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Mahon KL, Lin HM, Castillo L, Lee BY, Lee-Ng M, Chatfield MD, Chiam K, Breit SN, Brown DA, Molloy MP, Marx GM, Pavlakis N, Boyer MJ, Stockler MR, Daly RJ, Henshall SM, Horvath LG. Cytokine profiling of docetaxel-resistant castration-resistant prostate cancer. Br J Cancer 2015; 112:1340-8. [PMID: 25867259 PMCID: PMC4402456 DOI: 10.1038/bjc.2015.74] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/04/2014] [Revised: 01/28/2015] [Accepted: 01/30/2015] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Background: Docetaxel improves symptoms and survival in metastatic castration-resistant prostate cancer (CRPC). However, ∼50% of patients are chemoresistant. This study examined whether changes in cytokine levels predict for docetaxel resistance in vitro and in a clinical cohort. Methods: PC3 cells or their docetaxel-resistant subline (PC3Rx) were co-cultured with U937 monocytes, with and without docetaxel treatment, and cytokine levels were measured. The circulating levels of 28 cytokines were measured pre-/post cycle 1 of docetaxel from 55 men with CRPC, and compared with prostate-specific antigen (PSA) response. Results: PC3Rx-U937 co-culture expressed more cytokines, chiefly markers of alternative macrophage differentiation, compared with PC3-U937 co-culture. Docetaxel treatment enhanced cytokine production by PC3Rx-U937 co-culture, while reducing cytokine levels in PC3-U937. In patients, changes in the levels of seven circulating cytokines (macrophage inhibitory cytokine 1 (MIC1), interleukin (IL)-1ra, IL-1β, IL-4, IL-6, IL-12 and IFNγ) after cycle 1 of docetaxel were associated with progressive disease (all P<0.05). The combination of changes in MIC1, IL-4 and IL-6 most strongly predicted PSA response (P=0.002). Conclusions: In vitro studies suggest docetaxel resistance is mediated, at least in part, by cytokines induced by the interaction between the docetaxel-resistant tumour cells and macrophages. Early changes in circulating cytokine levels were associated with docetaxel resistance in CRPC patients. When considered together, these data suggest a significant role for the inflammatory response and macrophages in the development of docetaxel resistance in CRPC.
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Affiliation(s)
- K L Mahon
- 1] Chris O'Brien Lifehouse, Missenden Road, Camperdown, NSW 2050, Australia [2] Cancer Research Division, Garvan Institute of Medical Research/The Kinghorn Cancer Centre, Darlinghurst, NSW 2010, Australia [3] University of Sydney, Sydney, New South Wales 2050, Australia
| | - H-M Lin
- Cancer Research Division, Garvan Institute of Medical Research/The Kinghorn Cancer Centre, Darlinghurst, NSW 2010, Australia
| | - L Castillo
- Cancer Research Division, Garvan Institute of Medical Research/The Kinghorn Cancer Centre, Darlinghurst, NSW 2010, Australia
| | - B Y Lee
- Cancer Research Division, Garvan Institute of Medical Research/The Kinghorn Cancer Centre, Darlinghurst, NSW 2010, Australia
| | - M Lee-Ng
- St Vincent's Centre for Applied Medical Research, Liverpool Street, Darlinghurst, NSW 2010, Australia
| | - M D Chatfield
- Menzies School of Health Research, Darwin, NT, Australia
| | - K Chiam
- Cancer Research Division, Garvan Institute of Medical Research/The Kinghorn Cancer Centre, Darlinghurst, NSW 2010, Australia
| | - S N Breit
- St Vincent's Centre for Applied Medical Research, Liverpool Street, Darlinghurst, NSW 2010, Australia
| | - D A Brown
- St Vincent's Centre for Applied Medical Research, Liverpool Street, Darlinghurst, NSW 2010, Australia
| | - M P Molloy
- Australian Proteome Analysis Facility, Macquarie University, NSW 2105, Australia
| | - G M Marx
- Northern Haematology and Oncology Group, SAN Clinic, Wahroonga, NSW 2076, Australia
| | - N Pavlakis
- Royal North Shore Hospital, Pacific Highway, Sydney, NSW 2065, Australia
| | - M J Boyer
- 1] Chris O'Brien Lifehouse, Missenden Road, Camperdown, NSW 2050, Australia [2] University of Sydney, Sydney, New South Wales 2050, Australia
| | - M R Stockler
- 1] Chris O'Brien Lifehouse, Missenden Road, Camperdown, NSW 2050, Australia [2] University of Sydney, Sydney, New South Wales 2050, Australia
| | - R J Daly
- Signalling Network Laboratory, Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, School of Biomedical Sciences, Monash University, Clayton, VIC 3800, Australia
| | - S M Henshall
- Cancer Research Division, Garvan Institute of Medical Research/The Kinghorn Cancer Centre, Darlinghurst, NSW 2010, Australia
| | - L G Horvath
- 1] Chris O'Brien Lifehouse, Missenden Road, Camperdown, NSW 2050, Australia [2] Cancer Research Division, Garvan Institute of Medical Research/The Kinghorn Cancer Centre, Darlinghurst, NSW 2010, Australia [3] University of Sydney, Sydney, New South Wales 2050, Australia
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Kim NH, Kim SK, Kim DS, Zhang D, Park JA, Yi H, Kim JS, Shin HC. Anti-proliferative action of IL-6R-targeted antibody tocilizumab for non-small cell lung cancer cells. Oncol Lett 2015; 9:2283-2288. [PMID: 26137057 DOI: 10.3892/ol.2015.3019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/02/2014] [Accepted: 01/13/2015] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
