-(methylene ethylene oxide)] was pH-sensitive, with degradation at pH 5 being significantly faster than at pH 7.4 at 37 °C in PBS buffer while long-term stability could be obtained in either the solid-state or at pH 7.4 at 6 °C.

Orthogonal Modification of Norbornene-Functional Degradable Polymers

Well-defined norbornene-functional poly(carbonate)s were prepared by ring-opening polymerization and utilized as multireactive polymeric scaffolds in a range of postpolymerization modifications. The norbornene-functional handles were shown to undergo facile reaction with azides via a 1,3-dipolar cycloaddition, tetrazines in the inverse electron demand Diels-Alder reaction and thiols via radical thiol-ene coupling. Furthermore, the above-mentioned chemistries were demonstrated in a sequential one-pot, three-step modification reaction illustrating the potential of these polymers as scaffolds to access multifunctionalized materials in an undemanding manner.

Aerosolized antimicrobial agents based on degradable dextran nanoparticles loaded with silver carbene complexes

Degradable acetalated dextran (Ac-DEX) nanoparticles were prepared and loaded with a hydrophobic silver carbene complex (SCC) by a single-emulsion process. The resulting particles were characterized for morphology and size distribution using scanning electron microscopy (SEM), transmission electron microscopy (TEM), and dynamic light scattering (DLS). The average particle size and particle size distribution were found to be a function of the ratio of the organic phase to the surfactant containing aqueous phase with a 1:5 volume ratio of Ac-DEX CH(2)Cl(2) (organic):PBS (aqueous) being optimal for the formulation of nanoparticles with an average size of 100 ± 40 nm and a low polydispersity. The SCC loading was found to increase with an increase in the SCC quantity in the initial feed used during particle formulation up to 30% (w/w); however, the encapsulation efficiency was observed to be the best at a feed ratio of 20% (w/w). In vitro efficacy testing of the SCC loaded Ac-DEX nanoparticles demonstrated their activity against both Gram-negative and Gram-positive bacteria; the nanoparticles inhibited the growth of every bacterial species tested. As expected, a higher concentration of drug was required to inhibit bacterial growth when the drug was encapsulated within the nanoparticle formulations compared with the free drug illustrating the desired depot release. Compared with free drug, the Ac-DEX nanoparticles were much more readily suspended in an aqueous phase and subsequently aerosolized, thus providing an effective method of pulmonary drug delivery.

Nanostructured thin film polymer devices for constant-rate protein delivery

Herein long-term delivery of proteins from biodegradable thin film devices is demonstrated, where a nanostructured polymer membrane controls release. Protein was sealed between two poly(caprolactone) films, which generated the thin film devices. Protein release for 210 days was shown in vitro, and stable activity was established through 70 days with a model protein. These thin film devices present a promising delivery platform for biologic therapeutics, particularly for application in constrained spaces.

Comparison of a biodegradable ureteral stent versus the traditional double-J stent for the treatment of ureteral injury: an experimental study

Ureteral injury remains a major clinical problem; here we developed a biodegradable ureteral stent and compared its effectiveness with a double-J stent for treating ureteral injury. Eighteen dogs with injured ureters were subdivided into two groups. In group A, one injured ureter was treated with a biodegradable stent, whereas only end-to-end anastomosis was performed on the other side. In group B, one injured ureter was treated with a biodegradable stent, while a double-J stent was used on the other side. Intravenous urography, radioactive renography, histological examinations, scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and elemental composition analysis were performed at 40, 80 and 120 days postoperatively. Results showed that the biodegradable stent could effectively prevent hydronephrosis and hydroureter secondary to ureteral injury. Moreover all biodegradable stents gradually degraded and discharged completely in 120 days. SEM and elemental composition analysis of the surface of the double-J stent confirmed calcification at 80 days and calcific plaque at 120 days, while no signs of calcification were found in the biodegradable stent group. Histological studies found no difference between the biodegradable stented ureters and double-J stented ureters. It is concluded that the biodegradable ureteral stent was more advantageous than the double-J stent for treating ureteral injury in a canine model.

