An oxysterol signalling pathway mediated by the nuclear receptor LXR alpha

Cholesterol and bile acid metabolism are impaired in mice lacking the nuclear oxysterol receptor LXR alpha

We demonstrate that mice lacking the oxysterol receptor, LXR alpha, lose their ability to respond normally to dietary cholesterol and are unable to tolerate any amount of cholesterol in excess of that which they synthesize de novo. When fed diets containing cholesterol, LXR alpha (-/-) mice fail to induce transcription of the gene encoding cholesterol 7alpha-hydroxylase (Cyp7a), the rate-limiting enzyme in bile acid synthesis. This defect is associated with a rapid accumulation of large amounts of cholesterol in the liver that eventually leads to impaired hepatic function. The regulation of several other crucial lipid metabolizing genes is also altered in LXR alpha (-/-) mice. These results demonstrate the existence of a physiologically significant feed-forward regulatory pathway for sterol metabolism and establish the role of LXR alpha as the major sensor of dietary cholesterol.

Two 7 alpha-hydroxylase enzymes in bile acid biosynthesis

The addition of a 7-hydroxyl group is an early and often rate-limiting step in the synthesis of bile acids. This reaction is catalysed by two cytochrome P450 enzymes known as cholesterol 7 alpha-hydroxylase and oxysterol 7 alpha-hydroxylase. cDNAs encoding these proteins have been isolated and used to define two evolutionarily conserved pathways that produce 7 alpha-hydroxylated bile acids.

Synergistic activation of RLD-1 by agents triggering PKA and PKC dependent signalling

RLD-1 and OR-1 are closely related orphan nuclear receptors that can be activated by certain oxysterols. To obtain cells stably expressing RLD-1 or OR-1, CHOK1 cells were successively transfected with a DGRE2-ALP reporter and GR-RLD-1 or GR-OR-1 chimeric constructs. The selected cell clones that showed low background activity of the reporter and maximum fold induction by 22R(OH)cholesterol were used for subsequent experiments. Treatment of the cells with PGE2, TPA, or 8-bromo-cAMP alone did not transactivate the reporter. However, the induction of the reporter by 22R(OH)cholesterol was markedly enhanced in the presence of PGE2, TPA, 8-bromo-cAMP, or forskolin in cells expressing GR-RLD-1. The enhancement was inhibited by H-89 and bisindolylmaleimide, both inhibitors of protein kinases. These results suggest that transactivation by ligand-activated RLD-1 may be further modulated/regulated through other signal transduction pathways involving phosphorylation catalyzed by protein kinases.

An alternative synthesis of 4,4-dimethyl-5 alpha-cholesta-8,14,24-trien-3 beta-ol, an intermediate in sterol biosynthesis and a reported activator of meiosis and of nuclear orphan receptor LXR alpha

4,4-dimethyl-5 alpha-cholesta-8,14,24-trien-3 beta-ol, a sterol of current biological interest, has been synthesized in six steps from 3 beta-acetoxy-4,4-dimethyl-5 alpha-cholest-8(14)-en-15-one.

An orphan nuclear receptor activated by pregnanes defines a novel steroid signaling pathway

Steroid hormones exert profound effects on differentiation, development, and homeostasis in higher eukaryotes through interactions with nuclear receptors. We describe a novel orphan nuclear receptor, termed the pregnane X receptor (PXR), that is activated by naturally occurring steroids such as pregnenolone and progesterone, and synthetic glucocorticoids and antiglucocorticoids. PXR exists as two isoforms, PXR.1 and PXR.2, that are differentially activated by steroids. Notably, PXR.1 is efficaciously activated by pregnenolone 16alpha-carbonitrile, a glucocorticoid receptor antagonist that induces the expression of the CYP3A family of steroid hydroxylases and modulates sterol and bile acid biosynthesis in vivo. Our results provide evidence for the existence of a novel steroid hormone signaling pathway with potential implications in the regulation of steroid hormone and sterol homeostasis.

Interaction of diet and genes in atherogenesis. Report of an NHLBI working group

Recent advances in genetics and information emerging from the Human Genome Project make it feasible to examine the importance of dietary-genetic interactions in the development of atherosclerosis. In the opinion of the Working Group, three approaches are necessary to examine this concern. The first approach utilizes animal models to map and identify candidate genes involved in dietary responsiveness and atherogenesis. The second approach involves the evaluation of these genes in specific physiological processes involved in dietary responsiveness and atherogenesis. Finally, the third approach is to extend the studies performed in animal models to human populations using linkage or association studies.

