101
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The contribution of washing processes of synthetic clothes to microplastic pollution. Sci Rep 2019; 9:6633. [PMID: 31036862 PMCID: PMC6488573 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-019-43023-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 248] [Impact Index Per Article: 49.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/17/2019] [Accepted: 03/29/2019] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
Microplastic pollution caused by washing processes of synthetic textiles has recently been assessed as the main source of primary microplastics in the oceans. Therefore, understanding the effective contribution of the washing process of synthetic clothes to this environmental problem, is of great importance. In this study, wash trials at real scale were performed on commercial clothes by using a household washing machine in order to gain reliable data about the release of microplastics, and to identify possible influences of textile characteristics on the release. The wastewater was collected and filtered through subsequent filters with decreasing porosity, and the amount and dimensions of microfibres were determined. Microfibre release was analysed in relation to the nature and characteristics of the washed clothes. Results showed that microfibres released during washing range from 124 to 308 mg for kg of washed fabric depending from the type of washed garment that corresponds to a number of microfibres ranging from 640,000 to 1,500,000. Some textile characteristics, such as the type of fibres constituting the yarns and their twist, influenced the release of microfibres during washing. A great amount of microfibres of cellulosic nature was also released during washing of clothes made with a blend of polyester/cellulose. Finally the most abundant fraction of microfibres shed was retained by filters with pore size of 60 µm, presenting an average length of 360–660 μm and an average diameter of 12–16 μm, indicating dimensions that could pass through wastewater treatment plants and pose a threat for marine organisms.
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102
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Lares M, Ncibi MC, Sillanpää M, Sillanpää M. Intercomparison study on commonly used methods to determine microplastics in wastewater and sludge samples. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND POLLUTION RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2019; 26:12109-12122. [PMID: 30827019 PMCID: PMC6476832 DOI: 10.1007/s11356-019-04584-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 60] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/03/2018] [Accepted: 02/13/2019] [Indexed: 04/15/2023]
Abstract
The harmonized procedures in terms of the sampling, sample treatment and identification of microplastics in different environmental samples are missing, which poses challenges to researchers to compare the results or to adopt 'the most effective' monitoring approach. Furthermore, in the related literature, the used procedures are rarely tested with spiked microplastics to predetermine their recovery rates. Without this knowledge, results should only be discussed as rough estimations of the real environmental concentrations of microplastics. In this study, six different methods previously used in microplastic studies of different media were tested with municipal wastewater and digested sludge samples, spiked with seven different types of plastic particles and fibres. Recovery rates, time consumption, advantages and disadvantages were assessed and most suitable treatment procedures (i.e. high recovery rates in short amount of time) were chosen for both wastewater and sludge. Suitability of staining with Rose Bengal was examined together with most efficient methods, but it did not improve the recovery of microplastics. In addition, the possible impacts of the treatments for identification with micro-Raman and FTIR microscope were assessed. Filtration with size fractioning was found to be the best method for both wastewater and sludge samples, with recovery rates of spiked microplastics around 91.4% and 92.9%, respectively.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mirka Lares
- Department of Green Chemistry, School of Engineering Science, Lappeenranta-Lahti University of Technology LUT, Sammonkatu 12, FI-50130, Mikkeli, Finland.
