Working memory and prefrontal cortex

Properties of delay-period neuronal activity in the monkey dorsolateral prefrontal cortex during a spatial delayed matching-to-sample task

The dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (PFC) has been implicated in visuospatial memory, and its cellular basis has been extensively studied with the delayed-response paradigm in monkeys. However, using this paradigm, it is difficult to dissociate neuronal activities related to visuospatial memory from those related to motor preparation, and few studies have provided evidence for the involvement of PFC neurons in visuospatial memory of a sensory cue, rather than in motor preparation. To extend this finding, we examined neuronal activities in the dorsolateral PFC while a rhesus monkey performed a spatial delayed matching-to-sample (SDMTS) task, which allows us to adequately access visuospatial memory independent of any sensorimotor components. The SDMTS task required the subject to make a lever-holding NOGO response or a lever-releasing GO response when a visuospatial matching cue (white spot, one of four peripheral locations, 15 degrees in eccentricity) matched or did not match a sample cue (physically the same as the matching cue) that had been presented prior to a delay period (3 s). Thus, the SDMTS task requires the subject to remember visuospatial information regarding the sample cue location during the delay period and is suitable for accessing visuospatial memory independent of any sensorimotor components, such as motor preparation, for directed movements. Of a total of 385 task-related neurons, 184 showed a sustained increase in activity during the delay period ("delay-period activity"). Most of these neurons (n = 165/184, 90%) showed positional delay-period activity, i.e., delay-period activity where the magnitude differed significantly with the position of the sample cue. This activity appears to be involved in visuospatial memory and to form a "memory field." To quantitatively examine the properties of positional delay-period activity, we introduced a tuning index (TI) and a discriminative index (DI), which represent the sharpness of tuning and the discriminative ability, respectively, of positional delay-period activity. Both TI and DI varied among neurons with positional delay-period activity and were closely related to the time from the onset of the sample cue to the onset of positional delay-period activity; positional delay-period activity with sharper tuning and a greater discriminative ability had a slower onset. Furthermore, at the population level, both TI and DI were increased during the delay period in the neuronal population with a high DI value. These results extend previous findings to suggest that integrative, convergent processes of neuronal activities for increasing the accuracy of visuospatial memory may occur in the dorsolateral PFC. Thus, a critical role of the dorsolateral PFC in visuospatial memory may be to sharpen it to guide behaviors/decisions requiring accurate visuospatial memory.

The dopaminergic innervation of the avian telencephalon

The present review provides an overview of the distribution of dopaminergic fibers and dopaminoceptive elements within the avian telencephalon, the possible interactions of dopamine (DA) with other biochemically identified systems as revealed by immunocytochemistry, and the involvement of DA in behavioral processes in birds. Primary sensory structures are largely devoid of dopaminergic fibers, DA receptors and the D1-related phosphoprotein DARPP-32, while all these dopaminergic markers gradually increase in density from the secondary sensory to the multimodal association and the limbic and motor output areas. Structures of the avian basal ganglia are most densely innervated but, in contrast to mammals, show a higher D2 than D1 receptor density. In most of the remaining telencephalon D1 receptors clearly outnumber D2 receptors. Dopaminergic fibers in the avian telencephalon often show a peculiar arrangement where fibers coil around the somata and proximal dendrites of neurons like baskets, probably providing them with a massive dopaminergic input. Basket-like innervation of DARPP-32-positive neurons seems to be most prominent in the multimodal association areas. Taken together, these anatomical findings indicate a specific role of DA in higher order learning and sensory-motor processes, while primary sensory processes are less affected. This conclusion is supported by behavioral findings which show that in birds, as in mammals, DA is specifically involved in sensory-motor integration, attention and arousal, learning and working memory. Thus, despite considerable differences in the anatomical organization of the avian and mammalian forebrain, the organization of the dopaminergic system and its behavioral functions are very similar in birds and mammals.

The class I metabotropic glutamate receptor antagonist, AIDA, improves short-term and impairs long-term memory in a spatial task for rats

Effects of the class I selective metabotropic glutamate receptor antagonist, 1-aminoindan-1,5-dicarboxylic acid (AIDA), on spatial procedural learning and episodic short-term memory of rats were investigated in an appetitively reinforced 3-choice delayed match-to-position task. First, an acute intraperitoneal injection of AIDA (2 mg/kg) was given 20 min before a single training session of 20 trials using repeated reward position in one alcove out of three. AIDA caused facilitated short-term acquisition within such a session compared to saline treated controls. Secondly, injections were given before each of ten sessions (48 h intervals) also using constant reward position. The results showed AIDA induced inhibition of procedural between-session acquisition. Finally, the use of reward positions in a non-repetitive but trial-specific version of the 3-choice test revealed a facilitating effect of AIDA on episodic short-term memory.

Common inhibitory mechanism in human inferior prefrontal cortex revealed by event-related functional MRI

Inhibition of an ongoing reaction tendency for adaptation to changing environments is a major function of the human prefrontal cortex. This function has been investigated frequently using the go/no-go task and set-shifting tasks such as the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test (WCST). Studies in humans and monkeys suggest the involvement of the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex in the two task paradigms. However, it remains unknown where in the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex this function is localized, whether a common inhibitory mechanism is used in these task paradigms and how this inhibitory function acts on two different targets, i.e. the go response in the go/no-go task and the cognitive set in the WCST. In the go/no-go task of this study, subjects were instructed to either respond (go trial) or not respond (no-go trial), depending on the cue stimulus presented. The signals of functional MRI (fMRI) related to the inhibitory function should be transient by nature. Thus, we used the temporal resolution of fMRI (event-related fMRI) by which transient signals in go and no-go trials can be analysed separately and compared with each other. We found a focus that showed transient no-go dominant activity in the posterior part of the inferior frontal sulcus in the right hemisphere. This was true irrespective of whether the subjects used their right or left hands. These results suggest that the transient activation in the right inferior prefrontal area is related to the neural mechanism underlying the response inhibition function. Furthermore, this area was found to be overlapped spatially with the area that was activated transiently during cognitive set shifting in the WCST. The transient signals in the go/no-go task peaked 5 s after the transient expression of the inhibitory function, and the transient signals in the WCST peaked 7s after the transient expression, reflecting different durations of neuronal activity in the two inhibitory task paradigms. These results imply that the right inferior prefrontal area is commonly involved in the inhibition of different targets, i.e. the go response during performance of the go/no-go task and the cognitive set during performance of the WCST.