The orphan nuclear receptor LXRalpha is positively and negatively regulated by distinct products of mevalonate metabolism

LXRalpha is an orphan member of the nuclear hormone receptor superfamily that displays constitutive transcriptional activity. We reasoned that this activity may result from the production of an endogenous activator that is a component of intermediary metabolism. The use of metabolic inhibitors revealed that mevalonic acid biosynthesis is required for LXRalpha activity. Mevalonic acid is a common metabolite used by virtually all eukaryotic cells. It serves as a precursor to a large number of important molecules including farnesyl pyrophosphate, geranylgeranyl pyrophosphate, cholesterol, and oxysterols. Inhibition of LXRalpha could be reversed by addition of mevalonic acid and certain oxysterols but not by other products of mevalonic acid metabolism. Surprisingly, the constitutive activity of LXRalpha was inhibited by geranylgeraniol, a metabolite of mevalonic acid. These findings suggest that LXRalpha may represent a central component of a signaling pathway that is both positively and negatively regulated by multiple products of mevalonate metabolism.

Differential transactivation by two isoforms of the orphan nuclear hormone receptor CAR

We have identified a new murine orphan member of the nuclear hormone receptor superfamily, termed mCAR, that is closely related to the previously described human orphan MB67, referred to here as hCAR. Like hCAR, mCAR expression is highest in liver. In addition to the most abundant mCAR1 isoform, the mCAR gene expresses a truncated mCAR2 variant that is missing the C-terminal portion of the ligand binding/dimerization domain. The mCAR gene has 8 introns, and this mCAR2 variant is generated by a splicing event that skips the 8th exon. mCAR1, like hCAR, binds as a heterodimer with the retinoid X receptor to the retinoic acid response element from the promoter of the retinoic acid receptor beta2 isoform. Consistent with its lack of a critical heterodimerization interface, the mCAR2 variant does not bind this site. Both mCAR1 and hCAR are apparently constitutive transcriptional activators. This activity is dependent on the presence of the conserved C-terminal AF-2 transcriptional activation motif. As expected from its inability to bind DNA, the mCAR2 variant neither transactivates by itself nor inhibits transactivation by hCAR or mCAR1.

Activation of the orphan receptor RIP14 by retinoids

Retinoids are crucial regulators of a wide variety of processes in both developing and adult animals. These effects are thought to be mediated by the retinoic acid (RA) receptors and the retinoid X receptors (RXRs). We have identified an additional retinoid-activated receptor that is neither a retinoic acid receptors nor an RXR. RXR-interacting protein 14 (RIP14), a recently described orphan member of the nuclear receptor superfamily, can be activated by either all-trans-RA (tRA) or the synthetic retinoid TTNPB [[E]-4-[2-(5, 6, 7, 8-tetrahydro-5, 5, 8, 8-tetramethyl-2-naphthalenyl)propen-1-yl]benzoic acid].RIP14 binds to DNA as a heterodimer with RXR. In the presence of either tRA or TTNPB, the addition of 9-cis-RA or the RXR-specific agonist LG1069 [4-[1-(3, 5, 5, 8, 8-pentamethyl-5, 6, 7, 8-tertrahydro-2-naphthyl)ethenyl]benzoic acid] results in additional activation. Mutations of the ligand-dependent transcriptional activation functions indicate that TTNPB activates the RIP14 component of the RIP14-RXR heterodimer, that 9-cis-RA and LG1069 activate RXR, and that tRA activates via both RIP14 and RXR. Despite the very effective activation of RIP14 by tRA or TTNPB, relatively high concentrations of these compounds are required, and no evidence for direct binding of either compound was obtained using several approaches. These results suggest that RIP14 is the receptor for an as-yet-unidentified retinoid metabolite.

Heterodimeric interaction between retinoid X receptor alpha and orphan nuclear receptor OR1 reveals dimerization-induced activation as a novel mechanism of nuclear receptor activation

OR1 is a member of the steroid/thyroid hormone nuclear receptor superfamily which has been described to mediate transcriptional responses to retinoids and oxysterols. On a DR4 response element, an OR1 heterodimer with the nuclear receptor retinoid X receptor alpha (RXR alpha) has been described to convey transcriptional activation in both the absence and presence of the RXR ligand 9-cis retinoic acid, the mechanisms of which have remained unclear. Here, we dissect the effects of RXR alpha and OR1 ligand-binding domain interaction on transcriptional regulation and the role of the respective carboxy-terminal activation domains (AF-2s) in the absence and presence of the RXR ligand, employing chimeras of the nuclear receptors containing the heterologous GAL4 DNA-binding domain as well as natural receptors. The results show that the interaction of the RXR and OR1 ligand-binding domains unleashes a transcription activation potential that is mainly dependent on the AF-2 of OR1, indicating that interaction with RXR activates OR1. This defines dimerization-induced activation as a novel function of heterodimeric interaction and mechanism of receptor activation not previously described for nuclear receptors. Moreover, we present evidence that activation of OR1 occurs by a conformational change induced upon heterodimerization with RXR.

