In vitro and in vivo anti-inflammatory effects of andrographolide

Protective role of andrographolide in bleomycin-induced pulmonary fibrosis in mice

Idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis (IPF) is a chronic devastating disease with poor prognosis. Multiple pathological processes, including inflammation, epithelial mesenchymal transition (EMT), apoptosis, and oxidative stress, are involved in the pathogenesis of IPF. Recent findings suggested that nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB) is constitutively activated in IPF and acts as a central regulator in the pathogenesis of IPF. The aim of our study was to reveal the value of andrographolide on bleomycin-induced inflammation and fibrosis in mice. The indicated dosages of andrographolide were administered in mice with bleomycin-induced pulmonary fibrosis. On day 21, cell counts of total cells, macrophages, neutrophils and lymphocytes, alone with TNF-α in bronchoalveolar lavage fluid (BALF) were measured. HE staining and Masson’s trichrome (MT) staining were used to observe the histological alterations of lungs. The Ashcroft score and hydroxyproline content of lungs were also measured. TGF-β1 and α-SMA mRNA and protein were analyzed. Activation of NF-κB was determined by western blotting and electrophoretic mobility shift assay (EMSA). On day 21 after bleomycin stimulation, andrographolide dose-dependently inhibited the inflammatory cells and TNF-α in BALF. Meanwhile, our data demonstrated that the Ashcroft score and hydroxyproline content of the bleomycin-stimulated lung were reduced by andrographolide administration. Furthermore, andrographloide suppressed TGF-β1 and α-SMA mRNA and protein expression in bleomycin-induced pulmonary fibrosis. Meanwhile, andrographolide significantly dose-dependently inhibited the ratio of phospho-NF-κB p65/total NF-κB p65 and NF-κB p65 DNA binding activities. Our findings indicate that andrographolide compromised bleomycin-induced pulmonary inflammation and fibrosis possibly through inactivation of NF-κB. Andrographolide holds promise as a novel drug to treat the devastating disease of pulmonary fibrosis.

Preparation of andrographolide-loaded solid lipid nanoparticles and their in vitro and in vivo evaluations: characteristics, release, absorption, transports, pharmacokinetics, and antihyperlipidemic activity

Andrographolide (AND) is one of diterpenoids separated from Andrographis paniculata with a wide spectrum of biological activities of being anti-inflammatory, anticancer, hepatoprotective, and antihyperlipidemic. But its poor water solubility and instability resulted in lower bioavailability and seriously limited its pharmacological function. In this study, AND-loaded solid lipid nanoparticles (AND-SLNs) were prepared by a high-pressure homogenization method and presented as spherically shaped under transmission electron microscopy with an average diameter of 286.1 nm and zeta potential of -20.8 mV. The average drug-entrapment efficiency and drug loading were 91.00% and 3.49%, respectively. The results indicated that the lower bioavailability of AND is not only because of the poor solubility but also owing to its metabolic instability in intestinal segments. Furthermore, the transport mechanism of AND in Caco-2 cell model is complex in which an active transport carrier (P-glycoprotein) is involved in. The bioavailability and antihyperlipidemic activity of AND were improved by AND-SLNs by increasing the solubility and stability of AND in the intestine and by changing its transport mode in Caco-2 cell. The bioavailability of AND was increased to 241% by AND-SLNs as compared with AND suspension. AND-SLNs would be a promising drug-delivery system to enhance the oral absorption and bioavailability of AND.

Andrographolide downregulates the v-Src and Bcr-Abl oncoproteins and induces Hsp90 cleavage in the ROS-dependent suppression of cancer malignancy

Andrographolide is a diterpenoid compound isolated from Andrographis paniculata that exhibits anticancer activity. We previously reported that andrographolide suppressed v-Src-mediated cellular transformation by promoting the degradation of Src. In the present study, we demonstrated the involvement of Hsp90 in the andrographolide-mediated inhibition of Src oncogenic activity. Using a proteomics approach, a cleavage fragment of Hsp90α was identified in andrographolide-treated cells. The concentration- and time-dependent induction of Hsp90 cleavage that accompanied the reduction in Src was validated in RK3E cells transformed with either v-Src or a human truncated c-Src variant and treated with andrographolide. In cancer cells, the induction of Hsp90 cleavage by andrographolide and its structural derivatives correlated well with decreased Src levels, the suppression of transformation, and the induction of apoptosis. Moreover, the andrographolide-induced Hsp90 cleavage, Src degradation, inhibition of transformation, and induction of apoptosis were abolished by a ROS inhibitor, N-acetyl-cysteine. Notably, Hsp90 cleavage, decreased levels of Bcr-Abl (another known Hsp90 client protein), and the induction of apoptosis were also observed in human K562 leukemia cells treated with andrographolide or its active derivatives. Together, we demonstrated a novel mechanism by which andrographolide suppressed cancer malignancy that involved inhibiting Hsp90 function and reducing the levels of Hsp90 client proteins. Our results broaden the molecular basis of andrographolide-mediated anticancer activity.