A neurocomputational theory of the dopaminergic modulation of working memory functions

The dopaminergic modulation of neural activity in the prefrontal cortex (PFC) is essential for working memory. Delay-activity in the PFC in working memory tasks persists even if interfering stimuli intervene between the presentation of the sample and the target stimulus. Here, the hypothesis is put forward that the functional role of dopamine in working memory processing is to stabilize active neural representations in the PFC network and thereby to protect goal-related delay-activity against interfering stimuli. To test this hypothesis, we examined the reported dopamine-induced changes in several biophysical properties of PFC neurons to determine whether they could fulfill this function. An attractor network model consisting of model neurons was devised in which the empirically observed effects of dopamine on synaptic and voltage-gated membrane conductances could be represented in a biophysically realistic manner. In the model, the dopamine-induced enhancement of the persistent Na+ and reduction of the slowly inactivating K+ current increased firing of the delay-active neurons, thereby increasing inhibitory feedback and thus reducing activity of the "background" neurons. Furthermore, the dopamine-induced reduction of EPSP sizes and a dendritic Ca2+ current diminished the impact of intervening stimuli on current network activity. In this manner, dopaminergic effects indeed acted to stabilize current delay-activity. Working memory deficits observed after supranormal D1-receptor stimulation could also be explained within this framework. Thus, the model offers a mechanistic explanation for the behavioral deficits observed after blockade or after supranormal stimulation of dopamine receptors in the PFC and, in addition, makes some specific empirical predictions.

A working memory "theory of relativity": elasticity in temporal, spatial, and modality dimensions conserves item capacity in radial maze, verbal tasks, and other cognition

It is remarkable that working memory (WM) capacity for numbers of items remains modest, at approximately 7+/-2 (the so-called "magical number"), across a wide variety of kinds of material. Indeed, consideration of radial maze studies together with more traditional memory research shows that WM capacity remains fairly constant whether the items are verbal or visuospatial, and that this same capacity is true of other species as of humans. In contrast to their limited numerousness, WM items are extremely flexible in ways that are here brought under the heading of "dimensionality." Therefore, the physical items represented in WM, can vary widely in any quantitative characteristic and in the temporal pace at which they are encountered. Combinatorial considerations suggest that WM numerousness results from evolution of a middle ground between a sterile parsimony and an overwhelming excess, for organizing neurocognitive associations. Such natural selection seems likely to have worked opportunistically to yield diverse characteristics of neuronal tissue, from subcellular components to properties of ensembles, which converge on the required cognitive properties of WM. Priming and implicit memory may play supporting roles with WM. These intermediate-term memory phenomena allow certain kinds of background information to be accumulated at higher volume than seems possible from the textbook, "modal model" of memory. By expediting attentional focus on subsets of information already in long-term memory, priming may help WM chunks to emerge in limited number as appropriately scaled "figures" from the primed "ground." The larger neuronal dynamic patterns that embody these cognitive phenomena must regulate their microscopic component systems, automatically selecting those having parameters of temporal persistence, rhythm, and connectivity patterns that are pertinent to the current task. Relevant neural phenomena may include "Hebbian" associativity and persistence of firing patterns in prefrontal or hippocampal neurons. A conceivable basis for scaling and normalizing WM representations, along arbitrarily long or short ranges of any cognitive dimension, involves harmonic multiplier relationships among brain electrical rhythms and/or among topographical spatial periodic representations.

Attenuation of delay-period activity of monkey prefrontal neurons by an alpha2-adrenergic antagonist during an oculomotor delayed-response task

To examine the role of norepinephrine receptors in spatial working memory processes mediated by the prefrontal cortex (PFC), noradrenergic antagonists (yohimbine for alpha2, prazosin for alpha1, and propranolol for beta receptors) were applied iontophoretically to neurons of the dorsolateral PFC in rhesus monkeys that performed an oculomotor delayed-response (ODR) task. The ODR task was initiated when the monkeys fixated on a central spot on a computer monitor and consisted of fixation (1 s), cue (1 of 4 peripheral cues, 0.5 s), delay (fixation cue only, 4 s), and go periods. In the go period, the subject made a memory-guided saccade to the target location that was cued before the delay period. I focused on 49 neurons that showed directional delay-period activity, i.e., a sustained increase in activity during the delay period, the magnitude of which varied significantly with the memorized target location. Iontophoretic (usually 50 nA) application of yohimbine, but not prazosin or propranolol, significantly decreased the activities of most of the neurons with directional delay-period activity (n = 41/49, 81%). Furthermore, yohimbine attenuated the sharpness of tuning, examined by a tuning index, of delay-period activity and had a greater attenuating effect on delay-period activity than on background activity. These findings suggest that the activation of alpha2-adrenergic receptors in the dorsolateral PFC plays a modulatory role in neuronal processes for visuospatial working memory.

