The COVID-19 pandemic face mask waste: A blooming threat to the marine environment

Optimization of COVID-19 face mask waste fibers and silica fume as a balanced mechanical ameliorator of fat clay using response surface methodology

The balanced amelioration of mechanical characteristics of fat clay with an additive refers to the attainment of high strength without compromising ductility, which is unattainable by solitary usage of a cementing additive. For this purpose, an amalgamated binary admixture (ABA) is proposed by assimilating shredded face mask (FM) waste, which is posing serious environmental concerns these days, with a cementitious waste material, i.e., silica fume (SF). However, for such ABA, the optimization of mix design is desirable because an excessive amount of one component could disturb the required balance. To address this issue, response surface methodology (RSM) is used in the current study, which is a strong technique used during the process of production to develop, improve, and optimize product inputs. Several experiments are designed and conducted to evaluate mechanical responses, i.e., unconfined compressive strength (qu), brittleness index (IB), deformability index (ID), and California bearing ratio (CBR) value, of treated fat clay by varying mix designs of ABA. Based on the test results, mathematical models are developed which are found to be statistically valid to predict the subjected responses using SF and FM as inputs. Afterward, an optimized mix design is determined by integrating developed models with a desirability function model and setting maximization of strength and ductility as the optimization goals. An ABA having 7.9% SF and 1.2% FM is observed to provide the highest strength and ductility for multiple applications, i.e., road and buildings, with desirability factor close to unity; responses of which are also validated by performing tests. Furthermore, analysis of cleaning aspect shows that the use of optimized ABA in place of cement for subgrade improvement of 1 km two-lane road could avoid CO2 emission of around 79,032 kg of C, save 42,720 kWh and 1174.8 GJ of electrical and thermal energy, respectively, and clean 43 Mg of FM waste; however, astute protocols of COVID-19 FM waste handling and disinfection are needed to be established and followed.

Post COVID-19 ENERGY sustainability and carbon emissions neutrality

This review covers the recent advancements in selected emerging energy sectors, emphasising carbon emission neutrality and energy sustainability in the post-COVID-19 era. It benefited from the latest development reported in the Virtual Special Issue of ENERGY dedicated to the 6th International Conference on Low Carbon Asia and Beyond (ICLCA'20) and the 4th Sustainable Process Integration Laboratory Scientific Conference (SPIL'20). As nations bind together to tackle global climate change, one of the urgent needs is the energy sector's transition from fossil-fuel reliant to a more sustainable carbon-free solution. Recent progress shows that advancement in energy efficiency modelling of components and energy systems has greatly facilitated the development of more complex and efficient energy systems. The scope of energy system modelling can be based on temporal, spatial and technical resolutions. The emergence of novel materials such as MXene, metal-organic framework and flexible phase change materials have shown promising energy conversion efficiency. The integration of the internet of things (IoT) with an energy storage system and renewable energy supplies has led to the development of a smart energy system that effectively connects the power producer and end-users, thereby allowing more efficient management of energy flow and consumption. The future smart energy system has been redefined to include all energy sectors via a cross-sectoral integration approach, paving the way for the greater utilization of renewable energy. This review highlights that energy system efficiency and sustainability can be improved via innovations in smart energy systems, novel energy materials and low carbon technologies. Their impacts on the environment, resource availability and social well-being need to be holistically considered and supported by diverse solutions, in alignment with the sustainable development goal of Affordable and Clean Energy (SDG 7) and other related SDGs (1, 8, 9, 11,13,15 and 17), as put forth by the United Nations.

Polylactic acid face masks: Are these the sustainable solutions in times of COVID-19 pandemic?

