Ferulic acid and its therapeutic potential as a hormetin for age-related diseases

Ferulic Acid and Naturally Occurring Compounds Bearing a Feruloyl Moiety: A Review on Their Structures, Occurrence, and Potential Health Benefits

The ubiquitous compound 4-hydroxy-3-methoxycinnamic acid, also known as ferulic acid (FA), constitutes a bioactive ingredient of many foods that may offer beneficial effects against disorders related to oxidative stress, including cancer, diabetes, and neurodegenerative diseases. This review discusses the antioxidant properties of FA, establishing relationships to several biological activities already described for this natural product. Next, 387 naturally occurring compounds, all isolated from plants and published between 1990 and 2015, the structures of which bear 1 or more feruloyl moieties, are covered in this review along with their structural formulas, botanical sources, and bioactivities. The compounds' distribution, structural patterns, bioactivities, and perspectives on food research are also succinctly discussed.

Preparation of a ferulic acid-phospholipid complex to improve solubility, dissolution, and B16F10 cellular melanogenesis inhibition activity

BACKGROUND

We aimed to enhance the solubility, dissolution properties, and skin-whitening ability of ferulic acid (FA) by preparing a ferulic acid-phospholipid complex (FA-PC). The properties and melanogenesis inhibition activities of FA-PC were then elucidated.

METHODS

We characterized the complex via differential scanning calorimetry, Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, scanning electron microscopy, solubility, and oil-water partition coefficient. A Strat-M^® membrane, a synthetic membrane possessing diffusion characteristics that are well-correlated with human skin, was used for the diffusion studies of FA-PC.

RESULTS

We found that the lipophilicity of FA improved when complexed with phospholipids, allowing FA-PC to release FA in a controlled pattern. In the same time, complexing with phospholipids also obviously enhanced inhibition of B16F10 cellular melanogenesis.

CONCLUSIONS

FA-PC is a promising material for medicinal and cosmetic usages.

Management of diabetic complications through fruit flavonoids as a natural remedy

Diabetes mellitus is a global disorder, and a major issue for health care systems. The current review outlooks the use of fruit flavonoids as natural remedy in the prevention of diabetes mellitus. The onset of diabetes mainly depends upon genetics and lifestyle issues. Currently used therapeutic options for the control of diabetes, like dietary amendments, oral hypoglycemic drugs, and insulin, have their own limitations. Fruit flavonoids possess various antidiabetic, anti-inflammatory, and antioxidant potentials and act on various cellular signaling pathways in pancreas, white adipose tissue, skeletal muscle, and liver function, which in result induces antidiabetic effects. Recently, antidiabetic effect of fruit flavonoids has been studied using various animal models and clinical trials. Research studies revealed a statistically significant potential of fruit flavonoids in managing the altered glucose and oxidative metabolisms in diabetes. Unlike synthetic antidiabetic agents, fruit flavonoids manage diabetes without compromising cellular homeostasis thereby posing no side effects. Further studies are required in purification and characterization of different fruit flavonoids with respect to their beneficial effect for diabetic patients.

Alpha-Amylase Inhibition and Antioxidative Capacity of Some Antidiabetic Plants Used by the Traditional Healers in Southeastern Nigeria

Oxidative stress plays a significant role in the pathogenesis of metabolic syndrome including diabetes mellitus (DM). The inhibition of alpha-amylase is an important therapeutic target in the regulation of postprandial increase of blood glucose in diabetic patients. The present study investigated the alpha-amylase inhibitory and antioxidant potential of selected herbal drugs used in the treatment of DM by the traditional healers in Isiala Mbano and Ikwuano regions of southeastern Nigeria. Antioxidant activity was evaluated in terms of free radical scavenging, reducing power, and total phenolic (TPC) and flavonoid content (TFC) in consonance with the TLC profiling. The results showed that methanol crude extracts from Anacardium occidentale (AO) and Ceiba pentandra (CP) recorded higher TPC and TFC, potent free radical scavenging, and efficient reducing power (RP) as compared with other plant samples. All the plant extracts exhibited a relative alpha-amylase inhibition apart from Strophanthus hispidus (SH) extract with a negative effect. We discovered a mild to weak correlation between alpha-amylase inhibition or antioxidative capacity and the total phenol or flavonoid content. At least in part, the results obtained in this work support the traditional use of certain plant species in the treatment of patients with DM.

Optimized synthesis of novel prenyl ferulate performed by feruloyl esterases from Myceliophthora thermophila in microemulsions

Five feruloyl esterases (FAEs; EC 3.1.1.73), FaeA1, FaeA2, FaeB1, and FaeB2 from Myceliophthora thermophila C1 and MtFae1a from M. thermophila ATCC 42464, were tested for their ability to catalyze the transesterification of vinyl ferulate (VFA) with prenol in detergentless microemulsions. Reaction conditions were optimized investigating parameters such as the medium composition, the substrate concentration, the enzyme load, the pH, the temperature, and agitation. FaeB2 offered the highest transesterification yield (71.5 ± 0.2%) after 24 h of incubation at 30 °C using 60 mM VFA, 1 M prenol, and 0.02 mg FAE/mL in a mixture comprising of 53.4:43.4:3.2 v/v/v n-hexane:t-butanol:100 mM MOPS-NaOH, pH 6.0. At these conditions, the competitive side hydrolysis of VFA was 4.7-fold minimized. The ability of prenyl ferulate (PFA) and its corresponding ferulic acid (FA) to scavenge 1,1-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) radicals was significant and similar (IC₅₀ 423.39 μM for PFA, 329.9 μM for FA). PFA was not cytotoxic at 0.8-100 μM (IC₅₀ 220.23 μM) and reduced intracellular reactive oxygen species (ROS) in human skin fibroblasts at concentrations ranging between 4 and 20 μM as determined with the dichloro-dihydro-fluorescein diacetate (DCFH-DA) assay.