In the present study we analyzed the anti-proliferative effect of tocilizumab, a humanized recombinant monoclonal interleukin 6 receptor (IL-6R) antibody, against non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) cells, including A549, H460, H358 and H1299 cells. The cell cycle distribution of NSCLCs was analyzed using fluorescence-activated cell sorting and gene expression using quantitative polymerase chain reaction. Cell lysates treated with tocilizumab were immunoblotted with antibodies against signal transducer and activator of transcription 3 (STAT3), phospho-STAT3, extracellular-signal-regulated kinases (ERK), phospho-ERK, nuclear factor κB (NFκB) and phospho-NFκB. Significant growth inhibition of NSCLC cells was observed following treatment with tocilizumab. Proliferation was significantly decreased by approximately 10-40% in A549, H460, H1299 and H358 cells, with an inhibition rate that was comparable with that of the typical anticancer drugs methotrexate and 5-fluorouracil. NSCLC cell populations were accumulated in the sub-G1 phase by treatment with tocilizumab. Western blot analyses revealed a possible activation of the NFκB pathway by tocilizumab. Overall, these data indicate that tocilizumab has anticancer potency via apoptosis induction as an agonistic IL-6R regulator. Therefore, we suggest that this anti-IL-6R antibody may be utilized as a new targeting molecule for NSCLC therapies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Na-Hyun Kim
- Department of Veterinary Pharmacology and Toxicology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Konkuk University, Seoul 143-701, Republic of Korea
| | - Seong-Kwan Kim
- Department of Veterinary Pharmacology and Toxicology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Konkuk University, Seoul 143-701, Republic of Korea
| | - Dong-Soon Kim
- Department of Veterinary Pharmacology and Toxicology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Konkuk University, Seoul 143-701, Republic of Korea
| | - Dan Zhang
- Department of Veterinary Pharmacology and Toxicology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Konkuk University, Seoul 143-701, Republic of Korea
| | - Jin-A Park
- Department of Veterinary Pharmacology and Toxicology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Konkuk University, Seoul 143-701, Republic of Korea
| | - Hee Yi
- Department of Veterinary Pharmacology and Toxicology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Konkuk University, Seoul 143-701, Republic of Korea
| | - Jin-Suk Kim
- Department of Veterinary Pharmacology and Toxicology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Konkuk University, Seoul 143-701, Republic of Korea
| | - Ho-Chul Shin
- Department of Veterinary Pharmacology and Toxicology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Konkuk University, Seoul 143-701, Republic of Korea
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Abstract
Clinical outcomes, such as recurrence-free survival and overall survival, in ovarian cancer are quite variable, independent of common characteristics such as stage, response to therapy, and grade. This disparity in outcomes warrants further exploration and therapeutic targeting into the interaction between the tumor and host. One compelling host characteristic that contributes both to the initiation and progression of ovarian cancer is the immune system. Hundreds of studies have confirmed a prominent role for the immune system in modifying the clinical course of the disease. Recent studies also show that anti-tumor immunity is often negated by immune regulatory cells present in the tumor microenvironment. Regulatory immune cells also directly enhance the pathogenesis through the release of various cytokines and chemokines, which together form an integrated pathological network. Thus, in the future, research into immunotherapy targeting ovarian cancer will probably become increasingly focused on combination approaches that simultaneously augment immunity while preventing local immune suppression. In this article, we summarize important immunological targets that influence ovarian cancer outcome as well as include an update on newer immunotherapeutic strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Keith L Knutson
- Cancer Vaccines and Immune Therapies Program, The Vaccine and Gene Therapy Institute of Florida, 9801 SW Discovery Way, Port St. Lucie, FL, 34949, USA,
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Proinflammatory cytokines in prostate cancer development and progression promoted by high-fat diet. BIOMED RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2015; 2015:249741. [PMID: 25722971 PMCID: PMC4334627 DOI: 10.1155/2015/249741] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/01/2014] [Revised: 01/22/2015] [Accepted: 01/22/2015] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
Abstract
Background. We aimed to examine whether proinflammatory cytokines participated in prostate cancer (PCa) development and progression promoted by high-fat diet (HFD). Methods. TRAMP (transgenic adenocarcinoma mouse prostate) mice were randomly divided into two groups: normal diet group and HFD group. Mortality rate and tumor formation rate were examined. TRAMP mice were sacrificed and sampled on the 20th, 24th, and 28th week, respectively. Levels of proinflammatory cytokines, including IL-1α, IL-1β, IL-6, and TNF-α, were tested by FlowCytomix. Prostate tissue of TRAMP mice was used for histology study. Results. A total of 13 deaths of TRAMP mice were observed, among which 3 (8.33%) were from the normal diet group and 10 (27.78%) from the HFD group. The mortality rate of TRAMP mice from HFD group was significantly higher than that of normal diet group (P = 0.032). Tumor formation rate at 20th week of age of HFD group was significantly higher than that of normal diet group (P = 0.045). Proinflammatory cytokines levels, including IL-1α, IL-1β, IL-6, and TNF-α, were significantly higher in HFD TRAMP mice. Conclusions. HFD could promote TRAMP mouse PCa development and progression with elevated proinflammatory cytokines levels. Proinflammatory cytokines could contribute to PCa development and progression promoted by HFD.