Two-dimensional polymer-based cultures expand cord blood-derived hematopoietic stem cells and support engraftment of NSG mice

Currently, ex vivo expansion of hematopoietic stem cells (HSC) is still insufficient. Traditional approaches for HSC expansion include the use of stromal cultures, growth factors, and/or bioreactors. Biomaterial-based strategies provide new perspectives. We focus on identifying promising two-dimensional (2D) polymer candidates for HSC expansion. After a 7-day culture period with cytokine supplementation, 2D fibrin, poly(D,L-lactic-co-glycolic acid; Resomer® RG503), and Poly(ɛ-caprolactone; PCL) substrates supported expansion of cord blood (CB)-derived CD34⁺ cells ex vivo. Fibrin cultures achieved the highest proliferation rates (>8700-fold increase of total nuclear cells, p<0.001), high total colony-forming units (3.6-fold increase, p<0.001), and highest engraftment in NSG mice (7.69-fold more donor cells compared with tissue culture polysterene, p<0.001). In addition, the presence of multiple human hematopoietic lineages such as myeloid (CD13⁺), erythroid (GypC⁺), and lymphoid (CD20⁺/CD56⁺) in murine transplant recipients confirmed the multilineage engraftment potential of fibrin-based cultures. Filopodia development in fibrin-expanded cells was a further indicator for superior cell adhesion capacities. We propose application of fibrin, Resomer® RG503, and PCL for future strategies of CB-CD34⁺ cell expansion. Suitable polymers for HSC expansion might also be appropriate for future drug discovery applications or for studies aimed to develop hematological therapies.

VEGF-incorporated biomimetic poly(lactide-co-glycolide) sintered microsphere scaffolds for bone tissue engineering

Regenerative engineering approaches utilizing biomimetic synthetic scaffolds provide alternative strategies to repair and restore damaged bone. The efficacy of the scaffolds for functional bone regeneration critically depends on their ability to induce and support vascular infiltration. In the present study, three-dimensional (3D) biomimetic poly(lactide-co-glycolide) (PLAGA) sintered microsphere scaffolds were developed by sintering together PLAGA microspheres followed by nucleation of minerals in a simulated body fluid. Further, the angiogenic potential of vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF)-incorporated mineralized PLAGA scaffolds were examined by monitoring the growth and phenotypic expression of endothelial cells on scaffolds. Scanning electron microscopy micrographs confirmed the growth of bone-like mineral layers on the surface of microspheres. The mineralized PLAGA scaffolds possessed interconnectivity and a compressive modulus of 402 ± 61 MPa and compressive strength of 14.6 ± 2.9 MPa. Mineralized scaffolds supported the attachment and growth and normal phenotypic expression of endothelial cells. Further, precipitation of apatite layer on PLAGA scaffolds resulted in an enhanced VEGF adsorption and prolonged release compared to nonmineralized PLAGA and, thus, a significant increase in endothelial cell proliferation. Together, these results demonstrated the potential of VEGF-incorporated biomimetic PLAGA sintered microsphere scaffolds for bone tissue engineering as they possess the combined effects of osteointegrativity and angiogenesis.

Comparative study of osteogenic potential of a composite scaffold incorporating either endogenous bone morphogenetic protein-2 or exogenous phytomolecule icaritin: an in vitro efficacy study

A local delivery system with sustained and efficient release of therapeutic agents from an appropriate carrier is desirable for orthopedic applications. Novel composite scaffolds made of poly (lactic-co-glycolic acid) with tricalcium phosphate (PLGA/TCP) were fabricated by an advanced low-temperature rapid prototyping technique, which incorporated either endogenous bone morphogenetic protein-2 (BMP-2) (PLGA/TCP/BMP-2) or phytomolecule icaritin (ICT) (PLGA/TCP/ICT) at low, middle and high doses. PLGA/TCP served as control. In vitro degradation, osteogenesis and release tests showed statistical differences among PLGA/TCP/ICT, PLGA/TCP and PLGA/TCP/BMP-2 groups, where PLGA/TCP/ICT had the desired slow release of bioactive icaritin in a dose-dependent manner, whereas there was almost no BMP-2 release from the PLGA/TCP/BMP-2 scaffolds. PLGA/TCP/ICT significantly increased more ALP activity, upregulated mRNA expression of osteogenic genes and enhanced calcium deposition and mineralization in rabbit bone marrow stem cells cultured on scaffolds compared with the other two groups. These results indicate the desired degradation rate, osteogenic capability and release property in PLGA/TCP/ICT composite scaffold, as icaritin preserved its bioactivity and structure after incorporation, while PLGA/TCP/BMP-2 did not show an initially expected osteogenic potential, owing to loss of the original bioactivity of BMP-2 during its incorporation and fabrication procedure. The results suggest that PLGA/TCP composite scaffolds incorporating osteogenic ICT might be a promising approach for bone tissue bioengineering and regeneration.