The effects of ferulic acid on the pharmacokinetics of warfarin in rats after biliary drainage

According to previous research studies, warfarin can be detected in human bile after oral administration. Ferulic acid (FA) is the main bioactive component of many Chinese herbs for the treatment of cardiovascular disease. To elucidate the effects of FA on the pharmacokinetics of warfarin in rats after biliary drainage is necessary. Twenty rats were randomly divided into four groups: Group 1 (WN): healthy rats after the administration of warfarin sodium, Group 2 (WO): a rat model of biliary drainage after the administration of warfarin sodium, Group 3 (WFN): healthy rats after the administration of warfarin sodium and FA, and Group 4 (WFO): a rat model of biliary drainage after the administration of warfarin sodium and FA. Blood samples were collected at different time points after administration. The concentrations of blood samples were determined by ultraperformance liquid chromatography–tandem mass spectrometry. Comparisons between groups were performed according to the main pharmacokinetic parameters calculated by the DAS 2.1.1 software. The pharmacokinetic parameters showed a significant difference between the WN and WO groups, the WO group showed a decrease of 51% and 41.6% in area under the curve from 0 to time (AUC_0–t) and peak plasma concentration (C_max), respectively, whereas time to C_max (T_max) was delayed 3.27 folds. There were significant differences between the WFO and WFN groups, the WFO group showed a decrease of 63.8% and 70% in AUC_0–t and C_max, respectively; the delay in T_max between the WN and WFN groups (mean, from 132–432 minutes) was significantly different; the mean retention time from 0 to time (MRT_0–t) between the WO and WFO groups (mean, from 718.31–606.13 minutes) also showed a significant difference. Enterohepatic circulation markedly influences the disposition of warfarin in rats, and FA significantly affected the warfarin disposition in rat plasma.

Combining in vitro and in silico approaches to evaluate the multifunctional profile of rosmarinic acid from Blechnum brasiliense on targets related to neurodegeneration

Natural products are important sources of chemical diversity leading to unique scaffolds that can be exploited in the discovery of new drug candidates or chemical probes. In this context, chemical and biological investigation of ferns and lycophytes occurring in Brazil is an approach adopted by our research group aiming at discovering bioactive molecules acting on neurodegeneration targets. In the present study, rosmarinic acid (RA) isolated from Blechnum brasiliense showed an in vitro multifunctional profile characterized by antioxidant effects, and monoamine oxidases (MAO-A and MAO-B) and catechol-O-methyl transferase (COMT) inhibition. RA showed antioxidant effects against hydroxyl (HO(•)) and nitric oxide (NO) radicals (IC50 of 29.4 and 140 μM, respectively), and inhibition of lipid peroxidation (IC50 of 19.6 μM). In addition, RA inhibited MAO-A, MAO-B and COMT enzymes with IC50 values of 50.1, 184.6 and 26.7 μM, respectively. The MAO-A modulation showed a non-time-dependent profile, suggesting a reversible mechanism of inhibition. Structural insights on RA interactions with MAO-A and COMT were investigated by molecular docking. Finally, RA (up to 5 mM) demonstrated no cytotoxicity on polymorphonuclear rat cells. Taken together, our results suggest that RA may be exploited as a template for the development of new antioxidant molecules possessing additional MAO and COMT inhibition effects to be further investigated on in vitro and in vivo models of neurodegenerative diseases.

Water-soluble fractions from defatted sesame seeds protect human neuroblast cells against peroxyl radicals and hydrogen peroxide-induced oxidative stress

Oxidative stress is involved in the development of aging-related diseases, such as neurodegenerative diseases. Dietary antioxidants that can protect neuronal cells from oxidative damage play an important role in preventing such diseases. Previously, we reported that water-soluble fractions purified from defatted sesame seed flour exhibit good antioxidant activity in vitro. In the present study, we investigated the protective effects of white and gold sesame seed water-soluble fractions (WS-wsf and GS-wsf, respectively) against 2,2'-azobis(2-amidinopropane) dihydrochloride (AAPH) and hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) induced oxidative stress in human neuroblast SH-SY5Y cells. Pretreatment with WS-wsf and GS-wsf did not protect cells against AAPH-induced cytotoxicity, while simultaneous co-treatment with AAPH significantly improved cell viability and inhibited membrane lipid peroxidation. These results suggest that WS-wsf and GS-wsf protect cells from AAPH-induced extracellular oxidative damage via direct scavenging of peroxyl radicals. When oxidative stress was induced by H2O2, pretreatment WS-wsf and GS-wsf significantly enhanced cell viability. These results suggest that in addition to radical scavenging, WS-wsf and GS-wsf enhance cellular resistance to intracellular oxidative stress by activation of the Nrf-2/ARE pathway as confirmed by the increased Nrf2 protein level in the nucleus and increased heme oxygenase 1 (HO-1) mRNA expression. The roles of ferulic and vanillic acids as bioactive antioxidants in these fractions were also confirmed. In conclusion, our results indicated that WS-wsf and GS-wsf, which showed antioxidant activity in vitro, are also efficient antioxidants in a cell system protecting SH-SY5Y cells against both extracellular and intracellular oxidative stress.