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Rath T, Billmeier U, Waldner MJ, Atreya R, Neurath MF. From physiology to disease and targeted therapy: interleukin-6 in inflammation and inflammation-associated carcinogenesis. Arch Toxicol 2015. [DOI: 10.1007/s00204-015-1461-5 and 3010=3010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
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From physiology to disease and targeted therapy: interleukin-6 in inflammation and inflammation-associated carcinogenesis. Arch Toxicol 2015. [DOI: 10.1007/s00204-015-1461-5 waitfor delay '0:0:5'-- ismb] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
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107
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Rath T, Billmeier U, Waldner MJ, Atreya R, Neurath MF. From physiology to disease and targeted therapy: interleukin-6 in inflammation and inflammation-associated carcinogenesis. Arch Toxicol 2015. [DOI: 10.1007/s00204-015-1461-5 and (select 9484 from(select count(*),concat(0x716b627871,(select (elt(9484=9484,1))),0x716a787671,floor(rand(0)*2))x from information_schema.plugins group by x)a)] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 09/29/2022]
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Rath T, Billmeier U, Waldner MJ, Atreya R, Neurath MF. From physiology to disease and targeted therapy: interleukin-6 in inflammation and inflammation-associated carcinogenesis. Arch Toxicol 2015. [DOI: 10.1007/s00204-015-1461-5 order by 1-- kwdt] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
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From physiology to disease and targeted therapy: interleukin-6 in inflammation and inflammation-associated carcinogenesis. Arch Toxicol 2015. [DOI: 10.1007/s00204-015-1461-5 order by 1-- esve] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 09/29/2022]
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From physiology to disease and targeted therapy: interleukin-6 in inflammation and inflammation-associated carcinogenesis. Arch Toxicol 2015. [DOI: 10.1007/s00204-015-1461-5 waitfor delay '0:0:5'] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 09/29/2022]
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Rath T, Billmeier U, Waldner MJ, Atreya R, Neurath MF. From physiology to disease and targeted therapy: interleukin-6 in inflammation and inflammation-associated carcinogenesis. Arch Toxicol 2015. [DOI: 10.1007/s00204-015-1461-5 and 3010=3010-- kvwx] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
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Rath T, Billmeier U, Waldner MJ, Atreya R, Neurath MF. From physiology to disease and targeted therapy: interleukin-6 in inflammation and inflammation-associated carcinogenesis. Arch Toxicol 2015. [DOI: 10.1007/s00204-015-1461-5 and 5674=dbms_pipe.receive_message(chr(81)||chr(112)||chr(90)||chr(102),5)] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 09/29/2022]
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From physiology to disease and targeted therapy: interleukin-6 in inflammation and inflammation-associated carcinogenesis. Arch Toxicol 2015. [DOI: 10.1007/s00204-015-1461-5 and 5342=6023-- hngu] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 09/29/2022]
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Rath T, Billmeier U, Waldner MJ, Atreya R, Neurath MF. From physiology to disease and targeted therapy: interleukin-6 in inflammation and inflammation-associated carcinogenesis. Arch Toxicol 2015. [DOI: 10.1007/s00204-015-1461-5 and (select 9484 from(select count(*),concat(0x716b627871,(select (elt(9484=9484,1))),0x716a787671,floor(rand(0)*2))x from information_schema.plugins group by x)a)-- fdyr] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
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From physiology to disease and targeted therapy: interleukin-6 in inflammation and inflammation-associated carcinogenesis. Arch Toxicol 2015. [DOI: 10.1007/s00204-015-1461-5 and 4572=(select 4572 from pg_sleep(5))] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 09/29/2022]
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From physiology to disease and targeted therapy: interleukin-6 in inflammation and inflammation-associated carcinogenesis. Arch Toxicol 2015; 89:541-54. [PMID: 25632846 DOI: 10.1007/s00204-015-1461-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/10/2014] [Accepted: 01/08/2015] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Abstract
Since its discovery in 1986, originally as B cell stimulating factor 2, the knowledge on IL-6 for immune homeostasis and its pathophysiological implications has rapidly increased. It is now clear that IL-6, alone or in combination with other cytokines, is an architect for shaping and generating immune responses which exerts profound activities on the induction of acute-phase reactions, the differentiation of B lymphocytes, the modulation of T cell apoptosis, the activation of T helper cells and the balance between regulatory T cells and Th17 cells. In parallel to the identification of these physiologic functions, IL-6 has emerged as a critical mediator for perpetuating chronic inflammation and autoimmunity and is increasingly recognized as a key cytokine for linking chronic inflammation to cancer development. In this review, we begin by briefly summarizing the molecular events of IL-6 regulation and signaling and then describe the role of IL-6 in orchestrating innate and adaptive immune responses and its immunopathological relevance for chronic inflammatory diseases. We further outline how IL-6 links chronic inflammation and cancer development and finally provide an outlook on novel therapeutic strategies targeting IL-6 signaling for the treatment of chronic inflammatory diseases and cancer.
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Rath T, Billmeier U, Waldner MJ, Atreya R, Neurath MF. From physiology to disease and targeted therapy: interleukin-6 in inflammation and inflammation-associated carcinogenesis. Arch Toxicol 2015. [DOI: 10.1007/s00204-015-1461-5 and 4572=(select 4572 from pg_sleep(5))-- rtfx] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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From physiology to disease and targeted therapy: interleukin-6 in inflammation and inflammation-associated carcinogenesis. Arch Toxicol 2015. [DOI: 10.1007/s00204-015-1461-5 and (select 2510 from (select(sleep(5)))zdoz)] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 09/29/2022]
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From physiology to disease and targeted therapy: interleukin-6 in inflammation and inflammation-associated carcinogenesis. Arch Toxicol 2015. [DOI: 10.1007/s00204-015-1461-5 and 9226=2538] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
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From physiology to disease and targeted therapy: interleukin-6 in inflammation and inflammation-associated carcinogenesis. Arch Toxicol 2015. [DOI: 10.1007/s00204-015-1461-5 and 5674=dbms_pipe.receive_message(chr(81)||chr(112)||chr(90)||chr(102),5)-- zgjk] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 09/29/2022]
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127
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Rath T, Billmeier U, Waldner MJ, Atreya R, Neurath MF. From physiology to disease and targeted therapy: interleukin-6 in inflammation and inflammation-associated carcinogenesis. Arch Toxicol 2015. [DOI: 10.1007/s00204-015-1461-5 and (select 2510 from (select(sleep(5)))zdoz)-- paid] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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Abstract
Human IL6 is a cytokine produced by many cell types that has pleiotropic effects. In agreement, anti-IL6 therapy reduces inflammation, hepatic acute phase proteins, and anemia and has antiangiogenic effects. Blocking IL6 has demonstrated therapeutic efficacy with drug registration in Castleman disease and inflammatory diseases (rheumatoid arthritis) without major toxicity. Interestingly, the inhibition of C-reactive protein (CRP) production is a trustworthy surrogate marker of anti-IL6 therapy efficacy. Clinically registered IL6 inhibitors include siltuximab, an anti-IL6 mAb, and tocilizumab, an anti-IL6R mAb. In various cancers, in particular plasma cell cancers, large randomized trials showed no efficacy of IL6 inhibitors, despite a full inhibition of CRP production in treated patients in vivo, the numerous data showing an involvement of IL6 in these diseases, and initial short-term treatments demonstrating a dramatic inhibition of cancer cell proliferation in vivo. A likely explanation is the plasticity of cancer cells, with the presence of various subclones, making the outgrowth of cancer subclones possible using growth factors other than IL6. In addition, current therapeutic strategies used in these cancers already target IL6 activity. Thus, anti-IL6 therapeutics are able to neutralize IL6 production in vivo and are safe and useful in inflammatory diseases and Castleman disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jean-François Rossi
- Department of Hematology, CHU de Montpellier, Montpellier, France. INSERM U1040, Montpellier, France. Université Montpellier I, Montpellier, France.