Human working memory capacity is 7+/-2 in a radial maze with distracting interruption: possible implication for neural mechanisms of declarative and implicit long-term memory

Human participants were instructed to walk out along each of the arms of a 15-m in diameter, 8-arm radial maze once and only once. In order to approximate the circumstances under which laboratory rats remember visited sites, our human participants were asked to select arms in an unsystematic order. They scored an average of 7.6 to 7.8 correct choices, even if midway during a trial there was a 5-min interruption filled with a verbal-spatial interfering task (a scavenger hunt) or a 15-min interruption filled with a visuospatial task (a maze-running computer simulation). This finding extends our earlier research with humans in 13- or 17-arm radial mazes under nondelay conditions, in which we also found working memory (WM) capacity for about 7 to 9 places, the same as that of laboratory rats. We discuss earlier findings in other laboratories, showing that rats can successfully bridge long radial maze task interruptions of 5 or 8 h, and we compare our results also to those from studies in which human participants were not discouraged from reducing memory load by responding systematically in radial mazes. Because the radial maze task takes minutes to complete even under nondelay conditions its routine consideration as a working memory task in the animal literature alters the assumptions often made about the duration of WM in the human literature. Accumulating empirical findings about place-memory in humans, nonhuman mammals, and birds suggest it might be productive to reevaluate this theoretical issue with respect to present knowledge about the roles of the hippocampus and other brain structures in declarative memory and in procedural or implicit memory, while considering the hypothesis that some forms of information may exploit long-term memory in parallel with working memory.

Auditory and visual working memory performance in patients with frontal lobe damage and in schizophrenic patients with low scores on the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test

Impaired performance in the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test (WCST) has frequently been postulated to be one typical feature indicating frontal dysfunction in patients with schizophrenia. From a functional point of view, impairments were attributed to a dysfunction of working memory. The present study compares the performance of groups of schizophrenic patients, groups of patients with acquired brain damage as well as normal controls on tasks involving visual and auditory working memory. Modified versions of Sternberg tasks were used varying the physical attributes of the material to be rehearsed in order to force a different involvement of both the 'visuo-spatial sketch-pad' and the 'phonological loop'. Within a group of frontal-lobe-damaged patients (n=6), processing was markedly prolonged for both kinds of material, an observation attributed to a dysfunction of the central executive component of the working memory model. On the other hand, results for schizophrenic patients with poor WCST performance (n=6) suggest a more discrete dysfunction of the phonological loop, but not the visuo-spatial sketch-pad. There were no significant differences between normal controls (n=6) and clinical control groups [patients with non-frontal lesions (n=6) and schizophrenic patients with normal scores on the WCST (n=6)]. Comparisons of the various group data rule out an unspecified frontal dysfunction of schizophrenic patients with low scores on the WCST.

Recognition memory: neuronal substrates of the judgement of prior occurrence

Recognition memory relies on two processes: (i) identification and (ii) judgement concerning prior occurrence. A system centred on perirhinal cortex appears to be responsible for judgement of prior occurrence based on discrimination of the familiarity of stimuli or their recency of occurrence; in contrast, a hippocampal system probably supplies information concerning the episodic, contextual aspects of recognition memory. This review chiefly concerns the perirhinal system and, in particular, neurones that signal the prior occurrence of stimuli by a decrease in response. Details concerning such decremental responses are given and it is argued that such responses in perirhinal cortex are adequate for and central to discrimination of stimulus familiarity and recency in a wide range of situations. Information is given of similar types of neuronal responses in anatomically related brain regions and what may be deduced about the operation of the recognition memory system. The possibility is discussed that the neuronal responses that signal information concerning the recent occurrence of stimuli may contribute to repetition priming as well as recognition memory. Other described changes in the activity of individual neurones such as response enhancements, or sustained (delay) activity may allow solution of specialised forms of recognition memory tasks where relatively short-term working memory is adequate. Implications of the multi-faceted nature of recognition memory for the interpretation of results are emphasised. Unsolved problems and avenues for future experimentation, including determining the nature of possible underlying synaptic plastic changes, are discussed.

Alpha-2 adrenergic modulation of prefrontal cortical neuronal activity related to a visual discrimination task with GO and NO-GO performances in monkeys

The effects of clonidine (a selective agonist for alpha-2 receptor) and B-HT920 (an agonist for both alpha-2 and D2 receptors) were examined iontophoretically on neurons in the prefrontal cortex of three monkeys performing a visual discrimination task with GO and NO-GO responses. A total of 212 task-related neurons were sampled, of which 120 neurons were related to the visual signals (visually-related neurons; 32 neurons were related to the warning signal, 45 to the GO signal and 43 to the NO-GO signal), 34 neurons were related to both the GO signal and GO response ('intermediate'-related neurons), and 58 neurons were related to GO response (movement-related neurons). Clonidine and B-HT920 were tested in 137 and 115 neurons, respectively, and showed mainly a facilitatory effect on the neurons. Clonidine enhanced the visually-related activity in 83.0% of modulated neurons, the intermediate-related activity in 81.0% neurons and the movement-related activity in 85.0% neurons. Similarly, B-HT920 enhanced the visually-related activity in 80.0% of modulated neurons, the intermediate-related activity in 77.8% neurons and the movement-related activity in 81.0% neurons. The facilitatory effect of clonidine or B-HT920 on the visually-related activity was stronger than that on the movement-related activity. In 22 visually-related neurons enhanced by clonidine and-or B-HT920 (6 WS-, 7 GS- and 9 NS-related neurons), the alpha-2 antagonist yohimbine suppressed the visually-related activities. In 13 neurons enhanced by B-HT920, the facilitatory effect of B-HT920 was blocked by yohimbine, but not by the D2 antagonist sulpiride. The present results suggest that alpha-2 adrenoceptors in the monkey prefrontal cortex are involved in neural processing related to visual discrimination and selection of GO and NO-GO responses, and that the facilitatory effect of B-HT920 may be mediated vis alpha-2 adrenoceptors instead of D2-receptors.