Curcumin: A new candidate for melanoma therapy?

Melanoma remains among the most lethal cancers and, in spite of great attempts that have been made to increase the life span of patients with metastatic disease, durable and complete remissions are rare. Plants and plant extracts have long been used to treat a variety of human conditions; however, in many cases, effective doses of herbal remedies are associated with serious adverse effects. Curcumin is a natural polyphenol that shows a variety of pharmacological activities including anti-cancer effects, and only minimal adverse effects have been reported for this phytochemical. The anti-cancer effects of curcumin are the result of its anti-angiogenic, pro-apoptotic and immunomodulatory properties. At the molecular and cellular level, curcumin can blunt epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition and affect many targets that are involved in melanoma initiation and progression (e.g., BCl2, MAPKS, p21 and some microRNAs). However, curcumin has a low oral bioavailability that may limit its maximal benefits. The emergence of tailored formulations of curcumin and new delivery systems such as nanoparticles, liposomes, micelles and phospholipid complexes has led to the enhancement of curcumin bioavailability. Although in vitro and in vivo studies have demonstrated that curcumin and its analogues can be used as novel therapeutic agents in melanoma, curcumin has not yet been tested against melanoma in clinical practice. In this review, we summarized reported anti-melanoma effects of curcumin as well as studies on new curcumin formulations and delivery systems that show increased bioavailability. Such tailored delivery systems could pave the way for enhancement of the anti-melanoma effects of curcumin.

Ferulic acid ameliorates memory impairment in d-galactose-induced aging mouse model

Ferulic acid (FA) acts as a powerful antioxidant against various age-related diseases. To investigate the effect and underlying mechanism of FA against d-galactose(d-gal)-induced memory deficit, mice were injected with d-gal to induce memory impairment and simultaneously treated with FA and donepezil. The behavioral results revealed that chronic FA treatment reversed d-gal-induced memory impairment. Further, FA treatment inhibited d-gal-induced AChE activity and oxidative stress via increase of superoxide dismutase activity and reduced glutathione content, as well as decrease of malondialdehyde and nitric oxide levels. We also observed that FA significantly inhibits inflammation in the brain through reduction of NF-κB and IL-1β by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. Additionally, FA treatment significantly reduces the caspase-3 level in the hippocampus of d-gal-treated mice. Hematoxylin and eosin and Nissl staining showed that FA prevents neurodegeneration induced by d-gal. These findings showed that FA inhibits d-gal-induced AChE activity, oxidative stress, neuroinflammation and neurodegeneration, and consequently ameliorates memory impairment.

Ferulic acid exerts antitumor activity and inhibits metastasis in breast cancer cells by regulating epithelial to mesenchymal transition

Metastasis, which frequently occurs in breast cancer, is the major cause of mortality; therefore, new treatment strategies are urgently needed. Ferulic acid, isolated from Ferula foetida, a perennial herb, has shown antineoplastic activity in various types of cancers, such as colon and lung cancer, and central nervous system tumors. However, its potential role in suppressing breast cancer metastasis has not been fully understood. In the present study, we evaluated the antitumor activity of ferulic acid in breast cancer cell line-based in vitro and in vivo models. We first showed that ferulic acid treatment resulted in decreased viability, increased apoptosis and suppression of metastatic potential in breast cancer cell line MDA-MB-231. Furthermore, it was demonstrated that the antitumor activity of ferulic acid and its role in suppressing metastasis were regulated by the reversal of epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT). Consistent with our findings in vitro, the antitumor potential of ferulic acid was also verified in an MDA-MB-231 xenograft mouse model where significantly decreased tumor volume, weight and increased apoptosis were observed. Taken together, these results indicate that ferulic acid may be used as an effective therapeutic agent against breast cancer.

Effects of ferulic acid on antioxidant activity in Angelicae Sinensis Radix, Chuanxiong Rhizoma, and their combination

The present study aimed at exploring different roles of the same compound in different environment, using preparative HPLC, and the significance to investigating bio-active constituents in traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) on the basis of holism. In this study, the depletion of target component ferulic acid (FA) by using preparative HPLC followed by antioxidant activity testing was applied to investigate the roles of FA in Angelicae Sinensis Radix (DG), Chuanxiong Rhizoma (CX) and their combination (GX). The antioxidant activity was performed by 1, 1-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) radical-scavenging activity testing. FA was successfully and exclusively depleted from DG, CX, and GX, respectively. By comparing the effects of the samples, it was found that FA was one of the main antioxidant constituents in DG, CX and GX, and the roles of FA were DG > CX > GX. Furthermore, the effects of FA varied at different doses in these herbs. This study provided a reliable and effective approach to clarifying the contribution of same compound in different TCMs to their bio-activities. The role of a constituent in different TCMs might be different, and a component with the same content might have different effects in different chemical environments. Furthermore, this study also suggested the potential utilization of preparative HPLC in the characterization of the roles of multi-ingredients in TCM.