The global massive consumption of disposable face masks driven by the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic has emerged as a blooming disaster to both the land and marine environment that might last for generations. Growing public concerns have been raised over the management and control of this new form of plastic pollution, and one of the proposed sustainable solution is to use renewable and/or biodegradable resources to develop mask materials in order to minimize their environmental impacts. As a representative biodegradable polymer, polylactic acid (PLA) has been proposed as a promising candidate to produce non-woven face masks instead of those fossil-based polymers. To further explore the feasibility of this alternative mask material, the present work aims to study both the hydrolytic and bio-degradation behaviors of pure PLA-derived 3-ply disposable face masks at ambient temperature. Hydrolytic degradability was investigated at different pH conditions of 2, 7 and 13 with the whole piece of face mask soaked for regular timed intervals up to 8 weeks. Weight loss study showed neutral and acidic conditions had minimal effect on PLA masks, but rapid degradation occurred under basic conditions in the first week with a sharp 25% decrease in weight that slowly tapered off, coupled with solution pH dropping from 13 to 9.6. This trend was supported by mechanical property, bacterial filtration efficiency (BFE) and particulate filtration efficiency (PFE) studies. Masks soaked in basic conditions had their modulus and tensile strength dropped by more than 50% after 8 weeks where the middle layer reached 68% and 90% respectively just after 48 h, and BFE and PFE decreased by 14% and 43% respectively after 4 weeks, which was much more significant than those in neutral and acidic conditions. Base degradation was also supported by nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) and fourier transform infrared (FTIR), which disclosed that only the middle layer undergo major degradation with random chain scission and cleavage of enol or enolate chain ends, while outer and inner layers were much less affected. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) attributed this observation to thinner PLA fibers for the middle layer of 3-7 μm diameter, which on average is 3 times smaller. This degradation was further supported by gel permeation chromatography (GPC) which saw an increase in lower molecular weight fragment Mw ~ 800 Da with soaking duration. The biodegradation behavior was studied under OECD 301F specification in sewage sludge environment. Similarly, degradation to the middle meltblown layer was more extensive, where the average weight loss and carbon loss was 25.8% and 25.7% respectively, double that of outer/inner spunbond layer. The results showed that the face masks did not completely disintegrate after 8 weeks, but small solubilized fragments of PLA formed in the biodegradation process can be completely mineralized into carbon dioxide without generation of secondary microplastic pollution in the environment. PLA masks are therefore a slightly greener option to consider in times of a pandemic that the world was caught unprepared; however future research on masks could be geared towards a higher degradability material that fully breaks down into non-harmful components while maintaining durability, filtration and protection properties for users.

Upcycling discarded cellulosic surgical masks into catalytically active freestanding materials

ABSTRACT

The COVID-19 pandemic outbreak has resulted in the massive fabrication of disposable surgical masks. As the accumulation of discarded face masks represents a booming threat to the environment, here we propose a solution to reuse and upcycle surgical masks according to one of the cornerstones of the circular economy. Specifically, the non-woven cellulosic layer of the masks is used as an environmentally sustainable and highly porous solid support for the controlled deposition of catalytically active metal-oxide nanoparticles. The native cellulosic fibers from the surgical masks are decorated by titanium dioxide (TiO2), iron oxide (FexOy), and cobalt oxide (CoOx) nanoparticles following a simple and scalable approach. The abundant surface -OH groups of cellulose enable the controlled deposition of metal-oxide nanoparticles that are photocatalytically active or shown enzyme-mimetic activities. Importantly, the hydrophilic highly porous character of the cellulosic non-woven offers higher accessibility of the pollutant to the catalytically active surfaces and high retention in its interior. As a result, good catalytic activities with long-term stability and reusability are achieved. Additionally, developed free-standing hybrids avoid undesired media contamination effects originating from the release of nanoscale particles. The upcycling of discarded cellulosic materials, such as the ones of masks, into high-added-value catalytic materials, results an efficient approach to lessen the waste´s hazards of plastics while enhancing their functionality. Interestingly, this procedure can be extended to the upcycling of other systems (cellulosic or not), opening the path to greener manufacturing approaches of catalytic materials.

GRAPHICAL ABSTRACT

A novel approach to upcycle discarded cellulosic surgical masks is proposed, providing a solution to reduce the undesired accumulation of discarded face masks originating from the COVID-19 pandemic. The non-woven cellulosic layer formed by fibers is used as solid support for the controlled deposition of catalytically active titanium dioxide (TiO2), iron oxide (FexOy), and cobalt oxide (CoOx) nanoparticles. Cellulosic porous materials are proven useful for the photocatalytic decomposition of organic dyes, while their peroxidase-like activity opens the door to advanced applications such as electrochemical sensors. The upcycling of cellulose nonwoven fabrics into value-added catalytic materials lessens the waste´s hazards of discarded materials while enhancing their functionality.

SUPPLEMENTARY INFORMATION

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s10570-022-04441-9.