Model of cortical-basal ganglionic processing: encoding the serial order of sensory events

Several lines of evidence suggest that the prefrontal (PF) cortex and basal ganglia are important in cognitive aspects of serial order in behavior. We present a modular neural network model of these areas that encodes the serial order of events into spatial patterns of PF activity. The model is based on the topographically specific circuits linking the PF with the basal ganglia. Each module traces a pathway from the PF, through the basal ganglia and thalamus, and back to the PF. The complete model consists of an array of modules interacting through recurrent corticostriatal projections and collateral inhibition between striatal spiny units. The model's architecture positions spiny units for the classification of cortical contexts and events and provides bistable cortical-thalamic loops for sustaining a representation of these contextual events in working memory activations. The model was tested with a simulated version of a delayed-sequencing task. In single-unit studies, the task begins with the presentation of a sequence of target lights. After a short delay, the monkey must touch the targets in the order in which they were presented. When instantiated with randomly distributed corticostriatal weights, the model produces different patterns of PF activation in response to different target sequences. These patterns represent an unambiguous and spatially distributed encoding of the sequence. Parameter studies of these random networks were used to compare the computational consequences of collateral and feed-forward inhibition within the striatum. In addition, we studied the receptive fields of 20,640 model units and uncovered an interesting set of cue-, rank- and sequence-related responses that qualitatively resemble responses reported in single unit studies of the PF. The majority of units respond to more than one sequence of stimuli. A method for analyzing serial receptive fields is presented and utilized for comparing the model units to single-unit data.

D1- versus D2-receptor modulation of visuospatial working memory in humans

The effects of pergolide, a mixed D1/D2 receptor agonist, and bromocriptine, a selective D2 receptor agonist, were assessed in a visual delay task to further investigate the "dopamine link" of working memory in humans and to look for differential D1 versus D2 receptor contributions. Two groups of 32 healthy young adults (16 female) received either 0.1 mg of pergolide or 2.5 mg of bromocriptine in a placebo-controlled cross-over design. A pretreatment with domperidone, a peripherally active D2 antagonist, was performed in both groups to reduce side effects. Interindividual differences in pharmacokinetics were controlled by the time course of serum prolactin inhibition. The working memory paradigm was a visuospatial delayed matching task; the location of a randomly generated seven-point pattern had to be memorized and compared after 2, 8, or 16 sec with a second pattern that was either identical or slightly shifted within a reference frame. The task was designed with the intention to present unique stimuli at each trial and to require minimal motor demands. Practice effects between the two pharmacological test days were minimized by training sessions that preceded the tests. The paradigm showed significant error and reaction time increases with longer delays. After comparable doses, only pergolide, but not bromocriptine, facilitated visuospatial working memory performance as demonstrated by a significant drug-by-delay interaction. These findings are in accordance with the monkey literature as well as with neuroanatomical findings, and they confirm a preferential role of prefrontal D1 receptors for working memory modulation in humans.

D1 receptor modulation of hippocampal-prefrontal cortical circuits integrating spatial memory with executive functions in the rat

Dopamine (DA) within the prefrontal cortex (PFC) plays an important role in modulating the short-term retention of information during working memory tasks. In contrast, little is known about the role of DA in modulating other executive aspects of working memory such as the use of short-term memory to guide action. The present study examined the effects of D1 and D2 receptor blockade in the PFC on foraging by rats on a radial arm maze under two task conditions: (1) a delayed task in which spatial information acquired during a training phase was used 30 min later to guide prospective responses, and (2) a nondelayed task that was identical to the test phase of the delayed task but lacked a training phase, thereby depriving rats of previous information about the location of food on the maze. In experiment 1, microinjections of the D1 antagonist SCH-23390 (0.05, 0.5, or 5 microg/&microl), but not the D2 antagonist sulpiride (0.05, 0.5, or 5 microg/microl), into the prelimbic region of the PFC before the test phase disrupted performance of the delayed task without affecting response latencies. In contrast, neither drug affected performance of the nondelayed task. In the present study, we also investigated the role of D1 receptors in modulating activity in hippocampal-PFC circuits during delayed responding. Unilateral injections of SCH-23390 into the PFC in the hemisphere contralateral to a microinjection of lidocaine into the hippocampus severely disrupted performance of the delayed task. Thus, the ability to use previously acquired spatial information to guide responding 30 min later on a radial arm maze requires D1 receptor activation in the PFC and D1 receptor modulation of hippocampal inputs to the PFC. These data suggest that D1 receptors in the PFC are involved in working memory processes other than just the short-term active retention of information and also provide direct evidence for DA modulation of limbic-PFC circuits during behavior.

Lesions of the caudal area of rabbit medial prefrontal cortex impair trace eyeblink conditioning

The dorsolateral prefrontal cortex of the primate is an area known to be important for memory. Since the discovery of a homologous area in subprimate mammals, the caudal medial prefrontal cortex, rabbits have become useful in the investigation of working memory. The subprimate prefrontal cortex is intimately interconnected with the hippocampus, which is also recognized for its role in learning and memory. In addition, the hippocampus and prefrontal cortex have been shown to be similarly involved in a variety of tasks. Therefore, we hypothesized that the caudal medial prefrontal cortex of the rabbit would be necessary for acquisition of the hippocampally dependent trace eyeblink conditioning task. A total of 16 young rabbits (Oryctolagus cuniculus) received bilateral aspiration lesions of the prefrontal cortex. Six of the lesioned subjects were unable to acquire the trace eyeblink conditioning task, but were unimpaired when tested subsequently in the hippocampally independent delay conditioning task. The lesions of these 6 subjects either were limited to or extended into the caudal medial prefrontal cortex. In the remaining 10 subjects, which were not impaired in trace conditioning, the lesions were limited to the rostral pole. Our results support our original hypothesis and provide further evidence of the involvement of the subprimate caudal medial prefrontal cortex in learning.