A systems pharmacology approach to decipher the mechanism of danggui-shaoyao-san decoction for the treatment of neurodegenerative diseases

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Neurodegenerative diseases (NDs) is a time-dependent course for a sequence of conditions that primarily impact the neurons in the human brain, ultimately, resulting in persistence and progressive degeneration and / or death of nerve cells and reduction of cognition and memory function. Currently, there are no therapeutic approaches to cure neurodegeneration, except certain medicines that temporarily alleviate symptoms, facilitating the improvement of a patients' quality of life. Danggui-shaoyao-san (DSS), as a famous Chinese herbal formula, has been widely used in the treatment of various illnesses, including neurodegenerative diseases. Although well-practiced in clinical medicine, the mechanisms involved in DSS for the treatment of neurodegenerative diseases remain elusive.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

In the present study, a novel systems pharmacology approach was developed to decipher the potential mechanism between DSS and neurodegenerative disorders, implicated in oral bioavailability screening, drug-likeness assessment, target identification and network analysis.

RESULTS

Based on a comprehensive systems approach, active compounds of DSS, relevant potential targets and targets associated with diseases were predicted. Active compounds, targets and diseases were used to construct biological networks, such as, compound-target interactions and target-disease networks, to decipher the mechanisms of DSS to address NDs.

CONCLUSIONS

Overall, a well-understood picture of DSS, hallmarked by multiple herbs-compounds-targets-pathway-cooperation networks for the treatment of NDs, was revealed. Notably, this systems pharmacology approach provided a novel in silico approach for the development paradigm of traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) and the generation of new strategies for the management of NDs.

Ferulic Acid Regulates the Nrf2/Heme Oxygenase-1 System and Counteracts Trimethyltin-Induced Neuronal Damage in the Human Neuroblastoma Cell Line SH-SY5Y

Over the past years, several lines of evidence have pointed out the efficacy of ferulic acid (FA) in counteracting oxidative stress elicited by β-amyloid or free radical initiators, based on the ability of this natural antioxidant to up-regulate the heme oxygenase-1 (HO-1) and biliverdin reductase (BVR) system. However, scarce results can be found in literature regarding the cytoprotective effects of FA in case of damage caused by neurotoxicants. The aim of this work is to investigate the mechanisms through which FA exerts neuroprotection in SH-SY5Y neuroblastoma cells exposed to the neurotoxin trimethyltin (TMT). FA (1-10 μM for 6 h) dose-dependently increased both basal and TMT (10 μM for 24 h)-induced HO-1 expression in SH-SY5Y cells by fostering the nuclear translocation of the transcriptional activator Nrf2. In particular, the co-treatment of FA (10 μM) with TMT was also responsible for the nuclear translocation of HO-1 in an attempt to further increase cell stress response in SH-SY5Y cells. In addition to HO-1, FA (1-10 μM for 6 h) dose-dependently increased the basal expression of BVR. The antioxidant and neuroprotective features of FA, through the increase of HO activity, were supported by the evidence that FA inhibited TMT (10 μM)-induced lipid peroxidation (evaluated by detecting 4-hydroxy-nonenal) and DNA fragmentation in SH-SY5Y cells and that this antioxidant effect was reversed by the HO inhibitor Zinc-protoporphyrin-IX (5 μM). Among the by-products of the HO/BVR system, carbon monoxide (CORM-2, 50 nM) and bilirubin (BR, 50 nM) significantly inhibited TMT-induced superoxide anion formation in SH-SY5Y cells. All together, these results corroborate the neuroprotective effect of FA through the up-regulation of the HO-1/BVR system, via carbon monoxide and BR formation, and provide the first evidence on the role of HO-1/Nrf2 axis in FA-related enhancement of cell stress response in human neurons.

Synthesis and evaluation of donepezil–ferulic acid hybrids as multi-target-directed ligands against Alzheimer's disease

A novel family of donepezil–ferulic acid hybrids were designed, synthesized and biologically evaluated as multi-target-directed ligands against Alzheimer's disease by fusing a fragment of donepezil and ferulic acid.

Enhanced permeability of ferulic acid loaded nanoemulsion based gel through skin against UVA mediated oxidative stress

AIMS

The study was aimed to develop a ferulic acid (FA) loaded nanoemulsion based gel in order to ensure the enhanced permeability and maximum antioxidant activity against UVA induced oxidative stress in rat.

MAIN METHODS

The optimized ferulic acid loaded nanoemulsion 3 (FA-NE3) was prepared by spontaneous nano-emulsification method with an appropriate ratio (20:30:50% w/w) of the oil (isostearyl isostearate), aqueous system and Smix [surfactant (labrasol) and co-surfactant (plurol isostearique)] respectively. FA-NE3 was characterized by measuring their droplet size, zeta potential, refractive index, transmission electron microscopy (TEM), ultraviolet (UV), fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) and rheological characteristics. Ex vivo skin permeation and in vivo UVA protection activity of FA-NE3 based nano-gels (FA-NG3) along with placebo were studied through the rat skin.