| | - Mohamed Chaker Ncibi
- Department of Green Chemistry, School of Engineering Science, Lappeenranta-Lahti University of Technology LUT, Sammonkatu 12, FI-50130, Mikkeli, Finland
| | - Markus Sillanpää
- Ecotoxicology and Risk Assessment, Laboratory Centre, Finnish Environment Institute, Ultramariinikuja 4, FI-00430, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Mika Sillanpää
- Department of Green Chemistry, School of Engineering Science, Lappeenranta-Lahti University of Technology LUT, Sammonkatu 12, FI-50130, Mikkeli, Finland
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103
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Magni S, Binelli A, Pittura L, Avio CG, Della Torre C, Parenti CC, Gorbi S, Regoli F. The fate of microplastics in an Italian Wastewater Treatment Plant. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2019; 652:602-610. [PMID: 30368189 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2018.10.269] [Citation(s) in RCA: 243] [Impact Index Per Article: 48.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/28/2018] [Revised: 10/19/2018] [Accepted: 10/19/2018] [Indexed: 04/14/2023]
Abstract
The emerged threat of microplastics (MPs) in aquatic ecosystems is posing a new challenges in environmental management, in particular the civil Wastewater Treatment Plants (WWTPs) which can act both as collectors of MPs from anthropic use and as a source to natural environments. In this study, MP fate was investigated in one of the biggest WWTPs of Northern Italy, built at the beginning of the 2000s and which serves a population equivalent of about 1,200,000, by evaluating their presence at the inlet (IN), the removal efficiency after the settler (SET) and at the outlet (OUT), and their transfer to sludge. Samples were collected in three days of a week and plastic debris was characterized in terms of shape, size and polymer composition using the Fourier Transform Infrared Microscope System (μFT-IR). The number of detected MPs was 2.5 ± 0.3 MPs/L in the IN, 0.9 ± 0.3 MPs/L after the SET and 0.4 ± 0.1 MPs/L in the OUT, indicating a total removal efficiency of 84%. However, considering that this WWTP treats about 400,000,000 L wastewaters/day, the potential release of MPs to the receiving aquatic system would be approximately 160,000,000 MPs/day, mainly polyesters (35%) and polyamide (17%). Furthermore, a great amount of MPs removed from wastewater was detected in the recycled activated sludge, with 113 ± 57 MPs/g sludge dry weight, corresponding to about 3,400,000,000 MPs deposited in the 30 tons of sludge daily produced by this WWTP. Given the possible re-use of WWTP sludge in fertilizers for agriculture, our results highlight that WWTPs could represent a potential source of MPs also to agroecosystems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stefano Magni
- Department of Biosciences, University of Milan, Via Celoria 26, 20133 Milan, Italy.
| | - Andrea Binelli
- Department of Biosciences, University of Milan, Via Celoria 26, 20133 Milan, Italy.
| | - Lucia Pittura
- Department of Life and Environmental Sciences, Polytechnic University of Marche, Via Brecce Bianche, 60131 Ancona, Italy
| | - Carlo Giacomo Avio
- Department of Life and Environmental Sciences, Polytechnic University of Marche, Via Brecce Bianche, 60131 Ancona, Italy
| | - Camilla Della Torre
- Department of Biosciences, University of Milan, Via Celoria 26, 20133 Milan, Italy
| | | | - Stefania Gorbi
- Department of Life and Environmental Sciences, Polytechnic University of Marche, Via Brecce Bianche, 60131 Ancona, Italy; National Inter-University Consortium for Marine Sciences, CoNISMa, U.L.R., Ancona, Italy
| | - Francesco Regoli
- Department of Life and Environmental Sciences, Polytechnic University of Marche, Via Brecce Bianche, 60131 Ancona, Italy; National Inter-University Consortium for Marine Sciences, CoNISMa, U.L.R., Ancona, Italy
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104
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McIlwraith HK, Lin J, Erdle LM, Mallos N, Diamond ML, Rochman CM. Capturing microfibers - marketed technologies reduce microfiber emissions from washing machines. MARINE POLLUTION BULLETIN 2019; 139:40-45. [PMID: 30686443 DOI: 10.1016/j.marpolbul.2018.12.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 77] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/31/2018] [Revised: 12/09/2018] [Accepted: 12/10/2018] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
Microfibers are a common type of microplastic. One known source of microfibers to the environment is domestic laundering, which can release thousands of fibers into washing machine effluent with every wash. Here, we adapted existing methods to measure the length, count and weight of microfibers in laundry effluent. We used this method to test the efficacy of two technologies marketed to reduce microfiber emissions: the Cora Ball and Lint LUV-R filter. Both technologies significantly reduced the numbers of microfibers from fleece blankets in washing effluent. The Lint LUV-R captured an average of 87% of microfibers in the wash by count, compared to the Cora Ball which captured 26% by count. The Lint LUV-R also significantly reduced the total weight and average length of fibers in effluent. While further research is needed to understand other sources of microfiber emissions, these available technologies could be adopted to reduce emissions from laundering textiles.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hayley K McIlwraith
- Department of Earth Sciences, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada; Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| | - Jack Lin
- Department of Earth Sciences, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| | - Lisa M Erdle
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| | - Nicholas Mallos
- Ocean Conservancy, 111 SW Columbia St, Portland, OR 97201, USA
| | - Miriam L Diamond
- Department of Earth Sciences, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| | - Chelsea M Rochman
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada.