Reuse of medical face masks in domestic and community settings without sacrificing safety: Ecological and economical lessons from the Covid-19 pandemic

The need for personal protective equipment increased exponentially in response to the Covid-19 pandemic. To cope with the mask shortage during springtime 2020, a French consortium was created to find ways to reuse medical and respiratory masks in healthcare departments. The consortium addressed the complex context of the balance between cleaning medical masks in a way that maintains their safety and functionality for reuse, with the environmental advantage to manage medical disposable waste despite the current mask designation as single-use by the regulatory frameworks. We report a Workflow that provides a quantitative basis to determine the safety and efficacy of a medical mask that is decontaminated for reuse. The type IIR polypropylene medical masks can be washed up to 10 times, washed 5 times and autoclaved 5 times, or washed then sterilized with radiations or ethylene oxide, without any degradation of their filtration or breathability properties. There is loss of the anti-projection properties. The Workflow rendered the medical masks to comply to the AFNOR S76-001 standard as "type 1 non-sanitory usage masks". This qualification gives a legal status to the Workflow-treated masks and allows recommendation for the reuse of washed medical masks by the general population, with the significant public health advantage of providing better protection than cloth-tissue masks. Additionally, such a legal status provides a basis to perform a clinical trial to test the masks in real conditions, with full compliance with EN 14683 norm, for collective reuse. The rational reuse of medical mask and their end-of-life management is critical, particularly in pandemic periods when decisive turns can be taken. The reuse of masks in the general population, in industries, or in hospitals (but not for surgery) has significant advantages for the management of waste without degrading the safety of individuals wearing reused masks.

Location-aware hazardous litter management for smart emergency governance in urban eco-cyber-physical systems

Smart city management is facing a new challenge from littered face masks during COVID-19 pandemic. Addressing the issues of detection and collection of this hazardous waste that is littered in public spaces and outside the controlled environments, usually associated with biomedical waste, is urgent for the safety of the communities around the world. Manual management of this waste is beyond the capabilities of governments worldwide as the geospatial scale of littering is very high and also because this contaminated litter is a health and safety issue for the waste collectors. In this paper, an autonomous biomedical waste management framework that uses edge surveillance and location intelligence for detection of the littered face masks and predictive modelling for emergency response to this problem is proposed. In this research a novel dataset of littered face masks in various conditions and environments is collected. Then, a new deep neural network architecture for rapid detection of discarded face masks on the video surveillance edge nodes is proposed. Furthermore, a location intelligence model for prediction of the areas with higher probability of hazardous litter in the smart city is presented. Experimental results show that the accuracy of the proposed model for detection of littered face masks in various environments is 96%, while the speed of processing is ten times faster than comparable models. The proposed framework can help authorities to plan for timely emergency response to scattering of hazardous material in residential environments.

Local governments’ environmental emphasis and corporate green innovation: evidence from China

To study the effect of green industrial policies comprehensively, this paper takes uses a sample of Chinese Shanghai and Shenzhen A-share listed companies from 2008 to 2019 to study the impact of local governments’ environmental emphasis on corporate green innovation. The results show that local governments’ environmental emphasis has a significant positive impact on the number of green patents of enterprises. More importantly, local governments’ environmental attention mainly plays its role by improving the environmental protection awareness of corporate executives and increasing environmental protection subsidies. In addition, the effect of local governments’ environmental emphasis is more pronounced in state-owned enterprises, firms with low financing constraints, and heavily polluting firms. Further research finds that local governments’ environmental emphasis has a significant role in promoting the number of green invention patents and non-invention patents, but only green invention patents enhance the intrinsic value of enterprises.

Wet wipes contribution to microfiber contamination under COVID-19 era: An important but overlooked problem

Wet wipes for disinfection, sanitizing, and medical purposes, like personal protective equipment, have witnessed an upsurge in production and use as a result of COVID-19 outbreak. They are a potential source of microfibers and have recently been found in COVID-19 plastic litter survey campaigns conducted in a few marine environments around the world. This mini-review highlights wet wipes as a one of the key debris items contributing to the growing COVID-19-related microplastic pollution, and there are significant gaps in our understanding of microfiber release under different environmental conditions, morphological, and chemical degradation signatures, necessitating a comprehensive study of disinfectant wipes. Thus, we urge microplastic researchers to investigate the environmental implications of wet wipes in order to keep the total estimate of the plastic problem up to date and manage the associated environmental challenges.