KEY FINDINGS

FA-NE3 exhibited sustained-release profile, better permeability and ultraviolet A (UVA) protection activity as compared to conventional dosage form. This phenomenon may be attributed towards increased solubility of the drug and enhanced permeability from nanoemulsion. FA-NE3 based nanogel (FA-NG3) could elevate the level of skin marker enzymes against oxidative stress mediated by UVA.

SIGNIFICANCE

The gel formulation exhibited significant (P<0.01) skin permeability and antioxidant activity in the current investigations. The nanogel could be promising nanocarriers for topical delivery of FA in response to better skin protection activity against UVA rays in a sustained manner.

Ferulic Acid Induces Th1 Responses by Modulating the Function of Dendritic Cells and Ameliorates Th2-Mediated Allergic Airway Inflammation in Mice

This study investigated the immunomodulatory effects of ferulic acid (FA) on antigen-presenting dendritic cells (DCs) in vitro and its antiallergic effects against ovalbumin- (OVA-) induced Th2-mediated allergic asthma in mice. The activation of FA-treated bone marrow-derived DCs by lipopolysaccharide (LPS) stimulation induced a high level of interleukin- (IL-) 12 but reduced the expression levels of the proinflammatory cytokines IL-1β, IL-6, and tumor necrosis factor- (TNF-) α. Compared to control-treated DCs, FA significantly enhanced the expressions of Notch ligand Delta-like 4 (Dll4), MHC class II, and CD40 molecules by these DCs. Furthermore, these FA-treated DCs enhanced T-cell proliferation and Th1 cell polarization. In animal experiments, oral administration of FA reduced the levels of OVA-specific immunoglobulin E (IgE) and IgG₁ and enhanced IgG_2a antibody production in serum. It also ameliorated airway hyperresponsiveness and attenuated eosinophilic pulmonary infiltration in dose-dependent manners. In addition, FA treatment inhibited the production of eotaxin, Th2 cytokines (IL-4, IL-5, and IL-13), and proinflammatory cytokines but promoted the Th1 cytokine interferon- (IFN-) γ production in bronchoalveolar lavage fluid (BALF) and the culture supernatant of spleen cells. These findings suggest that FA exhibits an antiallergic effect via restoring Th1/Th2 imbalance by modulating DCs function in an asthmatic mouse model.

Ferulic Acid: A Hope for Alzheimer's Disease Therapy from Plants

Alzheimer’s disease (AD) is a neurodegenerative disorder characterized by the deposition of extracellular amyloid-beta peptide (Aβ) and intracellular neurofibrillar tangles, associated with loss of neurons in the brain and consequent learning and memory deficits. Aβ is the major component of the senile plaques and is believed to play a central role in the development and progress of AD both in oligomer and fibril forms. Inhibition of the formation of Aβ fibrils as well as the destabilization of preformed Aβ in the Central Nervous System (CNS) would be an attractive therapeutic target for the treatment of AD. Moreover, a large number of studies indicate that oxidative stress and mitochondrial dysfunction may play an important role in AD and their suppression or reduction via antioxidant use could be a promising preventive or therapeutic intervention for AD patients. Many antioxidant compounds have been demonstrated to protect the brain from Aβ neurotoxicity. Ferulic acid (FA) is an antioxidant naturally present in plant cell walls with anti-inflammatory activities and it is able to act as a free radical scavenger. Here we present the role of FA as inhibitor or disaggregating agent of amyloid structures as well as its effects on biological models.

Synthesis and biological evaluation of hybrids from farnesylthiosalicylic acid and hydroxylcinnamic acid with dual inhibitory activities of Ras-related signaling and phosphorylated NF-κB

A series of hybrids (5a–r) of farnesylthiosalicylic acid (FTS) and hydroxylcinnamic acid were designed and synthesized. Most of the hybrids displayed potent antiproliferative activity against seven cancer cell lines in vitro, superior to FTS as well as sorafenib. The most potent compound 5f selectively inhibited cancer cells but not non-tumor liver cell proliferation in vitro, and significantly induced SMMC-7721 cell apoptosis. Interestingly, 5f could simultaneously inhibit not only Ras-related signaling but also phosphorylated NF-κB, which may synergetically contribute to the cell growth inhibition and apoptosis induction. Moreover, 5f showed low acute toxicity to mice and significantly inhibited the hepatoma tumor growth.

Cochlear injury and adaptive plasticity of the auditory cortex

Growing evidence suggests that cochlear stressors as noise exposure and aging can induce homeostatic/maladaptive changes in the central auditory system from the brainstem to the cortex. Studies centered on such changes have revealed several mechanisms that operate in the context of sensory disruption after insult (noise trauma, drug-, or age-related injury). The oxidative stress is central to current theories of induced sensory-neural hearing loss and aging, and interventions to attenuate the hearing loss are based on antioxidant agent. The present review addresses the recent literature on the alterations in hair cells and spiral ganglion neurons due to noise-induced oxidative stress in the cochlea, as well on the impact of cochlear damage on the auditory cortex neurons. The emerging image emphasizes that noise-induced deafferentation and upward spread of cochlear damage is associated with the altered dendritic architecture of auditory pyramidal neurons. The cortical modifications may be reversed by treatment with antioxidants counteracting the cochlear redox imbalance. These findings open new therapeutic approaches to treat the functional consequences of the cortical reorganization following cochlear damage.