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105
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Karbalaei S, Hanachi P, Walker TR, Cole M. Occurrence, sources, human health impacts and mitigation of microplastic pollution. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND POLLUTION RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2018; 25:36046-36063. [PMID: 30382517 DOI: 10.1007/s11356-018-3508-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 220] [Impact Index Per Article: 36.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/15/2018] [Accepted: 10/16/2018] [Indexed: 04/16/2023]
Abstract
The presence and accumulation of plastic and microplastic (MP) debris in the natural environment is of increasing concern and has become the focus of attention for many researchers. Plastic debris is a prolific, long-lived pollutant that is highly resistant to environmental degradation, readily adheres hydrophobic persistent organic pollutants and is linked to morbidity and mortality in numerous aquatic organisms. The prevalence of MPs within the natural environment is a symptom of continuous and rapid growth in synthetic plastic production and mismanagement of plastic waste. Many terrestrial and marine-based processes, including domestic and industrial drainage, maritime activities agricultural runoff and wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) effluent, contribute to MP pollution in aquatic environments. MPs have been identified in food consumed by human and in air samples, and exposure to MPs via ingestion or inhalation could lead to adverse human health effects. Regulations in many countries have already been established or will soon be implemented to reduce MPs in aquatic environments. This review focuses on the occurrence, sources, and transport of MPs in terrestrial and aquatic environments to highlight potential human health effects, and applicable regulations to mitigate impacts of MPs. This study also highlights the importance of personality traits and cognitive ability in reducing the entry of MPs into the environment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Samaneh Karbalaei
- Department of Biotechnology, Faculty of Biological Science, Alzahra University, Tehran, Iran.
| | - Parichehr Hanachi
- Department of Biotechnology, Faculty of Biological Science, Alzahra University, Tehran, Iran
| | - Tony R Walker
- School for Resource and Environmental Studies, Dalhousie University, Halifax, NS, B3H 4R2, Canada
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106
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De Falco F, Gentile G, Avolio R, Errico ME, Di Pace E, Ambrogi V, Avella M, Cocca M. Pectin based finishing to mitigate the impact of microplastics released by polyamide fabrics. Carbohydr Polym 2018; 198:175-180. [DOI: 10.1016/j.carbpol.2018.06.062] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/29/2018] [Revised: 05/07/2018] [Accepted: 06/14/2018] [Indexed: 10/14/2022]
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107
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Barrows APW, Cathey SE, Petersen CW. Marine environment microfiber contamination: Global patterns and the diversity of microparticle origins. ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION (BARKING, ESSEX : 1987) 2018; 237:275-284. [PMID: 29494921 DOI: 10.1016/j.envpol.2018.02.062] [Citation(s) in RCA: 219] [Impact Index Per Article: 36.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/29/2017] [Revised: 02/17/2018] [Accepted: 02/19/2018] [Indexed: 05/18/2023]
Abstract
Microplastic and microfiber pollution has been documented in all major ocean basins. Microfibers are one of the most common microparticle pollutants along shorelines. Over 9 million tons of fibers are produced annually; 60% are synthetic and ∼25% are non-synthetic. Non-synthetic and semi-synthetic microfibers are infrequently documented and not typically included in marine environment impact analyses, resulting in underestimation of a potentially pervasive and harmful pollutant. We present the most extensive worldwide microparticle distribution dataset using 1-liter grab samples (n = 1393). Our citizen scientist driven study shows a global microparticle average of 11.8 ± 24.0 particles L-1 (mean ± SD), approximately three orders of magnitude higher than global model predictions. Open ocean samples showed consistently higher densities than coastal samples, with the highest concentrations found in the polar oceans (n = 51), confirming previous empirical and theoretical studies. Particles were predominantly microfibers (91%) and 0.1-1.5 mm in length (77%), a smaller size than those captured in the majority of surface studies. Using μFT-IR we determined the material types of 113 pieces; 57% were classified as synthetic, 12% as semi-synthetic, and 31% as non-synthetic. Samples were taken globally, including from coastal environments and understudied ocean regions. Some of these sites are emerging as areas of concentrated floating plastic and anthropogenic debris, influenced by distant waste mismanagement and/or deposition of airborne particles. Incorporation of smaller-sized microfibers in oceanographic models, which has been lacking, will help us to better understand the movement and transformation of synthetic, semi-synthetic and non-synthetic microparticles in regional seas and ocean basins.