Reuse of COVID-19 face mask for the amelioration of mechanical properties of fat clay: A novel solution to an emerging waste problem

Not only has the COVID-19 pandemic caused a global health crisis, but it has also changed the dynamics of waste generation around the world. This situation demands a productive solution for face mask (FM) waste management to solve several associated environmental issues. In the current study, a novel soil treatment method is proposed for the improvement of mechanical characteristics of fat clay by using FM as fiber reinforcement and silica fume (SF) as the cementitious agent in the form of a composite binary admixture (CBA). The performance of the proposed CBA is compared with SF and FM as the lone stabilizers by conducting extensive geotechnical testing. The SF treatment exponentially improves the strength characteristics of soil but it marginalizes the ductility of soil, inviting sudden failure and instability under dynamic loadings. It is observed that the proposed CBA not only improves the strength characteristics more than SF but also regulates the ductility and deformability of treated soil due to the presence of FM fibers. In addition, the policies and protocols on the logistics of collecting FM waste and making it ready for the proposed geotechnical application are reviewed; associated health risks, socioeconomic conditions and available technologies are the major governing factors to formulate and implement these policies. Moreover, the prolonged storage of COVID-19 FM waste for disinfection is found to be suitable for the proposed soil stabilization method as per the literature. The current study helps in achieving cost-effective filler/foundation material, solving COVID-19 FM waste problems and promoting resource conservation.

Unmasking People’s Opinions behind Mask-Wearing during COVID-19 Pandemic—A Twitter Stance Analysis

Wearing a mask by the general public has been a controversial issue from the beginning of the COVID-19 pandemic as the public authorities have had mixed messages, either advising people not to wear masks if uninfected, to wear as a protective measure, to wear them only when inside a building/room with insufficient air flow or to wear them in all the public places. To date, the governments have had different policies regarding mask-wearing by the general public depending on the COVID-19 pandemic evolution. In this context, the paper analyzes the general public’s opinion regarding mask-wearing for the one-year period starting from 9 January 2020, when the first tweet regarding mask-wearing in the COVID-19 context has been posted. Classical machine learning and deep learning algorithms have been considered in analyzing the 8,795,633 tweets extracted. A random sample of 29,613 tweets has been extracted and annotated. The tweets containing news and information related to mask-wearing have been included in the neutral category, while the ones containing people’s opinions (for or against) have been marked using a symmetrical approach into in favor and against categories. Based on the analysis, it has been determined that most of the mask tweets are in the area of in favor or neutral, while a smaller percentage of tweets and retweets are in the against category. The evolution of the opinions expressed through tweets can be further monitored for extracting the public perspective on mask-wearing in times of COVID-19.

Functionalized Masks: Powerful Materials against COVID-19 and Future Pandemics

The outbreak of COVID-19 revealed the vulnerability of commercially available face masks. Without having antibacterial/antiviral activities, the current masks act only as filtering materials of the aerosols containing microorganisms. Meanwhile, in surgical masks, the viral and bacterial filtration highly depends on the electrostatic charges of masks. These electrostatic charges disappear after 8 h, which leads to a significant decline in filtration efficiency. Therefore, to enhance the masks' protection performance, fabrication of innovative masks with more advanced functions is in urgent demand. This review summarizes the various functionalizing agents which can endow four important functions in the masks including i) boosting the antimicrobial and self-disinfectant characteristics via incorporating metal nanoparticles or photosensitizers, ii) increasing the self-cleaning by inserting superhydrophobic materials such as graphenes and alkyl silanes, iii) creating photo/electrothermal properties by forming graphene and metal thin films within the masks, and iv) incorporating triboelectric nanogenerators among the friction layers of masks to stabilize the electrostatic charges and facilitating the recharging of masks. The strategies for creating these properties toward the functionalized masks are discussed in detail. The effectiveness and limitation of each method in generating the desired properties are well-explained along with addressing the prospects for the future development of masks.