Bioactive and biodegradable nanocomposites and hybrid biomaterials for bone regeneration

Strategies for bone tissue engineering and regeneration rely on bioactive scaffolds to mimic the natural extracellular matrix and act as templates onto which cells attach, multiply, migrate and function. Of particular interest are nanocomposites and organic-inorganic (O/I) hybrid biomaterials based on selective combinations of biodegradable polymers and bioactive inorganic materials. In this paper, we review the current state of bioactive and biodegradable nanocomposite and O/I hybrid biomaterials and their applications in bone regeneration. We focus specifically on nanocomposites based on nano-sized hydroxyapatite (HA) and bioactive glass (BG) fillers in combination with biodegradable polyesters and their hybrid counterparts. Topics include 3D scaffold design, materials that are widely used in bone regeneration, and recent trends in next generation biomaterials. We conclude with a perspective on the future application of nanocomposites and O/I hybrid biomaterials for regeneration of bone.

Therapeutic strategies based on polymeric microparticles

The development of the field of materials science, the ability to perform multidisciplinary scientific work, and the need for novel administration technologies that maximize therapeutic effects and minimize adverse reactions to readily available drugs have led to the development of delivery systems based on microencapsulation, which has taken one step closer to the target of personalized medicine. Drug delivery systems based on polymeric microparticles are generating a strong impact on preclinical and clinical drug development and have reached a broad development in different fields supporting a critical role in the near future of medical practice. This paper presents the foundations of polymeric microparticles based on their formulation, mechanisms of drug release and some of their innovative therapeutic strategies to board multiple diseases.

Functionalized poly(γ-Glutamic Acid) fibrous scaffolds for tissue engineering

Poly(γ-glutamic acid) (γ-PGA) is a biocompatible, enzymatically-degradable, natural polymer with a higher resistance to hydrolysis than polyesters commonly used for tissue engineering scaffolds such as poly(L-lactide) (PLLA). Notably, γ-PGA's free carboxyl side groups allow for simple chemical functionalization, making it a versatile candidate for producing scaffolds. Here, a series of water-resistant fibrous scaffolds were engineered from ethyl (Et), propyl (Pr) and benzyl (Bn) esterifications of γ-PGA. All scaffolds were non-cytotoxic and γ-PGA-Bn showed an increase in cell adhesion of hMSCs compared to γ-PGA-Et and γ-PGA-Pr. Moreover, cells on γ-PGA-Bn showed three-fold higher viability at day 14 and significantly higher adhesion when compared with PLLA scaffolds, despite having a similar hydrophobicity. Cell attachment decreased by 40% when the polymer was only partially modified with benzyl groups (γ-PGA-Bn-77%), but was restored when integrin-binding RGD peptide was conjugated to the remaining free carboxylic groups, indicating the peptide was accessible and able to bind integrins. The mechanism behind the cell-material interactions on γ-PGA-Bn scaffolds was further investigated through protein adsorption and fibronectin conformation experiments. These results, in addition to the cell-adhesion studies, suggest an inherent effect of the benzyl modification in the mechanism of cell attachment to γ-PGA-Bn scaffolds. Finally, γ-PGA-Bn scaffolds cultured in osteogenic media were also efficient in supporting hMSCs differentiation towards an osteogenic lineage as determined by alkaline phosphatase and Runx2 gene expression. Taken together these data suggest that esterified γ-PGA polymer scaffolds are new and versatile candidates for tissue engineering applications and that, intriguingly, aromatic functionality plays a key role in the cell-scaffold interaction.

Injectable hydrogels for central nervous system therapy

Diseases and injuries of the central nervous system (CNS) including those in the brain, spinal cord and retina are devastating because the CNS has limited intrinsic regenerative capacity and currently available therapies are unable to provide significant functional recovery. Several promising therapies have been identified with the goal of restoring at least some of this lost function and include neuroprotective agents to stop or slow cellular degeneration, neurotrophic factors to stimulate cellular growth, neutralizing molecules to overcome the inhibitory environment at the site of injury, and stem cell transplant strategies to replace lost tissue. The delivery of these therapies to the CNS is a challenge because the blood-brain barrier limits the diffusion of molecules into the brain by traditional oral or intravenous routes. Injectable hydrogels have the capacity to overcome the challenges associated with drug delivery to the CNS, by providing a minimally invasive, localized, void-filling platform for therapeutic use. Small molecule or protein drugs can be distributed throughout the hydrogel which then acts as a depot for their sustained release at the injury site. For cell delivery, the hydrogel can reduce cell aggregation and provide an adhesive matrix for improved cell survival and integration. Additionally, by choosing a biodegradable or bioresorbable hydrogel material, the system will eventually be eliminated from the body. This review discusses both natural and synthetic injectable hydrogel materials that have been used for drug or cell delivery to the CNS including hyaluronan, methylcellulose, chitosan, poly(N-isopropylacrylamide) and Matrigel.