An area specialized for spatial working memory in human frontal cortex

Working memory is the process of maintaining an active representation of information so that it is available for use. In monkeys, a prefrontal cortical region important for spatial working memory lies in and around the principal sulcus, but in humans the location, and even the existence, of a region for spatial working memory is in dispute. By using functional magnetic resonance imaging in humans, an area in the superior frontal sulcus was identified that is specialized for spatial working memory. This area is located more superiorly and posteriorly in the human than in the monkey brain, which may explain why it was not recognized previously.

Monkey prefrontal neuronal activity coding the forthcoming saccade in an oculomotor delayed matching-to-sample task

To determine the role of the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (PFC) in the selection of memory-guided saccadic eye movements, we recorded the activities of PFC neurons while macaque monkeys performed an oculomotor delayed matching-to-sample task. The task was designed to dissociate motor factors from visual factors in the selection and retention of the direction of the forthcoming saccade during delay periods after the visual cue but before the GO signal was presented. While the monkey fixated on a central fixation spot (FX period, 1 s), a sample cue (1 of 4 geometric figures) and a matching cue composed of two geometric figures were presented in succession (SC and MC periods, respectively, 0.5 s) with a brief delay (D1 period, 1 or 1.5 s). After another delay (D2 period, 1.5 s), the monkey made a saccade (GO period, <0.5 s) toward one of four locations (the goal) that had been indicated by the combination of the sample and matching cues in the MC period. We recorded the activities of 224 neurons in the periprincipal sulcal area of 3 hemispheres of 2 monkeys. Sixty-five neurons (29%) showed a significant increase in activity during the D2 period. Some of these also responded during other phases of the task (SC period, n = 32; D1, 22; MC, 53; GO, 47). Some of the activity during the D2(52/65, 80%) and GO (40/47, 85%) periods was associated with the direction of the forthcoming saccade ("direction selective"). Although most MC-period activities of D2 neurons were direction selective (38/53, 73%), a fraction of them (14/38) was also affected by both saccade direction and matching cue pattern. To compare quantitatively the contribution of motor (saccade direction) and visual (matching-cue pattern) factors to the activity of D2 neurons, we calculated directional and visual dependency indices (DDI and VDI) for each of the three periods (MC, D2, and GO). In both the D2 and GO periods, D2 neurons with high DDI values and low VDI values predominated. In the MC period, however, there was no significant difference between the distributions of DDI and VDI values. These findings suggest that PFC neurons store the direction of memory-guided saccades during a delay period before eye movement and that the same neurons may be involved in the decision-making process that underlies the selection of the saccade direction during the MC period.

Effects of Memory Load and Distraction on Performance and Event-Related Slow Potentials in a Visuospatial Working Memory Task

Brain electrical activity related to working memory was recorded at 15 scalp electrodes during a visuospatial delayed response task. Participants (N = 18) touched the remembered position of a target on a computer screen after either a 1 or 8 sec delay. These memory trials were compared to sensory trials in which the target remained present throughout the delay and response periods. Distractor stimuli identical to the target were briefly presented during the delay on 30% of trials. Responses were less accurate in memory than sensory trials, especially after the long delay. During the delay slow potentials developed that were significantly more negative in memory than sensory trials. The difference between memory and sensory trials was greater at anterior than posterior electrodes. On trials with distractors, the slow potentials generated by memory trials showed further enhancement of negativity, whereas there were minimal effects on accuracy of performance. The results provide evidence that engagement of visuospatial working memory generates slow wave negativity with a timing and distribution consistent with frontal activation. Enhanced brain activity associated with working memory is required to maintain performance in the presence of distraction.

Reflection of working memory: ERP mnemonic effects

The study of working memory often utilizes a delayed matching to sample paradigm (DMS). Typically in the matching condition, the test and sample stimuli are identical, raising the possible confound of retinotopic projections for the matching stimuli in contrast to the non-matching stimuli. In the present study, 65 healthy subjects performed a modified delayed matching to sample task while monitoring their ERP waveforms. The stimuli consisted of 60 different sample stimuli (S1) and 60 different test stimuli (S2). Half of the S2s were complementary to the sample stimuli (Fit), the other half of the S2s were not complementary (Nonfit). After S2, the subjects pressed one of the buttons to indicate whether the test stimulus fits the sample stimulus. Our statistical results indicated that the ERPs to sample stimuli differed from the ERPs to test stimuli from 200 ms poststimulus to the end of the recording epoch. The ERPs to fitting stimuli were significantly different from those to non-fitting stimuli from 200 to 400 ms poststimulus. The ERP patterns in the present study may reflect ERP mnemonic effect for working memory. Our results ruled out the retinotopic confound as a potential mediator variable, and are in agreement with other animal or human neurophysiological studies on memory.

Effects of music and white noise on working memory performance in monkeys

It has been suggested that Mozart's music may have beneficial effects on the performance of cognitive tasks in humans. In the present study the effects of Mozart's piano music, white noise, simple rhythm and silence were studied on the performance of a delayed response (DR) task in monkeys. The acoustic treatments were given for 15 min, either before or during DR testing. The acoustic treatments did not affect DR performance when given before testing. However, Mozart's piano music played during DR testing caused a significant deterioration in the performance of the monkeys, whereas white noise improved it. It is suggested that Mozart's music serves as distractive stimulation during DR performance thus affecting working-memory-related neuronal processing and performance. White background noise, on the other hand, may improve DR performance by protecting against environmental distraction during testing.