Ferulic acid prevents liver injury and increases the anti-tumor effect of diosbulbin B in vivo

The present study is designed to investigate the protection by ferulic acid against the hepatotoxicity induced by diosbulbin B and its possible mechanism, and further observe whether ferulic acid augments diosbulbin B-induced anti-tumor activity. The results show that ferulic acid decreases diosbulbin B-increased serum alanine transaminase/aspartate transaminase (ALT/AST) levels. Ferulic acid also decreases lipid peroxide (LPO) levels which are elevated in diosbulbin B-treated mice. Histological evaluation of the liver demonstrates hydropic degeneration in diosbulbin B-treated mice, while ferulic acid reverses this injury. Moreover, the activities of copper- and zinc-containing superoxide dismutase (CuZn-SOD) and catalase (CAT) are decreased in the livers of diosbulbin B-treated mice, while ferulic acid reverses these decreases. Further results demonstrate that the mRNA expressions of CuZn-SOD and CAT in diosbulbin B-treated mouse liver are significantly decreased, while ferulic acid prevents this decrease. In addition, ferulic acid also augments diosbulbin B-induced tumor growth inhibition compared with diosbulbin B alone. Taken together, the present study shows that ferulic acid prevents diosbulbin B-induced liver injury via ameliorating diosbulbin B-induced liver oxidative stress injury and augments diosbulbin B-induced anti-tumor activity.

Design, Synthesis, andIn VitroAntiplatelet Aggregation Activities of Ferulic Acid Derivatives

In order to discover new compounds with antiplatelet aggregation activities, some ferulic acid (FA) derivatives were designed and synthesized. Thein vitroantiplatelet aggregation activities of these compounds were assessed by turbidimetric test. The results showed that the target compound7fhad potent antiplatelet aggregation activity with its IC5027.6 μmol/L, and7fcan be regarded as a novel potent antiplatelet aggregation candidate.

Sodium ferulate protects against daunorubicin-induced cardiotoxicity by inhibition of mitochondrial apoptosis in juvenile rats

Daunorubicin (DNR) is a widely used chemotherapeutic agent; however, its clinical use is limited because of its cardiotoxicity. This study was aimed to investigate the protective effect of sodium ferulate (SF), an effective component from traditional Chinese herbs, against DNR-induced cardiotoxicity in juvenile rats. DNR was administered intraperitoneally to rats at the dosage of 2.5 mg·kg(-1)·wk(-1) for 5 consecutive weeks (cumulative dose of 12.5 mg/kg) or in combination with intraperitoneal injection of SF at 50 mg·kg(-1)·d(-1) over a period of 30 days. The animals were killed 6 days after the last injection of DNR. SF significantly ameliorated the DNR-induced cardiac dysfunction, structural damage of the myocardium, and release of lactate dehydrogenase and creatine kinase. Treatment with SF also reversed DNR-induced oxidative stress as evidenced by a decrease in malondialdehyde levels with a concomitant increase in myocardical superoxide dismutase activities. Furthermore, SF afforded significant cardioprotection against DNR-induced apoptosis in vivo and effectively suppressed the complex mitochondrion-dependent apoptotic signaling triggered by DNR. This study indicates that SF may improve cardiac function by inhibition of oxidative stress and apoptosis, thus providing a beneficial effect on the prevention of DNR-induced cardiotoxicity.

Ameliorative effects of ferulic Acid against lead acetate-induced oxidative stress, mitochondrial dysfunctions and toxicity in prepubertal rat brain

Epidemiological evidence has shown higher susceptibility of Children to the adverse effects of lead (Pb) exposure. However, experimental studies on Pb-induced neurotoxicity in prepubertal (PP) rats are limited. The present study aimed to examine the propensity of ferulic acid (FA), a commonly occurring phenolic acid in staple foods (fruits, vegetables, cereals, coffee etc.) to abrogate Pb-induced toxicity. Initially, we characterized Pb-induced adverse effects among PP rats exposed to Pb acetate (1,000-3,000 ppm in drinking water) for 5 weeks in terms of locomotor phenotype, activity of 5-aminolevulinic acid dehydratase (ALAD) in the blood, blood Pb levels and oxidative stress in brain regions. Further, the ameliorative effects of oral supplements of FA (25 mg/kg bw/day) were investigated in PP rats exposed to Pb (3,000 ppm). Pb intoxication increased the locomotor activity and FA supplements partially reversed the phenotype, while the reduced ALAD activity was also restored. FA significantly abrogated the enhanced oxidative stress in cerebellum (Cb) and hippocampus (Hc) as evidenced in terms of ROS generation, lipid peroxidation and protein carbonyls. Further, Pb-mediated perturbations in the glutathione levels and activity of enzymic antioxidants were also markedly restored. Furthermore, the protective effect of FA was discernible in striatum in terms of reduced oxidative stress, restored cholinergic activity and dopamine levels. Interestingly, reduced activity levels of mitochondrial complex I in Cb and enhanced levels in Hc among Pb-intoxicated rats were ameliorated by FA supplements. FA also decreased the number of damaged cells in cornu ammonis area CA1 and dentate gyrus as reflected by the histoarchitecture of Hc among Pb intoxicated rats. Collectively, our findings in the PP model allow us to hypothesize that ingestion of common phenolics such as FA may significantly alleviate the neurotoxic effects of Pb which may be largely attributed to its ability to abrogate oxidative stress.