The novel estrogen receptor-beta subtype: potential role in the cell- and promoter-specific actions of estrogens and anti-estrogens

The recent discovery that an additional estrogen receptor (ER) subtype is present in various rat, mouse and human tissues has advanced our understanding of the mechanisms underlying estrogen signalling. The discovery of a second ER subtype (ERbeta) suggests the existence of two previously unrecognised pathways of estrogen signalling: via the ERbeta subtype in tissues exclusively expressing this subtype and via the formation of heterodimers in tissues expressing both ER subtypes. Various models have been suggested as explanations for the striking cell- and promoter-specific effects of estrogens and anti-estrogens, all on the basis of the assumption that only a single ER gene exists. This minireview describes several of these models and focuses on the potential role which the novel ERbeta subtype might have in this regard.

Activation of the orphan nuclear receptor steroidogenic factor 1 by oxysterols

Steroidogenic factor 1 (SF-1), an orphan member of the intracellular receptor superfamily, plays an essential role in the development and function of multiple endocrine organs. It is expressed in all steroidogenic tissues where it regulates the P450 steroidogenic genes to generate physiologically active steroids. Although many of the functions of SF-1 in vivo have been defined, an unresolved question is whether a ligand modulates its transcriptional activity. Here, we show that 25-, 26-, or 27-hydroxycholesterol, known suppressors of cholesterol biosynthesis, enhance SF-1-dependent transcriptional activity. This activation is dependent upon the SF-1 activation function domain, and, is specific for SF-1 as several other receptors do not respond to these molecules. The oxysterols activate at concentrations comparable to those previously shown to inhibit cholesterol biosynthesis, and, can be derived from cholesterol by P450c27, an enzyme expressed within steroidogenic tissues. Recent studies have shown that the nuclear receptor LXR also is activated by oxysterols. We demonstrate that different oxysterols differ in their rank order potency for these two receptors, with 25-hydroxycholesterol preferentially activating SF-1 and 22(R)-hydroxycholesterol preferentially activating LXR. These results suggest that specific oxysterols may mediate transcriptional activation via different intracellular receptors. Finally, ligand-dependent transactivation of SF-1 by oxysterols may play an important role in enhancing steroidogenesis in vivo.

Sensitization of diabetic and obese mice to insulin by retinoid X receptor agonists

Retinoic acid receptors (RAR), thyroid hormone receptors (TR), peroxisome proliferator activated receptors (PPARs) and the orphan receptor, LXR, bind preferentially to DNA as heterodimers with a common partner, retinoid X receptor (RXR), to regulate transcription. We investigated whether RXR-selective agonists replicate the activity of ligands for several of these receptors? We demonstrate here that RXR-selective ligands (referred to as rexinoids) function as RXR heterodimer-selective agonists, activating RXR: PPARgamma and RXR:LXR dimers but not RXR:RAR or RXR:TR heterodimers. Because PPARgamma is a target for antidiabetic agents, we investigated whether RXR ligands could alter insulin and glucose signalling. In mouse models of noninsulin-dependent diabetes mellitus (NIDDM) and obesity, RXR agonists function as insulin sensitizers and can decrease hyperglycaemia, hypertriglyceridaemia and hyperinsulinaemia. This antidiabetic activity can be further enhanced by combination treatment with PPARgamma agonists, such as thiazolidinediones. These data suggest that the RXR:PPARgamma heterodimer is a single-function complex serving as a molecular target for treatment of insulin resistance. Activation of the RXR:PPARgamma dimer with rexinoids may provide a new and effective treatment for NIDDM.

Cholesterol homeostasis: clipping out a slippery regulator

SREBPs are transcriptional activators central to cholesterol homeostasis. Recent work has shown that a two-step cleavage of membrane-bound SREBPs frees them to enter the nucleus. An activator of the first, sterol-regulated proteolysis step has also been identified.

Activation of the nuclear receptor LXR by oxysterols defines a new hormone response pathway

Accumulation of cholesterol causes both repression of genes controlling cholesterol biosynthesis and cellular uptake and induction of cholesterol 7alpha-hydroxylase, which leads to the removal of cholesterol by increased metabolism to bile acids. Here, we report that LXRalpha and LXRbeta, two orphan members of the nuclear receptor superfamily, are activated by 24(S), 25-epoxycholesterol and 24(S)-hydroxycholesterol at physiologic concentrations. In addition, we have identified an LXR response element in the promoter region of the rat cholesterol 7alpha-hydroxylase gene. Our data provide evidence for a new hormonal signaling pathway that activates transcription in response to oxysterols and suggest that LXRs play a critical role in the regulation of cholesterol homeostasis.