Effects of inactivating individual cerebellar nuclei on the performance and retention of an operantly conditioned forelimb movement

These experiments were designed to examine the effects of inactivating separately each of the major cerebellar nuclear regions in cats on the execution and retention of a previously learned, operantly conditioned volitional forelimb movement. The experiments test the postulates that the cerebellar nuclei, and particularly the interposed nuclei, contribute substantially to the spatial and temporal features of the interjoint coordination required to execute the task and that the engram necessary for the retention of this task is not located in any one of the cerebellar nuclei. All cats were trained to perform a task in which they were required to reach for and grasp a vertical bar at the sound of a tone and move the bar to a reward zone through a template consisting of two straight grooves in the shape of an inverted "L." After the task was learned, the effects of inactivating separately each nuclear region (the fastigial, interposed, and dentate nuclei) using muscimol microinjections were determined. Data were analyzed by quantifying several features of the movement's kinematics and by determining changes in the organization of the reaching component of the movement using an application of dimensionality analysis, an analysis that examines the correlation among the changes in joint angles and limb segment positions during the task. The retention of the previously learned task also was assessed after each injection. Injections of each nuclear region affected temporal and spatial features of the learned movement. However, the largest effects resulted from inactivating the interposed nuclei. These effects included an increased length of the reach trajectory, an accentuated deviation of the wrist trajectory from a straight line, cyclic movement of the distal extremity as the target was approached, a difficulty in grasping the bar, altered temporal features of the movement, and a highly characteristic change in the dimensionality measurements. The changes in dimensionality reflected a decreased correlation (linear interdependence) of the joint angular velocities coupled with an increased correlation among the linear velocities of markers located on the joints themselves. Related but less consistent changes in dimensionality resulted from fastigial injections. The motor sequence required to negotiate the template could be executed after the nuclear microinjections, indicating that retention of the motor sequence was not affected by the inactivation of any of the cerebellar nuclei. However, in two of the five animals, some decreases in performance were observed after dentate injection that were not characteristic of changes related to an effect on retention. These data suggest that the cerebellum plays an important role in regulating the consistent, stereotypic organization of complex goal-directed movements, including the temporal correlation among joint angle velocities. The data also indicate that the retention of the task is not dependent on any of the individual cerebellar nuclear regions. Consequently, these structures are unlikely to be critical storage sites for the engram established during the learning of this task.

A trial-based experimental design for fMRI

An experimental design for functional MRI (fMRI) is presented whose conceptual units of analysis are behavioral trials, in contrast to blocks of trials. This type of design is referred to as a trial-based (TB) fMRI design. It is explained how TB designs can afford the ability to: (1) randomize the presentation of behavioral trials and (2) utilize intertrial variance in uncontrolled behavioral measures to examine their functional correlates. A particular type of TB design that involves modeling trial-evoked fMRI responses with one or more shifted impulse response functions is described. This design is capable of discriminating functional changes occurring during temporally separated behavioral subcomponents within trials. An example of such a design is implemented and its statistical specificity, functional sensitivity, and functional specificity are tested.

Ventral prefrontal cortex is not essential for working memory

It is widely held that the prefrontal cortex is important for working memory. It has been suggested that the inferior convexity (IC) may play a special role in working memory for form and color (). We have therefore assessed the ability of monkeys with IC lesions to perform visual pattern association tasks and color-matching tasks, both with and without delay. In experiment 1, six monkeys were trained on a visual association task with delays of up to 2 sec. Conservative IC lesions that removed lateral area 47/12 in three animals had no effect on the task. Further experiments showed that these lesions had no effect on the postoperative new learning of a color-matching task with delays of up to 2 sec or versions of the visual association task involving delays of up to 8 sec. In experiment 2, larger lesions of both areas 47/12 and 45A were made in the three control animals. This lesion caused a profound deficit in the ability to relearn simultaneous color matching, but subsequent matching with delays of up to 8 sec was clearly unimpaired. We suggest that the IC may be more important for stimulus selection and attention as opposed to working memory.

Laminar distribution of neuropeptide Y-immunoreactive neurons in human prefrontal cortex during development

Neuropeptide Y (NPY) is present in neurons of the adult human cerebral cortex. In view of the reported roles of NPY in the central nervous system in health and during certain disease conditions, we have studied normal development of NPY immunoreactivity (-ir) in the human prefrontal cortex (PFC), Brodmann areas 9 and 46. Twenty-six specimens ranging from the ages of 14 postovulatory weeks to 34 years exhibited patterns that revealed six periods in the development of the laminar distribution and density of NPY-ir neurons. Changes during prenatal and perinatal periods reflect the onset, development, and resolution of the transient fetal telencephalic compartments, including the subplate zone, in which NPY-ir neurons are especially abundant. Before the age of 1 year, the majority of NPY-ir neurons were found in the subplate zone, whereas, after 1 year, the majority were seen in the cortical layers. This is in contrast with the human visual cortex, where the majority of NPY-ir neurons were still located in the white matter. The density of cortical NPY-ir neurons increased in the fifth developmental period (ages 4-7 years), coinciding with the increase of cortical volume and marked progression of cognitive functions. The adult pattern of a relatively low density of cortical NPY-ir neurons was reached in period 6 (from about 8 years), when individual variation also became apparent. Our data point to a protracted maturation of NPY-ir in the human PFC and to different distribution patterns of NPY-ir neurons in different cortical areas.

Androgen inhibits neurotransmitter turnover in the medial prefrontal cortex of the rat following exposure to a novel environment