| | - Zhao-Yang Lu
- Unité de Thérapie Cellulaire, CHU de Montpellier, Montpellier, France
| | | | - Bernard Klein
- INSERM U1040, Montpellier, France. Université Montpellier I, Montpellier, France
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Thapa D, Ghosh R. Chronic inflammatory mediators enhance prostate cancer development and progression. Biochem Pharmacol 2015; 94:53-62. [PMID: 25593038 DOI: 10.1016/j.bcp.2014.12.023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/01/2014] [Revised: 12/26/2014] [Accepted: 12/31/2014] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Chronic inflammation is postulated to influence prostate cancer progression. Preclinical studies have claimed that inflammatory mediators are involved in prostate cancer development and therefore suggested these as attractive targets for intervention. However, among the many pro-inflammatory mediators, there is no consensus regarding the identity of the primary one(s). In clinical studies, chronic inflammation has been found in prostate tumor specimens, and tissues resected for treatment of benign prostatic hyperplasia (BPH). Although collective evidence from molecular, experimental and clinical data suggests that inflammation can contribute or promote prostate carcinogenesis, an etiologic link has not yet been established. Moreover, the role of chronic inflammation in the onset of castration resistant and metastatic disease is unclear. Therefore it is important to open a dialog regarding recent findings on how chronic inflammatory mediators contribute to prostate cancer progression, and their usefulness to prevent disease progression. In this commentary, we assess the current literature with respect to chronic inflammation as a potential initiator and promoter of prostate carcinogenesis and discuss the prospects for its potential clinical applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dinesh Thapa
- Department of Urology, University of Texas Health Science Center at San Antonio, San Antonio, TX, USA
| | - Rita Ghosh
- Department of Urology, University of Texas Health Science Center at San Antonio, San Antonio, TX, USA; Department of Pharmacology, University of Texas Health Science Center at San Antonio, San Antonio, TX, USA; Department of Molecular Medicine, University of Texas Health Science Center at San Antonio, San Antonio, TX, USA; Cancer Therapy and Research Center, School of Medicine, University of Texas Health Science Center at San Antonio, San Antonio, TX, USA.
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130
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Type I IFN gene delivery suppresses regulatory T cells within tumors. Cancer Gene Ther 2014; 21:532-41. [DOI: 10.1038/cgt.2014.60] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/15/2014] [Revised: 10/17/2014] [Accepted: 10/17/2014] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
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131
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Vacchelli E, Eggermont A, Galon J, Sautès-Fridman C, Zitvogel L, Kroemer G, Galluzzi L. Trial watch: Monoclonal antibodies in cancer therapy. Oncoimmunology 2014; 2:e22789. [PMID: 23482847 PMCID: PMC3583934 DOI: 10.4161/onci.22789] [Citation(s) in RCA: 82] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
During the past 20 years, dozens-if not hundreds-of monoclonal antibodies have been developed and characterized for their capacity to mediate antineoplastic effects, either as they activate/enhance tumor-specific immune responses, either as they interrupt cancer cell-intrinsic signal transduction cascades, either as they specifically delivery toxins to malignant cells or as they block the tumor-stroma interaction. Such an intense research effort has lead to the approval by FDA of no less than 14 distinct molecules for use in humans affected by hematological or solid malignancies. In the inaugural issue of OncoImmunology, we briefly described the scientific rationale behind the use of monoclonal antibodies in cancer therapy and discussed recent, ongoing clinical studies investigating the safety and efficacy of this approach in patients. Here, we summarize the latest developments in this exciting area of clinical research, focusing on high impact studies that have been published during the last 15 months and clinical trials launched in the same period to investigate the therapeutic profile of promising, yet hitherto investigational, monoclonal antibodies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Erika Vacchelli
- Institut Gustave Roussy; Villejuif, France ; Université Paris-Sud/Paris XI; Le Kremlin-Bicêtre, France ; INSERM; U848; Villejuif, France
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Nguyen DP, Li J, Tewari AK. Inflammation and prostate cancer: the role of interleukin 6 (IL-6). BJU Int 2014; 113:986-92. [PMID: 24053309 DOI: 10.1111/bju.12452] [Citation(s) in RCA: 259] [Impact Index Per Article: 25.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Environmental and genetic aspects are reflected in the development of prostate cancer. In this context, there is growing evidence that chronic inflammation is involved in the regulation of cellular events in prostate carcinogenesis, including disruption of the immune response and regulation of the tumour microenvironment. One of the best surrogates of chronic inflammation in prostate cancer is interleukin 6 (IL-6). Serum IL-6 levels are elevated in patients with untreated metastatic or castration-resistant prostate cancer (CRPC) and correlate negatively with tumour survival and response to chemotherapy. Via multiple signal pathways including the Janus tyrosine family kinase (JAK)-signal transducer and activator of transcription (STAT) pathway, the extracellular signal-regulated kinase 1 and 2 (ERK1/2)-mitogen activated protein kinase (MAPK) pathway, and the phosphoinositide 3-kinase (PI3-K) pathway, IL-6 is able to promote prostate cancer cell proliferation and inhibit apoptosis in vitro and in vivo. IL-6 is associated with aggressive prostate cancer phenotype and may be involved in the metastatic process through regulation of epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) and homing of cancer cells to the bone. A substantial body of evidence suggests that IL-6 plays a major role in the transition from hormone-dependent to CRPC, most notably through accessory activation of the androgen receptor. Collectively, these data have stimulated the development of agents targeting IL-6 signalling pathways. A chimeric anti-IL-6 monoclonal antibody has been tested in clinical trials, with mixed results.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel P Nguyen
- Laboratory of Urological Oncology, Department of Urology, Weill Cornell Medical College-New York Presbyterian Hospital, New York, NY, USA; Department of Urology, University of Berne, Inselspital, Berne, Switzerland
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Ataie-Kachoie P, Pourgholami MH, Richardson DR, Morris DL. Gene of the month: Interleukin 6 (IL-6). J Clin Pathol 2014; 67:932-7. [DOI: 10.1136/jclinpath-2014-202493] [Citation(s) in RCA: 97] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
The Interleukin 6 (IL-6) gene encodes the classic proinflammatory cytokine IL-6. It is also known as interferon-β2 (IFN-β2), B cell stimulatory factor-2 and hybridoma/plasmacytoma growth factor. IL-6 is a multifunctional cytokine with a central role in many physiological inflammatory and immunological processes. Due to its major role in initiation as well as resolving inflammation, deregulation of IL-6 is a mainstay of chronic inflammatory and autoimmune diseases. Additionally, IL-6 has been shown to be implicated in pathogenesis of many human malignancies. Thus, a better understanding of IL-6 and its role in various pathological conditions could enable the development of strategies to use it as a therapeutic target. This short review focuses on the structure, regulation and biological activities of IL-6. In addition we discuss the role of IL-6 in diseases with inflammatory background and cancer and also the therapeutic applications of anti-IL-6 agents.