Microfluidic generation and selective degradation of biopolymer-based Janus microbeads

We describe a microfluidic approach for generating Janus microbeads from biopolymer hydrogels. A flow-focusing device was used to emulsify the coflow of aqueous solutions of one or two different biopolymers in an organic phase to synthesize homo or hetero Janus microbeads. Biopolymer gelation was initiated, in the chip, by diffusion-controlled ionic cross-linking of the biopolymers. Pectin-pectin (homo Janus) and, for the first time, pectin-alginate (hetero Janus) microbeads were produced. The efficiency of separation of the two hemispheres, which reflected mixing and convection phenomena, was investigated by confocal scanning laser microscopy (CSLM) of previously labeled biopolymers. The interface of the hetero Janus structure was clearly defined, whereas that of the homo Janus microbeads was poorly defined. The Janus structure was confirmed by subjecting each microbead hemisphere to specific enzymatic degradation. These new and original microbeads from renewable resources will open up opportunities for studying relationships between combined enzymatic hydrolysis and active compound release.

Facile Synthesis of Clickable, Water-soluble and Degradable Polyphosphoesters

"Click" chemistry is a library of efficient and reliable reactions, which have been used to functionalize various classes of bio- and synthetic macromolecular systems for the incorporation of designed properties and functions. In this report, azide-alkyne Huisgen cycloaddition and thiol-yne reactions, two classical "click" chemistries, were employed to functionalize biodegradable, clickable polyphosphoester homopolymers and their water-soluble copolymers. A stable alkyne-functionalized phospholane monomer was synthesized, its organocatalyzed polymerization kinetics were evaluated, and the resulting (co)polymers were utilized to develop this facile method that provides the synthesis of clickable, water-soluble and degradable polyphosphoesters, which can be adapted for various applications.

Porous collagen scaffold reinforced with surfaced activated PLLA nanoparticles

Porous collagen scaffold is integrated with surface activated PLLA nanoparticles fabricated by lyophilizing and crosslinking via EDC treatment. In order to prepare surface-modified PLLA nanoparticles, PLLA was firstly grafted with poly (acrylic acid) (PAA) through surface-initiated polymerization of acrylic acid. Nanoparticles of average diameter 316 nm and zeta potential −39.88 mV were obtained from the such-treated PLLA by dialysis method. Porous collagen scaffold were fabricated by mixing PLLA nanoparticles with collagen solution, freeze drying, and crosslinking with EDC. SEM observation revealed that nanoparticles were homogeneously dispersed in collagen matrix, forming interconnected porous structure with pore size ranging from 150 to 200 μm, irrespective of the amount of nanoparticles. The porosity of the scaffolds kept almost unchanged with the increment of the nanoparticles, whereas the mechanical property was obviously improved, and the degradation was effectively retarded. In vitro L929 mouse fibroblast cells seeding and culture studies revealed that cells infiltrated into the scaffolds and were distributed homogeneously. Compared with the pure collagen sponge, the number of cells in hybrid scaffolds greatly increased with the increment of incorporated nanoparticles. These results manifested that the surface-activated PLLA nanoparticles effectively reinforced the porous collagen scaffold and promoted the cells penetrating into the scaffold, and proliferation.

Tuning PEG-DA hydrogel properties via solvent-induced phase separation (SIPS)()

Poly(ethylene glycol) diacrylate (PEG-DA) hydrogels are widely utilized to probe cell-material interactions and ultimately for a material-guided approach to tissue regeneration. In this study, PEG-DA hydrogels were fabricated via solvent-induced phase separation (SIPS) to obtain hydrogels with a broader range of tunable physical properties including morphology (e.g. porosity), swelling and modulus (G'). In contrast to conventional PEG-DA hydrogels prepared from an aqueous precursor solution, the reported SIPS protocol utilized a dichloromethane (DCM) precursor solution which was sequentially photopolymerized, dried and hydrated. Physical properties were further tailored by varying the PEG-DA wt% concentration (5 wt%-25 wt%) and M(n) (3.4k and 6k g mol (-1)). SIPS produced PEG-DA hydrogels with a macroporous morphology as well as increased G' values versus the corresponding conventional PEG-DA hydrogels. Notably, since the total swelling was not significantly changed versus the corresponding conventional PEG-DA hydrogels, pairs or series of hydrogels represent scaffolds in which morphology and hydration or G' and hydration are uncoupled. In addition, PEG-DA hydrogels prepared via SIPS exhibited enhanced degradation rates.