Previous studies have demonstrated that gonadal steroid hormones affect the neuroendocrine response to a novel environment and other stressors. Introduction to a novel environment also increases neurotransmitter turnover in the medial prefrontal cortex (MPFC). In this study, we examined the possibility that gonadal steroid hormones could similarly modulate the neurotransmitter response to a novel environment in the MPFC of the male rat. Male Fischer 344 rats at 3 months of age were gonadectomized (GDX'd) and implanted with Silastic capsules containing dihydrotestosterone propionate (DHTP, a non-aromatizable form of androgen), 17 beta-estradiol (E), or placebo. Control animals were left intact. Each of these groups was further divided into a group introduced to a novel environment or a home cage control group. Animals exposed to a novel environment were killed after spending 20 min in a novel open field, whereas control animals were killed immediately upon removal from their home cage. Using high performance liquid chromatography, the MPFC was assayed for tissue levels of dopamine (DA) and its metabolites, 3,4-dihydroxyphenylalanine (DOPAC) and homovanillic acid (HVA); norepinephrine (NE) and its metabolite 3-methoxy-4-hydroxyphenylglycol (MHPG); or serotonin (5-HT) and its metabolite 5-hydroxyindole acetic acid (5-HIAA). The introduction to a novel environment caused significant increases in turnover of all three neurochemicals examined as estimated by metabolite/precursor ratios. These increases were characterized by increases in DOPAC, HVA, MHPG and 5-HIAA coupled with decreases in DA, NE and 5-HT. There was no effect of GDX on neurotransmitter turnover, however, treatment of GDX animals with DHTP prevented the open field induced increase in DOPAC/DA, MHPG/NE, and 5-HIAA/5-HT ratio. Treatment of GDX animals with estrogen had the opposite effect of DHTP, DOPAC/DA and MHPG/NE ratios increased to a greater level following the introduction to a novel environment than in GDX or intact animals. Examination of behavior in the open field showed significant decreases in activity in the DHTP-treated group but not in any other behavioral parameter (rears, nose pokes). Since the non-aromatizable androgen, DHTP, is presumably acting via androgen receptors, and E is presumably acting via estrogen receptors, these data suggest that, in the MPFC of male rats, androgen and estrogen receptors act in an opposing fashion to modify neurotransmitter turnover. This suggests that local changes in the relative levels of androgen and estrogen can have profound effects on the neurobiological response of the medial prefrontal cortex to stimuli.

Delay-period activity in the primate prefrontal cortex encoding multiple spatial positions and their order of presentation

To investigate whether prefrontal neurons temporarily retain information regarding multiple spatial positions, single-neuron activity was recorded while monkeys performed a delayed sequential reaching task, in which they needed to remember two cue positions out of three and their temporal order of presentation. Most neurons were also tested on a conventional delayed reaching task, in which they needed to remember one cue position during the delay. Among 72 neurons that exhibited significant delay-period activity, one group of neurons (n = 19) exhibited delay-period activity only when a visual cue was presented at one of the three positions (position-dependent). Of these, 6 neurons exhibited this activity when a cue was presented at that position independent of the temporal order, whereas 13 neurons exhibited this activity only when a cue was presented at that position in a particular temporal order (e.g., as the first cue or the second cue). Another group of neurons (n = 39) exhibited delay-period activity only when visual cues were presented at two positions out of three (pair-dependent). Of these, 7 neurons exhibited pair-dependent activity independent of the temporal order of cue presentation. However, 32 neurons exhibited this activity only when two cues were presented in a particular temporal order. The remaining 11 neurons exhibited non-differential activity during the delay period and 3 neurons exhibited miscellaneous activity. These results show that a single prefrontal neuron can retain information regarding two spatial positions, and that, to retain two spatial positions and the temporal order of cue presentation, new types of delay-period activity emerged; i.e., pair-dependent activity and temporal order-dependent activity. Both types of activity could be a mechanism for simultaneously retaining two items of spatial information and for effectively combining multiple spatial information by a single neuron. In addition, the presence of delay-period activity with position-dependency, pair-dependency and temporal order-dependency suggests that the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex plays an important role in planning sequential behaviors.

Effects of cortical ectopias on spatial delayed-matching-to-sample performance in BXSB mice

BXSB mice have small neocortical anomalies (ectopic collections of neurons in layer I), with an incidence of about 40-60%. Previous studies have found that ectopic mice from this strain are faster than non-ectopics in learning the Morris water maze (reference memory), but have poorer working memory for spatial learning. The current study continues the investigation of working memory by testing ectopic and non-ectopic BXSB mice on a spatial delayed-matching-to-sample test (S-DMTS; also called spatial learning sets or 'working memory' water maze). In this test, the mice must find a submerged platform in a pool of water. The platform changes location with every problem, or block of four trials. The subject has 'matched to sample' if it locates the platform in less time on the second trial of each problem than it did on the first. Of 33 subjects, 8 had cortical ectopias, one had a small neuron-free gliotic area, and 24 were normal. The normal subjects showed a decrease in time to escape over the first 2 trials of the first 5 problems, while the ectopic subjects did not show a decrease until the third trial, indicating that ectopic mice required more trials to put the platform location into working memory. The site of the ectopias is prefrontal/motor cortex, and we hypothesize that is the cause of the poorer working memory.

Dissociation of mnemonic coding and other functional neuronal processing in the monkey prefrontal cortex

Single-neuron activity was recorded in the prefrontal cortex of three monkeys during the performance of a spatial delayed alternation (DA) task and during the presentation of a variety of visual, auditory, and somatosensory stimuli. The aim was to study the relationship between mnemonic neuronal processing and other functional neuronal responsiveness at the single-neuron level in the prefrontal cortex. Recordings were performed in both experimental situations from 152 neurons. The majority of the neurons (92%) was recorded in the prefrontal cortex. Nine of the neurons were recorded in the dorsal bank of the anterior cingulate sulcus and two in the premotor cortex. Of the total number of neurons recorded in the prefrontal area, 32% fired in relation to the DA task performance and 39% were responsive to sensory stimulation or to the movements of the monkey outside of the memory task context. Altogether 42% of the recorded neurons were neither activated by the various stimuli nor by the DA task performance. Three types of task-related neuronal activity were recorded: delay related, delay and movement related, and movement related. The majority of the task-related neurons (n = 33, 73%) fired in relation to the delay period. Of the delay-related neurons, 26 (79%) were spatially selective. The number of spatially selective delay-related neurons of the whole population of recorded neurons was 18%. Twelve task-related neurons (27%) fired in relation to the response period of the DA task. Five of these neurons changed their firing rate during the delay period and were classified as delay/movement-related neurons. Contrary to the delay-related neurons, less than half (42%) of the response-related neurons were spatially selective. The majority (70%) of the delay-related neurons could not be activated by any of the sensory stimuli used and did not fire in relation to the movements of the monkey. The remaining portion of the delay-related neurons was activated by stationary and moving visual stimuli or by visual fixation of an object. In contrast to the delay-related neurons, the majority (66%) of the task-related neurons firing in relation to the movement period were also responsive to sensory stimulation outside of the task context. The majority of these neurons responded to visual stimulation, visual fixation of an object, or tracking eye movements. One neuron gave a somatomotor and another a polysensory response. The majority (n = 37, 67%) of all neurons responding to stimulation outside of the task context did not fire in relation to the DA task performance. The majority of their responses was elicited by visual stimuli or was related to visual fixation of an object or to eye movements. Only six neurons fired in relation to auditory, somatosensory, or somatomotor stimulation. This study provides further evidence about the significance of the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex in spatial working memory processing. Although a considerable number of all DA task-related neurons responded to visual, somatosensory, and auditory stimulation or to the movements of the monkey, most delay-related neurons engaged in the spatial DA task did not respond to extrinsic sensory stimulation. These results indicate that most prefrontal neurons firing selectively during the delay phase of the DA task are highly specialized and process only task-related information.