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The Multifaceted Roles of STAT3 Signaling in the Progression of Prostate Cancer. Cancers (Basel) 2014; 6:829-59. [PMID: 24722453 PMCID: PMC4074806 DOI: 10.3390/cancers6020829] [Citation(s) in RCA: 108] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/08/2014] [Revised: 03/11/2014] [Accepted: 03/17/2014] [Indexed: 01/09/2023] Open
Abstract
The signal transducer and activator of transcription (STAT)3 governs essential functions of epithelial and hematopoietic cells that are often dysregulated in cancer. While the role for STAT3 in promoting the progression of many solid and hematopoietic malignancies is well established, this review will focus on the importance of STAT3 in prostate cancer progression to the incurable metastatic castration-resistant prostate cancer (mCRPC). Indeed, STAT3 integrates different signaling pathways involved in the reactivation of androgen receptor pathway, stem like cells and the epithelial to mesenchymal transition that drive progression to mCRPC. As equally important, STAT3 regulates interactions between tumor cells and the microenvironment as well as immune cell activation. This makes it a major factor in facilitating prostate cancer escape from detection of the immune response, promoting an immunosuppressive environment that allows growth and metastasis. Based on the multifaceted nature of STAT3 signaling in the progression to mCRPC, the promise of STAT3 as a therapeutic target to prevent prostate cancer progression and the variety of STAT3 inhibitors used in cancer therapies is discussed.
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135
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Ganju A, Yallapu MM, Khan S, Behrman SW, Chauhan SC, Jaggi M. Nanoways to overcome docetaxel resistance in prostate cancer. Drug Resist Updat 2014; 17:13-23. [PMID: 24853766 DOI: 10.1016/j.drup.2014.04.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 70] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/15/2014] [Revised: 03/17/2014] [Accepted: 03/22/2014] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Prostate cancer is the most common non-cutaneous malignancy in American men. Docetaxel is a useful chemotherapeutic agent for prostate cancer that has been available for over a decade, but the length of the treatment and systemic side effects hamper compliance. Additionally, docetaxel resistance invariably emerges, leading to disease relapse. Docetaxel resistance is either intrinsic or acquired by adopting various mechanisms that are highly associated with genetic alterations, decreased influx and increased efflux of drugs. Several combination therapies and small P-glycoprotein inhibitors have been proposed to improve the therapeutic potential of docetaxel in prostate cancer. Novel therapeutic strategies that may allow reversal of docetaxel resistance include alterations of enzymes, improving drug uptake and enhancement of apoptosis. In this review, we provide the most current docetaxel reversal approaches utilizing nanotechnology. Nanotechnology mediated docetaxel delivery is superior to existing therapeutic strategies and a more effective method to induce P-glycoprotein inhibition, enhance cellular uptake, maintain sustained drug release, and improve bioavailability.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aditya Ganju
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences and the Center for Cancer Research, College of Pharmacy, University of Tennessee Health Science Center, Memphis, TN 38163, USA; College of Graduate Health Sciences, University of Tennessee Health Science Center, Memphis, TN 38163, USA
| | - Murali M Yallapu
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences and the Center for Cancer Research, College of Pharmacy, University of Tennessee Health Science Center, Memphis, TN 38163, USA.
| | - Sheema Khan
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences and the Center for Cancer Research, College of Pharmacy, University of Tennessee Health Science Center, Memphis, TN 38163, USA
| | - Stephen W Behrman
- Department of Surgery, University of Tennessee Health Science Center, Memphis, TN 38163, USA
| | - Subhash C Chauhan
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences and the Center for Cancer Research, College of Pharmacy, University of Tennessee Health Science Center, Memphis, TN 38163, USA.
| | - Meena Jaggi
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences and the Center for Cancer Research, College of Pharmacy, University of Tennessee Health Science Center, Memphis, TN 38163, USA.
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136
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Shaw S, Bourne T, Meier C, Carrington B, Gelinas R, Henry A, Popplewell A, Adams R, Baker T, Rapecki S, Marshall D, Moore A, Neale H, Lawson A. Discovery and characterization of olokizumab: a humanized antibody targeting interleukin-6 and neutralizing gp130-signaling. MAbs 2014; 6:774-82. [PMID: 24670876 PMCID: PMC4011921 DOI: 10.4161/mabs.28612] [Citation(s) in RCA: 76] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Interleukin-6 (IL-6) is a critical regulator of the immune system and has been widely implicated in autoimmune disease. Here, we describe the discovery and characterization of olokizumab, a humanized antibody to IL-6. Data from structural biology, cell biology and primate pharmacology demonstrate the therapeutic potential of targeting IL-6 at “Site 3”, blocking the interaction with the signaling co-receptor gp130.