Potential applications of ferulic acid from natural sources

Ferulic acid (FA), a ubiquitous natural phenolic phytochemical present in seeds, leaves, bothin its free form and covalently conjugated to the plant cell wall polysaccharides, glycoproteins,polyamines, lignin and hydroxy fatty acids. FA plays a vital role in providing the rigidity to the cell wall and formation of other important organic compounds like coniferyl alcohol, vanillin, sinapic, diferulic acid and curcumin. FA exhibits wide variety of biological activities such as antioxidant, antiinflammatory, antimicrobial, antiallergic, hepatoprotective, anticarcinogenic, antithrombotic, increase sperm viability, antiviral and vasodilatory actions, metal chelation, modulation of enzyme activity, activation of transcriptional factors, gene expression and signal transduction.

The protective role of ferulic acid on sepsis-induced oxidative damage in Wistar albino rats

Oxidative stress has an important role in the development of sepsis-induced multiorgan failure. Ferulic acid (FA), a well-established natural antioxidant, has several pharmacological activities including anti-inflammatory, anticancer and hepatoprotective. This study aimed to investigate the effects of FA on sepsis-induced oxidative damage in Wistar albino rats. Sepsis-induced DNA damage in the lymphocytes, liver and kidney cells of rats were evaluated by comet assay with and without formamidopyrimidine DNA glycosylase (Fpg). The oxidative stress parameters such as superoxide dismutase (SOD) and glutathione peroxidase (GSH-Px) activities and total glutathione (GSH) and malondialdehyde (MDA) levels were also measured. It is found that DNA damage in sepsis+FA-treated group was significantly lower than the sepsis group. FA treatment also decreased the MDA levels and increased the GSH levels and SOD and GSH-Px activities in the sepsis-induced rats. It seems that FA might have ameliorative effects against sepsis-induced oxidative damage.

Ethyl ferulate, a component with anti-inflammatory properties for emulsion-based creams

Ethyl ferulate (FAEE) has been widely studied due to its beneficial heath properties and, when incorporated in creams, shows a high sun protection capacity. Here we aimed to compare FAEE and its precursor, ferulic acid (FA), as free radical scavengers, inhibitors of oxidants produced by leukocytes and the alterations in rheological properties when incorporated in emulsion based creams. The cell-free antiradical capacity of FAEE was decreased compared to FA. However, FAEE was more effective regarding the scavenging of reactive oxygen species produced by activated leukocytes. Stress and frequency sweep tests showed that the formulations are more elastic than viscous. The viscoelastic features of the formulations were confirmed in the creep and recovery assay and showed that the FAEE formulation was less susceptive to deformation. Liberation experiments showed that the rate of FAEE release from the emulsion was slower compared to FA. In conclusion, FAEE is more effective than FA as a potential inhibitor of oxidative damage produced by oxidants generated by leukocytes. The rheological alterations caused by the addition of FAEE are indicative of lower spreadability, which could be useful for formulations used in restricted areas of the skin.

Neuroprotective efficacy of a combination of fish oil and ferulic acid against 3-nitropropionic acid-induced oxidative stress and neurotoxicity in rats: behavioural and biochemical evidence

The beneficial effects of fish oil (FO) supplements on the central nervous system have been adequately demonstrated. However, FO supplementation at higher doses for longer duration is likely to cause oxidative stress in vivo. To overcome this, attempts have been made to enrich FO with known antioxidants/phytochemicals. In the present study, we examined the hypothesis that a combination of FO with ferulic acid (FA), a naturally occurring phenolic compound, is likely to provide higher degree of neuroprotection. This was examined by employing 3-nitropropionic acid (NPA), a well-known neurotoxin used to mimic behavioural and neurochemical features of Huntington’s disease. Growing male rats administered with NPA (25 mg/kg of body weight (bw) for 4 days) were provided with either FO (2 mL/kg bw), FA (50 mg/kg bw) or FO+FA for 2 weeks. Interestingly, FO+FA not only offered significant protection against NPA-induced behavioural impairments, but also markedly attenuated oxidative stress in brain regions (striatum/cerebellum) as evidenced by the reduction in reactive species, malondialdehyde, hydroperoxides and nitric oxide (NO) levels. Further, FO+FA combination restored the activities of various antioxidant enzymes and the levels of cytosolic calcium. In striatum, activity levels of acetylcholinesterase enzyme and dopamine levels were markedly restored among FO+FA rats. Interestingly, NPA-induced mitochondrial dysfunctions were also attenuated among FO+FA rats. Collectively, our findings suggest the advantage of co-treatment of FO with known antioxidants to achieve a higher therapeutic benefit in the treatment of oxidative stress-mediated neurodegenerative conditions.