Medetomidine, atipamezole, and guanfacine in delayed response performance of aged monkeys

The effects of a highly selective alpha-2 adrenergic agonist medetomidine and its antagonist atipamezole were studied on the delayed response task performance of aged monkeys. Medetomidine, at the dose of 1.0 micrograms/kg, improved the memory task performance, whereas atipamezole had no effect on the performance at any dose. It has earlier been shown that alpha-2 adrenergic agonists clonidine and guanfacine improve age-associated memory impairment, but also contradictory effects of clonidine have been reported. There is evidence that the ability of alpha-2 agonists to improve DR task performance is due to its selective action on the alpha-2A receptor subtype. Clonidine and medetomidine are much less selective than guanfacine with respect to alpha-2A and alpha-2B receptor subtypes. Therefore, we also studied the effect of guanfacine on the memory task performance of the same aged monkeys in the same testing conditions to compare the effectiveness of these two alpha-2 adrenergic compounds. Guanfacine improved memory task performance at the dose of 0.0001 mg/kg. The results indicate that alpha-2 agonists, independent of their different selectivity with respect to alpha-2A/2B receptor subtypes, are beneficial drugs in improving the performance in the delayed response task.

Effects of embryo transfer and cortical ectopias upon the behavior of BXSB-Yaa and BXSB-Yaa + mice

The BXSB-Yaa and BXSB-Yaa + inbred strains of mice differ primarily with respect to the Y chromosome, although there is evidence that they differ on several autosomal genes as well. Each strain has ectopic collections of neurons in neocortical layer I (ectopias), with a higher occurrence in males (58%) than females (42%). Conventionally reared mice from these strains were compared to mice that were transferred, as 8-cell embryos, into the uteri of non-autoimmune recipients, who gave birth to and reared the offspring. The transfer procedure did not change the incidence of ectopias in either sex. There were, however, major differences in behavior. Compared to conventionally reared controls, embryo transfer mice had greater behavioral asymmetry, poorer performance in a black-white discrimination, poorer Morris maze learning, better Lashley maze learning, and better performance in a two-way shuttlebox. Within the transfer groups, females differed as much as males, confirming our prior findings and supporting our thesis that the two strains differ on several autosomal genes in addition to the Y chromosome. These findings show that the intra-uterine environment can powerfully and selectively affect later behavior. When ectopic and non-ectopic mice were compared, BXSB-Yaa mice with neocortical ectopias were better able to learn the Morris spatial maze than non-ectopic controls; this was true whether the mice were conventionally reared or embryo transferred. In contrast, BXSB-Yaa + ectopic mice did not differ from their controls if conventionally reared, but were much worse than controls if embryo transferred.

The effects of prefrontal intracortical microinjections of an alpha-2 agonist, alpha-2 antagonist and lidocaine on the delayed alternation performance of aged rats

A selective alpha-2 agonist medetomidine, a selective alpha-2 antagonist atipamezole and lidocaine were injected into the prefrontal cortex of aged rats that had been trained to perform a delayed alternation (DA) task in a T maze. Medetomidine at the dose of 0.01 microgram/microliter improved the memory task performance in four of five rats. The fifth rat improved its performance at the dose of 1.0 microgram/microliter. Atipamezole did not have any effect on the task performance. The effect of a systemic dose of medetomidine (3 micrograms/kg), which was previously shown to improve the task performance in old rats, was reversed by an intracortical injection of atipamezole. Lidocaine impaired the DA performance significantly. The results suggest that the beneficial effects of medetomidine on the working memory of old rats are mediated at least partly through the prefrontal cortex.

Ontogeny of PFC-related behaviours is sensitive to a single non-invasive dose of methamphetamine in neonatal gerbils (Meriones unguiculatus)

A single dose of methamphetamine (50 mg/kg; i.p.) was administered to neonatal male gerbils (Meriones unguiculatus) aged 14 days, and adult prefrontal cortex (PFC)-related behaviours were analysed and compared with saline-treated controls at the age of postnatal day 90. For that purpose, animals were tested for open-field activities and y-maze delayed alternation. This solitary and non-invasive drug challenge, which has recently been found to initiate serious restraint in maturation of the mesoprefrontal dopamine (DA)-system (Dawirs et al., 1994), induces a significant delayed alternation impairment as well as significant increases in open-field motor activity and emotionality. Since an undisturbed development of the prefrontal DA-innervation seems to be a precondition for the maturation of normal PFC-related behaviours, a single early methamphetamine impact may be a suitable animal model for further investigation of structural and functional aspects of non-invasively induced behavioural deficits in rodents. The present results are discussed with regard to the assumption that hypofunctional mesoprefrontal DA-systems might be basic to schizophrenic behaviours in man.