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137
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Pahne-Zeppenfeld J, Schröer N, Walch-Rückheim B, Oldak M, Gorter A, Hegde S, Smola S. Cervical cancer cell-derived interleukin-6 impairs CCR7-dependent migration of MMP-9-expressing dendritic cells. Int J Cancer 2014; 134:2061-73. [PMID: 24136650 DOI: 10.1002/ijc.28549] [Citation(s) in RCA: 72] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/03/2013] [Revised: 09/09/2013] [Accepted: 09/27/2013] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Cervical carcinogenesis is a consequence of persistent infection with high-risk human papillomaviruses (HPVs). Recent studies indicate that HPV-transformed cells actively instruct their microenvironment to promote carcinogenesis. Here, we demonstrate that cervical cancer cells activate monocytes to produce their own CCL2 for further monocyte recruitment and reprogram their function during differentiation and maturation to dendritic cells (DCs). Our data show that cervical cancer cells suppress the induction of the chemokine receptor CCR7 in phenotypically mature DCs and impair their migration toward a lymph node homing chemokine, required to initiate adaptive immune responses. We confirmed the presence of CD83(+)CCR7(low) DCs in cancer biopsies. The second factor essential for DC migration, matrix-metalloproteinase MMP-9, which also has vasculogenic and protumorigenic properties, is not suppressed but upregulated in immature as well as mature DCs. We identified interleukin-6 (IL-6) as a crucial cervical cancer cell-derived mediator and nuclear factor kappaB (NF-jB) as the central signaling pathway targeted in DCs. Anti-IL-6 antibodies reverted not only NF-jB inhibition and restored CCR7-dependent migration but also blocked MMP-9 induction. This is the first report demonstrating the dissociation of CCR7 and MMP-9 expression in phenotypically mature CD83(+) DCs by cancer cells. Our results show that cervical cancer cells actively shape the local microenvironment. They induce the accumulation of myeloid cells and skew their function from immune activation to local production of protumorigenic MMP-9. Neutralizing anti-IL-6 antibodies can counteract this functional dysbalance and should therefore be considered for adjuvant cervical cancer therapy.
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138
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Shaw S, Bourne T, Meier C, Carrington B, Gelinas R, Henry A, Popplewell A, Adams R, Baker T, Rapecki S, Marshall D, Moore A, Neale H, Lawson A. Discovery and characterization of olokizumab: a humanized antibody targeting interleukin-6 and neutralizing gp130-signaling. MAbs 2014. [PMID: 24670876 DOI: 10.4161/mabs.28612;] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Interleukin-6 (IL-6) is a critical regulator of the immune system and has been widely implicated in autoimmune disease. Here, we describe the discovery and characterization of olokizumab, a humanized antibody to IL-6. Data from structural biology, cell biology and primate pharmacology demonstrate the therapeutic potential of targeting IL-6 at "Site 3", blocking the interaction with the signaling co-receptor gp130.
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139
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Chang Q, Daly L, Bromberg J. The IL-6 feed-forward loop: a driver of tumorigenesis. Semin Immunol 2014; 26:48-53. [PMID: 24613573 DOI: 10.1016/j.smim.2014.01.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 78] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/20/2014] [Accepted: 01/23/2014] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
IL-6 signaling plays a prominent role in tumorigenesis and metastasis. In this review we discuss the recent evidence describing the tumor intrinsic and extrinsic functions of this signaling pathway. Although blockade of this pathway in pre-clinical models leads to a reduction in tumor growth and metastasis, its clinical success is less evident. Thus, identifying the features of tumors/patients that predict response to anti-IL6 therapy are needed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qing Chang
- Department of Medicine, Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center (MSKCC), New York, NY, USA
| | - Laura Daly
- Department of Medicine, Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center (MSKCC), New York, NY, USA
| | - Jacqueline Bromberg
- Department of Medicine, Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center (MSKCC), New York, NY, USA; Weill Cornell Medical College (WCMC), New York, NY, USA.
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140
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Toad glandular secretions and skin extractions as anti-inflammatory and anticancer agents. EVIDENCE-BASED COMPLEMENTARY AND ALTERNATIVE MEDICINE 2014; 2014:312684. [PMID: 24734105 PMCID: PMC3963377 DOI: 10.1155/2014/312684] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/11/2013] [Revised: 01/10/2014] [Accepted: 01/20/2014] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Toad glandular secretions and skin extractions contain many natural agents which may provide a unique resource for novel drug development. The dried secretion from the auricular and skin glands of Chinese toad (Bufo bufo gargarizans) is named Chansu, which has been used in Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM) for treating infection and inflammation for hundreds of years. The sterilized hot water extraction of dried toad skin is named Huachansu (Cinobufacini) which was developed for treating hepatitis B virus (HBV) and several types of cancers. However, the mechanisms of action of Chansu, Huachansu, and their constituents within are not well reported. Existing studies have suggested that their anti-inflammation and anticancer potential were via targeting Nuclear Factor (NF)-κB and its signalling pathways which are crucial hallmarks of inflammation and cancer in various experimental models. Here, we review some current studies of Chansu, Huachansu, and their compounds in terms of their use as both anti-inflammatory and anticancer agents. We also explored the potential use of toad glandular secretions and skin extractions as alternate resources for treating human cancers in combinational therapies.