The recycling of surgical face masks as sound porous absorbers: Preliminary evaluation

This paper presents the results of an experimental study on the acoustic efficiency of plastic surgical face masks. Since the very high number of disposable masks being used globally on a daily basis to face the Covid19 pandemic is posing new environmental risks, mainly connected to improper disposal, any possible improvements in the management of this waste stream is very important. In this work their potential use as sound porous absorber is discussed. Surgical face masks are mainly made of polypropylene fibers which show good acoustical properties. Their porous structure was studied through the measurement of some non-acoustic properties: bulk density, fiber diameter, porosity, flow resistivity and tortuosity. Moreover, the sound absorption performance of samples, made of scrapped face masks, with different thicknesses was evaluated using an impedance tube according to ISO 10534-2. The results obtained from the sound absorption spectra and two single indexes, Noise Reduction Coefficient and Sound Absorption Average showed a high sound absorption value over a frequency range of interest. Finally, the sound absorption spectra obtained for surgical face masks were compared with those obtained for fibrous materials currently used in building sector, suggesting that this fibrous waste could act as a possible substitute to traditional ones.

Characterization of littered face masks in the southeastern part of Turkey

A possible source of microplastics has started to be released into nature because of the single-use face masks that protect us against the spread of COVID-19 and are being thrown onto the streets and into seas and nature. This study aims to estimate the amount of face mask use during the COVID-19 pandemic in Turkey, thereby expressing our concerns about waste management and plastic pollution and calling on appropriate solid waste management policies and governments to take the necessary measures to formulate their strategies at all levels. In this context, the number of masks in an area of 1 km2 in 3 different cities was determined theoretically and experimentally. Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FT-IR) and scanning electron microscope (SEM) were also used to evaluate plastic polymer characteristics of the single-use face mask. It was determined that the three cities produce roughly 10 tons of face masks in a day. With the increasing use of single-use plastics, the impact of face masks on microplastic pollution is of great concern. Although studies on the recovery of disposable masks continue, the level is insufficient. Therefore, studies to be carried out on technologies that will enable the repeated use of masks are important.

Planning for disposal of COVID-19 pandemic wastes in developing countries: a review of current challenges

The health sector is critical to the well-being of any country, but developing countries have several obstacles that prevent them from providing adequate health care. This became an even larger concern after the COVID-19 outbreak left millions of people dead worldwide and generated huge amounts of infected or potentially infected wastes. The management and disposal of medical wastes during and post-COVID-19 represent a major challenge in all countries, but this challenge is particularly great for developing countries that do not have robust waste disposal infrastructure. The main problems in developing countries include inefficient treatment procedures, limited capacity of healthcare facilities, and improper waste disposal procedures. The management of medical wastes in most developing countries was primitive prior to the pandemic. The improper treatment and disposal of these wastes in our current situation may further speed COVID-19 spread, creating a serious risk for workers in the medical and sanitation fields, patients, and all of society. Therefore, there is a critical need to discuss emerging challenges in handling, treating, and disposing of medical wastes in developing countries during and after the COVID-19 outbreak. There is a need to determine best disposal techniques given the conditions and limitations under which developing countries operate. Several open questions need to be investigated concerning this global issue, such as to what extent developing countries can control the expected environmental impacts of COVID-19, particularly those related to medical wastes? What are the projected management scenarios for medical wastes under the COVID-19 outbreak? And what are the major environmental risks posed by contaminated wastes related to COVID-19 treatment? Studies directed at the questions above, careful planning, the use of large capacity mobile recycling facilities, and following established guidelines for disposal of medical wastes should reduce risk of COVID-19 spread in developing countries.

Personal protective equipment (PPE) pollution driven by the COVID-19 pandemic in Cox's Bazar, the longest natural beach in the world

The extensive use of personal protective equipment (PPE) driven by the COVID-19 pandemic has become an important contributor to marine plastic pollution. However, there are very few studies quantifying and characterizing this type of pollution in coastal areas. In the present study, we monitored the occurrence of PPE (face masks, bouffant caps, and gloves) discarded in 13 sites along Cox's Bazar beach, the longest naturally occurring beach in the world. The vast majority of the items were face masks (97.9%), and the mean PPE density across sites was 6.29 × 10-3 PPE m-2. The presence of illegal dumping sites was the main source of PPE, which was mainly located on touristic/recreational beaches. Fishing activity contributed to PPE pollution at a lower level. Poor solid waste management practices in Cox's Bazar demonstrated to be a major driver of PPE pollution. The potential solutions and sustainable alternatives were discussed.