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Affiliation(s)
- A P W Barrows
- Adventure Scientists, PO Box 1834, Bozeman, MT 59771, USA; College of the Atlantic, Department of Biology, 105 Eden Street, Bar Harbor, ME 04609, USA.
| | - S E Cathey
- Adventure Scientists, PO Box 1834, Bozeman, MT 59771, USA; Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Department of Biological Sciences, 926 West Campus Drive, Blacksburg, VA 24061, USA
| | - C W Petersen
- College of the Atlantic, Department of Biology, 105 Eden Street, Bar Harbor, ME 04609, USA
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108
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Catarino AI, Macchia V, Sanderson WG, Thompson RC, Henry TB. Low levels of microplastics (MP) in wild mussels indicate that MP ingestion by humans is minimal compared to exposure via household fibres fallout during a meal. ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION (BARKING, ESSEX : 1987) 2018; 237:675-684. [PMID: 29604577 DOI: 10.1016/j.envpol.2018.02.069] [Citation(s) in RCA: 355] [Impact Index Per Article: 59.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/24/2017] [Revised: 01/23/2018] [Accepted: 02/21/2018] [Indexed: 05/18/2023]
Abstract
Microplastics (MPs) are the most numerous debris reported in marine environments and assessment of the amounts of MPs that accumulate in wild organisms is necessary for risk assessment. Our objective was to assess MP contamination in mussels collected around the coast of Scotland (UK) to identify characteristics of MPs and to evaluate risk of human exposure to MPs via ingestion of mussels. We deployed caged mussels (Mytilus edulis) in an urbanised estuary (Edinburgh, UK) to assess seasonal changes in plastic pollution, and collected mussels (Mytilus spp and subtidal Modiolus modiolus) from eight sampling stations around Scotland to enumerate MP types at different locations. We determined the potential exposure of humans to household dust fibres during a meal to compare with amounts of MPs present in edible mussels. The mean number of MPs in M. modiolus was 0.086 ± 0.031 (SE, n = 6)/g ww (3.5 ± 1.29 (SE) per mussel). In Mytilus spp, the mean number of MPs/g ww was 3.0 ± 0.9 (SE, n = 36) (3.2 ± 0.52 (SE) per mussel), but weight dependent. The visual accuracy of plastic fibres identification was estimated to be between 48 and 50%, using Nile Red staining and FT-IR methodologies, respectively, halving the observed amounts of MPs in wild mussels. We observed an allometric relationship between the number of MPs and the mussels wet weight. Our predictions of MPs ingestion by humans via consumption of mussels is 123 MP particles/y/capita in the UK and can go up to 4620 particles/y/capita in countries with a higher shellfish consumption. By comparison, the risk of plastic ingestion via mussel consumption is minimal when compared to fibre exposure during a meal via dust fallout in a household (13,731-68,415 particles/Y/capita).