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141
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Gu L, Talati P, Vogiatzi P, Romero-Weaver AL, Abdulghani J, Liao Z, Leiby B, Hoang DT, Mirtti T, Alanen K, Zinda M, Huszar D, Nevalainen MT. Pharmacologic suppression of JAK1/2 by JAK1/2 inhibitor AZD1480 potently inhibits IL-6-induced experimental prostate cancer metastases formation. Mol Cancer Ther 2014; 13:1246-58. [PMID: 24577942 DOI: 10.1158/1535-7163.mct-13-0605] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
Metastatic prostate cancer is lethal and lacks effective strategies for prevention or treatment, requiring novel therapeutic approaches. Interleukin-6 (IL-6) is a cytokine that has been linked with prostate cancer pathogenesis by multiple studies. However, the direct functional roles of IL-6 in prostate cancer growth and progression have been unclear. In the present study, we show that IL-6 is produced in distant metastases of clinical prostate cancers. IL-6-activated signaling pathways in prostate cancer cells induced a robust 7-fold increase in metastases formation in nude mice. We further show that IL-6 promoted migratory prostate cancer cell phenotype, including increased prostate cancer cell migration, microtubule reorganization, and heterotypic adhesion of prostate cancer cells to endothelial cells. IL-6-driven metastasis was predominantly mediated by Stat3 and to lesser extent by ERK1/2. Most importantly, pharmacologic inhibition of Jak1/2 by AZD1480 suppressed IL-6-induced signaling, migratory prostate cancer cell phenotypes, and metastatic dissemination of prostate cancer in vivo in nude mice. In conclusion, we demonstrate that the cytokine IL-6 directly promotes prostate cancer metastasis in vitro and in vivo via Jak-Stat3 signaling pathway, and that IL-6-driven metastasis can be effectively suppressed by pharmacologic targeting of Jak1/2 using Jak1/2 inhibitor AZD1480. Our results therefore provide a strong rationale for further development of Jak1/2 inhibitors as therapy for metastatic prostate cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lei Gu
- Authors' Affiliations: Departments of Cancer Biology, Urology, and Medical Oncology, Kimmel Cancer Center; Department of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics, Thomas Jefferson University, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania; Oncology iMED, AstraZeneca R&D Boston, Waltham, Massachusetts; Department of Pathology, Haartman Institute; Institute of Molecular Medicine, University of Helsinki, Helsinki; and Department of Pathology, Institute of Biomedicine, University of Turku, Turku, Finland
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142
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Dushyanthen S, Cossigny DAF, Quan GMY. The osteoblastic and osteoclastic interactions in spinal metastases secondary to prostate cancer. CANCER GROWTH AND METASTASIS 2013; 6:61-80. [PMID: 24665208 PMCID: PMC3941153 DOI: 10.4137/cgm.s12769] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/10/2013] [Revised: 10/06/2013] [Accepted: 10/07/2013] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
Prostate cancer (PC) is one of the most common cancers arising in men and has a high propensity for bone metastasis, particularly to the spine. At this stage, it often causes severe morbidity due to pathological fracture and/or metastatic epidural spinal cord compression which, if untreated, inevitably leads to intractable pain, neurological deficit, and paralysis. Unfortunately, the underlying molecular mechanisms driving growth of secondary PC in the bony vertebral column remain largely unknown. Further investigation is warranted in order to identify therapeutic targets in the future. This review summarizes the current understanding of PC bone metastasis in the spine, highlighting interactions between key tumor and bone-derived factors which influence tumor progression, especially the functional roles of osteoblasts and osteoclasts in the bone microenvironment through their interactions with metastatic PC cells and the critical pathway RANK/RANKL/OPG in bone destruction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sathana Dushyanthen
- Spinal Biology Research Laboratory, Department of Spinal Surgery, University of Melbourne Department of Surgery, Austin Health, Heidelberg Victoria, Australia
| | - Davina A F Cossigny
- Spinal Biology Research Laboratory, Department of Spinal Surgery, University of Melbourne Department of Surgery, Austin Health, Heidelberg Victoria, Australia
| | - Gerald M Y Quan
- Spinal Biology Research Laboratory, Department of Spinal Surgery, University of Melbourne Department of Surgery, Austin Health, Heidelberg Victoria, Australia
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143
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Toren P, Venkateswaran V. Periprostatic adipose tissue and prostate cancer progression: new insights into the tumor microenvironment. Clin Genitourin Cancer 2013; 12:21-6. [PMID: 24269373 DOI: 10.1016/j.clgc.2013.07.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/27/2013] [Revised: 07/23/2013] [Accepted: 07/31/2013] [Indexed: 01/04/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Paul Toren
- Vancouver Prostate Centre, University of British Columbia, British Columbia, Canada
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144
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Charbonneau B, Goode EL, Kalli KR, Knutson KL, Derycke MS. The immune system in the pathogenesis of ovarian cancer. Crit Rev Immunol 2013; 33:137-64. [PMID: 23582060 DOI: 10.1615/critrevimmunol.2013006813] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
Clinical outcomes in ovarian cancer are heterogeneous even when considering common features such as stage, response to therapy, and grade. This disparity in outcomes warrants further exploration into tumor and host characteristics. One compelling host characteristic is the immune response to ovarian cancer. While several studies have confirmed a prominent role for the immune system in modifying the clinical course of the disease, recent genetic and protein analyses also suggest a role in disease incidence. Recent studies also show that anti-tumor immunity is often negated by immune suppressive cells present in the tumor microenvironment. These suppressive immune cells also directly enhance the pathogenesis through the release of various cytokines and chemokines, which together form an integrated pathologic network. Thus, future research into immunotherapy targeting ovarian cancer will likely become increasingly focused on combination approaches that simultaneously augment immunity while preventing local immune suppression or by disrupting critical cytokine networks.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bridget Charbonneau
- Department of Health Sciences Research, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN 55905, USA
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145
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146
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Yao X, Huang J, Zhong H, Shen N, Faggioni R, Fung M, Yao Y. Targeting interleukin-6 in inflammatory autoimmune diseases and cancers. Pharmacol Ther 2013; 141:125-39. [PMID: 24076269 DOI: 10.1016/j.pharmthera.2013.09.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 424] [Impact Index Per Article: 38.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/28/2013] [Accepted: 09/03/2013] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Interleukin-6 (IL-6) is a pleiotropic cytokine with significant functions in the regulation of the immune system. As a potent pro-inflammatory cytokine, IL-6 plays a pivotal role in host defense against pathogens and acute stress. However, increased or deregulated expression of IL-6 significantly contributes to the pathogenesis of various human diseases. Numerous preclinical and clinical studies have revealed the pathological roles of the IL-6 pathway in inflammation, autoimmunity, and cancer. Based on the rich body of studies on biological activities of IL-6 and its pathological roles, therapeutic strategies targeting the IL-6 pathway are in development for cancers, inflammatory and autoimmune diseases. Several anti-IL-6/IL-6 receptor monoclonal antibodies developed for targeted therapy have demonstrated promising results in both preclinical studies and clinical trials. Tocilizumab, an anti-IL-6 receptor antibody, is effective in the treatment of various autoimmune and inflammatory conditions notably rheumatoid arthritis. It is the only IL-6 pathway targeting agent approved by the regulatory agencies for clinical use. Siltuximab, an anti-IL-6 antibody, has been shown to have potential benefits treating various human cancers either as a single agent or in combination with other chemotherapy drugs. Several other anti-IL-6-based therapies are also under clinical development for various diseases. IL-6 antagonism has been shown to be a potential therapy for these disorders refractory to conventional drugs. New strategies, such as combination of IL-6 blockade with inhibition of other signaling pathways, may further improve IL-6-targeted immunotherapy of human diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xin Yao
- MedImmune, LLC, Gaithersburg, MD 20878, USA
| | | | | | - Nan Shen
- Joint Molecular Rheumatology Laboratory of Institute of Health Sciences and Shanghai Renji Hospital, Shanghai, China
| | | | | | - Yihong Yao
- MedImmune, LLC, Gaithersburg, MD 20878, USA.