Investigating the Links Between Vaccination Against COVID-19 and Public Attitudes Toward Protective Countermeasures: Implications for Public Health

The COVID-19 pandemic caused by the novel coronavirus, SARS-CoV-2, is spreading globally at an unprecedented rate. To protect the world against this devastating catastrophe, vaccines for SARS-CoV-2 have been produced following consistent clinical trials. However, the durability of a protective immune response due to vaccination has not been confirmed. Moreover, COVID-19 vaccination against SARS-CoV-2 is not 100% guaranteed, as new variants arise due to mutations. Consequently, health officials are pleading with the public to take extra precautions against the virus and continue wearing masks, wash hands, and observe physical distancing even after vaccination. The current research collected data from 4,540 participants (1,825 vaccinated and 2,715 not vaccinated) in China to analyze this phenomenon empirically. The propensity score matching (PSM) model is employed to analyze the impact of vaccination against COVID-19 on participants' attitudes toward protective countermeasures. The findings showed that gender, age, education level, occupation risk, individual health risk perception, public health risk perception, social responsibility, peer effect, and government supervision are the main drivers for participants to be vaccinated with COVID-19's vaccines. The results further show that vaccination lessened participants' frequency of hand washing by 1.75 times and their compliance frequency intensity of observing physical distancing by 1.24 times. However, the rate of mask-wearing did not reduce significantly, implying that China's main countermeasure of effective mask-wearing effectively controls COVID-19. Moreover, the findings indicate that a reduction in the frequency of hand washing and observing physical distance could cause a resurgence of COVID-19. In conclusion, factors leading to the eradication of SARS-CoV-2 from the world are complex to be achieved, so the exploration of COVID-19 vaccination and people's attitude toward protective countermeasures may provide insights for policymakers to encourage vaccinated people to follow protective health measures and help in completely defeating the COVID-19 from the globe.

Role of atmospheric particulate matter exposure in COVID-19 and other health risks in human: A review

Due to intense industrialization and urbanization, air pollution has become a serious global concern as a hazard to human health. Epidemiological studies found that exposure to atmospheric particulate matter (PM) causes severe health problems in human and significant damage to the physiological systems. In recent days, PM exposure could be related as a carrier for severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) virus transmission and Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) infection. Hence, it is important to understand the adverse effects of PM in human health. This review aims to provide insights on the detrimental effects of PM in various human health problems including respiratory, circulatory, nervous, and immune system along with their possible toxicity mechanisms. Overall, this review highlights the potential relationship of PM with several life-limiting human diseases and their significance for better management strategies.

Municipal solid waste management during COVID-19 pandemic: effects and repercussions

The COVID-19 pandemic has an adverse effect on the environment. This epidemic's effect on the waste composition and management and the impacts of municipal solid waste management (MSWM) on disease transmission or controlling are considered a compelling experience of living in the COVID-19 pandemic that can effectively control the process. This systematic review research was conducted to determine the effects of COVID-19 on the quantity of waste and MSWM. Searches were conducted in three databases (using keywords covid 19, coronaviruses, and waste), and among the published articles from 2019 to 2021, 56 ones were selected containing information on the quantity and waste management during the COVID-19 pandemic. The results showed that COVID-19 caused the quantity variation and composition change of MSW. COVID-19 also has significant effects on waste recycling, medical waste management, quantity, and littered waste composition. On the other hand, the COVID-19 pandemic has changed waste compounds' management activities and waste generation sources. Recognizing these issues can help plan MSWM more efficiently and reduce virus transmission risk through waste.

Energy Treatment of Solid Municipal Waste in Combination with Biomass by Decentralized Method with the Respect to the Negative Effects on the Environment

Waste is a product of society and one of the biggest challenges for future generations is to understand how to sustainably dispose of large amounts of waste. The main objective of this study was to determine the possibility and conditions of the decentralized combustion of non-hazardous municipal waste. The analysis of the combustion properties of a mixture of wood chips and 20–30% of municipal solid waste showed an improvement in the operating parameters of the combustion process. Analysis also confirmed that the co-combustion of dirty fuels and biomass reduced the risk of releasing minerals and heavy metals from fuel into the natural environment. Approximately 55% of the heavy metals passed into the ash. The analysis of municipal solid waste and fuel mixtures containing municipal solid waste for polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons showed the risk of increasing polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon concentrations in flue gases.