Sodium ferulate inhibits neointimal hyperplasia in rat balloon injury model

Background/Aim

Neointimal formation after vessel injury is a complex process involving multiple cellular and molecular processes. Inhibition of intimal hyperplasia plays an important role in preventing proliferative vascular diseases, such as restenosis. In this study, we intended to identify whether sodium ferulate could inhibit neointimal formation and further explore potential mechanisms involved.

Methods

Cultured vascular smooth muscle cells (VSMCs) isolated from rat thoracic aorta were pre-treated with 200 µmol/L sodium ferulate for 1 hour and then stimulated with 1 µmol/L angiotensin II (Ang II) for 1 hour or 10% serum for 48 hours. Male Sprague-Dawley rats subjected to balloon catheter insertion were administrated with 200 mg/kg sodium ferulate (or saline) for 7 days before sacrificed.

Results

In presence of sodium ferulate, VSMCs exhibited decreased proliferation and migration, suppressed intracellular reactive oxidative species production and NADPH oxidase activity, increased SOD activation and down-regulated p38 phosphorylation compared to Ang II-stimulated alone. Meanwhile, VSMCs treated with sodium ferulate showed significantly increased protein expression of smooth muscle α-actin and smooth muscle myosin heavy chain protein. The components of Notch pathway, including nuclear Notch-1 protein, Jagged-1, Hey-1 and Hey-2 mRNA, as well as total β-catenin protein and Cyclin D1 mRNA of Wnt signaling, were all significantly decreased by sodium ferulate in cells under serum stimulation. The levels of serum 8-iso-PGF2α and arterial collagen formation in vessel wall were decreased, while the expression of contractile markers was increased in sodium ferulate treated rats. A decline of neointimal area, as well as lower ratio of intimal to medial area was observed in sodium ferulate group.

Conclusion

Sodium ferulate attenuated neointimal hyperplasia through suppressing oxidative stress and phenotypic switching of VSMCs.

Simultaneous determination of fifteen constituents of jitai tablet using ultra high-performance liquid chromatography coupled with triple quadrupole electrospray tandem mass spectrometry

An ultra-high-performance liquid chromatography-electrospray ionization tandem mass spectrometry (UHPLC-ESI-MS/MS) method was developed for simultaneous determination of fifteen constituents in Jitai tablet (JTT), a complex Traditional Chinese Medicine prescription (TCMP) used in treating opiate addiction. Benefitting from a small particle size (1.8 µm) C18 column, accelerated analysis with satisfactory resolution, sensitivity and selectivity were achieved in a single run within 7 min with linear gradient elution of acetonitrile-0.1% (v/v) formic acid in water. The analytical signal was obtained by multiple reaction monitoring transitions via electrospray ionization source operating in both positive and negative ionization mode. The approach was validated for linearity, sensitivity, precision, repeatability, stability and recovery. All analytes showed good linearity over a wide concentration range (r > 0.99). The method limits ranged from 0.03 ng/mL to 19.35 ng/mL which are sensitive enough for quality control studies. The developed method was successfully applied to the simultaneous determination of fifteen constituents in JTT. In conclusion, our experimental results demonstrate that UHPLC-ESI-MS/MS is a useful approach for the overall quality assessment of complex TCMPs.

Therapeutic Angiogenesis after Ischemic Stroke: Chinese Medicines, Bone Marrow Stromal Cells (BMSCs) and their Combinational Treatment

Ischemic stroke is a clinical acute disease which causes neurological dysfunction and threatens a patient's life. Because the mechanism of pathology is complicated and most patients miss the best therapeutic window time, the effect of the treatment is not satisfied at present. Numerous studies indicated new vessels not only recuperated blood flow in the ischemic boundary zone, but also facilitated endogenous neurogenesis and improved neurological function after ischemic stroke. Therefore, angiogenesis has been an important research field in neurovascular regeneration. Recently, some Chinese medicines, bone marrow stromal cells (BMSCs) and their combination treatment were demonstrated to have beneficial effects in promoting angiogenesis both in vitro and in vivo. In this review, we summarized the effective mechanisms of Chinese medicines and BMSCs, as well as BMSCs in combination with Chinese medicines on angiogenesis post-stroke.

β-Amyloid amorphous aggregates induced by the small natural molecule ferulic acid

There is an emerging interest in small natural molecules for their potential therapeutic use in neurodegenerative disorders like Alzheimer's disease (AD). Ferulic acid (FA), an antioxidant phenolic compound present in fruit and vegetables, has been proposed as an inhibitor of beta amyloid (Aβ) pathological aggregation. Using fluorescence and Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, electrophoresis techniques, chromatographic analysis, and confocal microscopy, we investigated the effects of FA in the early stages of Aβ fibrillogenesis in vitro. Our results show that FA interacts promptly with Aβ monomers/oligomers, interfering since the beginning with its self-assembly and finally forming amorphous aggregates more prone to destabilization. These findings highlight the molecular basis underlying FA antiamyloidogenic activity in AD.