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Affiliation(s)
- Ana I Catarino
- Center for Marine Biodiversity & Biotechnology, Institute of Life and Earth Sciences, EGIS, Heriot-Watt University, Edinburgh EH14 4AS, UK.
| | - Valeria Macchia
- School of Applied Science, Edinburgh Napier University, Sighthill Campus, Sighthill Court, Edinburgh EH11 4BN, UK
| | - William G Sanderson
- Center for Marine Biodiversity & Biotechnology, Institute of Life and Earth Sciences, EGIS, Heriot-Watt University, Edinburgh EH14 4AS, UK; St Abbs Marine Station, St Abbs, Scottish Borders, TD14 5PW, UK
| | - Richard C Thompson
- Marine Biology and Ecology Research Centre, University of Plymouth, Devon PL4 8AA, UK
| | - Theodore B Henry
- Center for Marine Biodiversity & Biotechnology, Institute of Life and Earth Sciences, EGIS, Heriot-Watt University, Edinburgh EH14 4AS, UK; Department of Forestry, Wildlife and Fisheries, and Center for Environmental Biotechnology, The University of Tennessee, Knoxville, TN, USA
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109
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Railo S, Talvitie J, Setälä O, Koistinen A, Lehtiniemi M. Application of an enzyme digestion method reveals microlitter in Mytilus trossulus at a wastewater discharge area. MARINE POLLUTION BULLETIN 2018; 130:206-214. [PMID: 29866549 DOI: 10.1016/j.marpolbul.2018.03.022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/04/2017] [Revised: 03/12/2018] [Accepted: 03/14/2018] [Indexed: 05/14/2023]
Abstract
The ingestion of microlitter by blue mussels (450) was studied at a wastewater recipient area in the Baltic Sea. The mussel soft tissues were digested using enzymatic detergents and the detected litter particles characterized with FT-IR imaging spectroscopy. Microlitter concentration in seawater and WWTP effluent were also measured. Microlitter was found in 66% of the mussels. Mussels from the WWTP recipient had higher microlitter content compared to those collected at the reference site. Plastics made up 8% of all the analysed microlitter particles. The dominating litter types were fibres (~90% of all microlitter), 42% of which were cotton, 17% linen, 17% viscose and 4% polyester. The risk of airborne contamination during laboratory work was lowered when mussels were digested with their shells on instead of dissecting them first. The approach was found applicable and gentle to both non-synthetic and synthetic materials including fragile fibres.
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Affiliation(s)
- Saana Railo
- Department of Environmental Sciences, University of Helsinki, P.O. Box 65, FI-00014 University of Helsinki, Finland; Marine Research Centre, Finnish Environment Institute, P. O. Box 140, FI-00251 Helsinki, Finland.
| | - Julia Talvitie
- Department of Built Environment, Aalto University, PO Box 15200, FI-00076, Aalto, Finland; Marine Research Centre, Finnish Environment Institute, P. O. Box 140, FI-00251 Helsinki, Finland
| | - Outi Setälä
- Marine Research Centre, Finnish Environment Institute, P. O. Box 140, FI-00251 Helsinki, Finland
| | - Arto Koistinen
- SIB Labs, University of Eastern Finland, P.O. Box 1627, 70211 Kuopio, Finland
| | - Maiju Lehtiniemi
- Marine Research Centre, Finnish Environment Institute, P. O. Box 140, FI-00251 Helsinki, Finland
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110
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Prata JC. Microplastics in wastewater: State of the knowledge on sources, fate and solutions. MARINE POLLUTION BULLETIN 2018; 129:262-265. [PMID: 29680547 DOI: 10.1016/j.marpolbul.2018.02.046] [Citation(s) in RCA: 158] [Impact Index Per Article: 26.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/10/2018] [Revised: 02/22/2018] [Accepted: 02/23/2018] [Indexed: 05/05/2023]
Abstract
Microplastics are ubiquitous contaminants that could harm ecosystems. Wastewater contains microplastics and may lead to further contamination of the environment. This focus article presents a summary of current knowledge on microplastics in wastewater and possible solutions, suggesting current research needs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joana Correia Prata
- Instituto de Ciências Biomédicas Abel Salazar, University of Porto, Portugal.
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