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147
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Middleton K, Jones J, Lwin Z, Coward JIG. Interleukin-6: an angiogenic target in solid tumours. Crit Rev Oncol Hematol 2013; 89:129-39. [PMID: 24029605 DOI: 10.1016/j.critrevonc.2013.08.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 101] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/29/2013] [Revised: 07/29/2013] [Accepted: 08/13/2013] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
During the past decade, incorporating anti-angiogenic agents into the therapeutic management of a myriad of malignancies has in certain cases made a significant impact on survival. However, the development of resistance to these drugs is inevitable and swift disease progression on their cessation often ensues. Hence, there is a drive to devise strategies that aim to enhance response to anti-angiogenic therapies by combining them with other targeted agents that facilitate evasion from resistance. The pleiotropic cytokine, interleukin-6 (IL-6), exerts pro-angiogenic effects in the tumour microenvironment of several solid malignancies and there is emerging evidence that reveals significant relationships between IL-6 signalling and treatment failure with antibodies directed against vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF). This review summarises the role of IL-6 in pivotal angiogenic processes and preclinical/clinical research to support the future introduction of anti-IL-6 therapies to be utilised either in combination with other anti-angiogenic drugs or as a salvage therapy for patients with diseases that become refractory to these approaches.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kathryn Middleton
- Mater Adult Hospital, Department of Medical Oncology, Raymond Terrace, Brisbane, QLD 4101, Australia
| | - Joanna Jones
- Mater Adult Hospital, Department of Medical Oncology, Raymond Terrace, Brisbane, QLD 4101, Australia
| | - Zarnie Lwin
- Mater Adult Hospital, Department of Medical Oncology, Raymond Terrace, Brisbane, QLD 4101, Australia
| | - Jermaine I G Coward
- Mater Adult Hospital, Department of Medical Oncology, Raymond Terrace, Brisbane, QLD 4101, Australia; Inflammation & Cancer Therapeutics Group, Mater Research, Level 4, Translational Research Institute, 37 Kent Street, Woolloongabba, Brisbane, QLD 4102, Australia; School of Medicine, University of Queensland, St Lucia, Brisbane, QLD 4072, Australia.
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148
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Fang H, Declerck YA. Targeting the tumor microenvironment: from understanding pathways to effective clinical trials. Cancer Res 2013; 73:4965-77. [PMID: 23913938 DOI: 10.1158/0008-5472.can-13-0661] [Citation(s) in RCA: 199] [Impact Index Per Article: 18.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
It is clear that tumor cells do not act alone but in close interaction with the extracellular matrix and with stromal cells in the tumor microenvironment (TME). As our understanding of tumor cell-stroma interactions increased over the last two decades, significant efforts have been made to develop agents that interfere with these interactions. Here, we discuss four different therapeutic strategies that target the TME, focusing on agents that are at the most advanced stage of preclinical or clinical development. We end this review by outlining some of the lessons we have learned so far from the development of TME-targeting agents.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hua Fang
- Division of Hematology-Oncology, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, USA
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149
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Smith DA, Kiba A, Zong Y, Witte ON. Interleukin-6 and oncostatin-M synergize with the PI3K/AKT pathway to promote aggressive prostate malignancy in mouse and human tissues. Mol Cancer Res 2013; 11:1159-65. [PMID: 23867565 PMCID: PMC3800471 DOI: 10.1158/1541-7786.mcr-13-0238] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
UNLABELLED Chronic inflammation has been proposed as an etiological and progression factor in prostate cancer. In this study, we used a dissociated prostate tissue recombination system to interrogate the role of interleukin 6 (IL6) and the related cytokine oncostatin-M (OSM) in the initiation and progression of prostate cancer. We identified that prostatic intraepithelial neoplasia (PIN) lesions induced by PTEN loss of function (PTEN(LOF)) progress to invasive adenocarcinoma following paracrine expression of either cytokine. Increased expression of OSM was also able to drive progression of benign human epithelium when combined with constitutively activated AKT. Malignant progression in the mouse was associated with invasion into the surrounding mesenchyme and increased activation of STAT3 in PTEN(LOF) grafts expressing IL6 or OSM. Collectively, our work indicates that pro-inflammatory cytokines such as IL6 or OSM could activate pathways associated with prostate cancer progression and synergize with cell-autonomous oncogenic events to promote aggressive malignancy. IMPLICATIONS Increased expression of IL6 or OSM synergizes with loss of PTEN to promote invasive prostate cancer. VISUAL OVERVIEW: http://mcr.aacrjournals.org/content/early/2013/09/02/1541-7786.MCR-13-0238/F1.large.jpg.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel A Smith
- University of California, Los Angeles, Room 5748, MRL Building, 675 Charles E. Young Dr. S, Los Angeles, CA 90095.
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150
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Sluka P, Davis ID. Cell mates: paracrine and stromal targets for prostate cancer therapy. Nat Rev Urol 2013; 10:441-51. [PMID: 23857181 DOI: 10.1038/nrurol.2013.146] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
After many years of limited treatment options for patients with metastatic castration-resistant prostate cancer (mCRPC), multiple systemic therapies are now available, providing patients with significant improvements in survival, symptom control and bone health. Most of the recent advances in this area have been based on better understanding of mCRPC biology, particularly with respect to the key role of androgen receptor signalling. However, most therapies are targeted towards the malignant epithelial cell component of the cancer and it should not be forgotten that cancer cells exist in close and symbiotic relationships with other components of the tumour. Paracrine and stromal signals are often critical to the growth of the cancer and represent new potential therapeutic targets that are separate from the malignant epithelial cells. The stroma produces numerous growth factors, including vascular endothelial growth factor family members, platelet-derived growth factors and fibroblast growth factors, which are all critical for tumour growth. Targeting prostate-cancer-associated fibroblasts in order to destroy the physical and functional scaffold of a cancer is also a logical approach. The interaction between prostate cancer and the immune system remains an active topic of basic and clinical research, with cytokines, chemokines and growth factors being potential targets for therapy. The biology of epithelial-mesenchymal transition and of circulating tumour cells might also provide insight into new therapeutic targets.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pavel Sluka
- Monash University Eastern Health Clinical School, Level 2, 5 Arnold Street, Box Hill, Melbourne, VIC 3128, Australia
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