AP-1/IRF-3 Targeted Anti-Inflammatory Activity of Andrographolide Isolated from Andrographis paniculata

Andrographolide (AG) is an abundant component of plants of the genus Andrographis and has a number of beneficial properties including neuroprotective, anticancer, anti-inflammatory, and antidiabetic effects. Despite numerous pharmacological studies, the precise mechanism of AG is still ambiguous. Thus, in the present study, we investigated the molecular mechanisms of AG and its target proteins as they pertain to anti-inflammatory responses. AG suppressed the production of nitric oxide (NO) and prostaglandin E₂ (PGE₂), as well as the mRNA abundance of inducible NO synthase (iNOS), tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α), cyclooxygenase (COX)-2, and interferon-beta (IFN-β) in a dose-dependent manner in both lipopolysaccharide- (LPS-) activated RAW264.7 cells and peritoneal macrophages. AG also substantially ameliorated the symptoms of LPS-induced hepatitis and EtOH/HCl-induced gastritis in mice. Based on the results of luciferase reporter gene assays, kinase assays, and measurement of nuclear levels of transcription factors, the anti-inflammatory effects of AG were found to be clearly mediated by inhibition of both (1) extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK)/activator protein (AP)-1 and (2) IκB kinase ε (IKKε)/interferon regulatory factor (IRF)-3 pathways. In conclusion, we detected a novel molecular signaling pathway by which AG can suppress inflammatory responses. Thus, AG is a promising anti-inflammatory drug with two pharmacological targets.

Constitutive and tumor necrosis factor-α-induced activation of nuclear factor-κB in adenomyosis and its inhibition by andrographolide

OBJECTIVE

To investigate the action of nuclear factor (NF)-κB in adenomyosis and evaluate the potential therapeutic effect of andrographolide on tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α-induced expression of NF-κB-mediated genes cyclooxygease-2 (COX-2), vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF), and tissue factor (TF) in adenomyotic stromal cells.

DESIGN

Laboratory study using human tissues.

SETTING

Academic hospital.

PATIENT(S)

Twenty-nine patients (cases) with histologically confirmed adenomyosis and 14 (controls) without adenomyosis or endometriosis.

INTERVENTION(S)

Endometrial stromal cells derived from tissue samples harvested from both cases and controls were subjected to electrophoretic mobility shift assay, and gene and protein expression analyses.

MAIN OUTCOME MEASURE(S)

The NF-κB DNA-binding activity and protein levels of NF-κB subunits p50 and p65 and the messenger RNA (mRNA) and protein levels of NF-κB-mediated genes COX-2, VEGF, and TF in cases and controls, and their changes after stimulation with TNF-α and treatment with andrographolide.

RESULT(S)

The constitutive NF-κB DNA-binding activity and protein expression levels of p50 and p65, and mRNA and protein levels of COX-2, VEGF, and TF in cases were significantly higher than that of controls. The binding activity level correlated positively with dysmenorrhea severity in cases. The TNF-α stimulation further increased the binding activity, and the mRNA and protein levels of COX-2, VEGF, and TF, but treatment with andrographolide significantly reduced them.

CONCLUSION(S)

NF-κB may be a pivotal transcription factor involved in the development of adenomyosis. Targeting NF-κB with inhibitors, like andrographolide, may hold promises of treating adenomyosis.

Andrographolide protects against cigarette smoke-induced oxidative lung injury via augmentation of Nrf2 activity

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE

Cigarette smoke is a major cause for chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD). Andrographolide is an active biomolecule isolated from the plant Andrographis paniculata. Andrographolide has been shown to activate nuclear factor erythroid-2-related factor 2 (Nrf2), a redox-sensitive antioxidant transcription factor. As Nrf2 activity is reduced in COPD, we hypothesize that andrographolide may have therapeutic value for COPD.

EXPERIMENTAL APPROACH

Andrographolide was given i.p. to BALB/c mice daily 2h before 4% cigarette smoke exposure for 1h over five consecutive days. Bronchoalveolar lavage fluid and lungs were collected for analyses of cytokines, oxidative damage markers and antioxidant activities. BEAS-2B bronchial epithelial cells were exposed to cigarette smoke extract (CSE) and used to study the antioxidant mechanism of action of andrographolide.

KEY RESULTS

Andrographolide suppressed cigarette smoke-induced increases in lavage fluid cell counts; levels of IL-1β, MCP-1, IP-10 and KC; and levels of oxidative biomarkers 8-isoprostane, 8-OHdG and 3-nitrotyrosine in a dose-dependent manner. Andrographolide promoted inductions of glutathione peroxidase (GPx) and glutathione reductase (GR) activities in lungs from cigarette smoke-exposed mice. In BEAS-2B cells, andrographolide markedly increased nuclear Nrf2 accumulation, promoted binding to antioxidant response element (ARE) and total cellular glutathione level in response to CSE. Andrographolide up-regulated ARE-regulated gene targets including glutamate-cysteine ligase catalytic (GCLC) subunit, GCL modifier (GCLM) subunit, GPx, GR and heme oxygenase-1 in BEAS-2B cells in response to CSE.

CONCLUSIONS

Andrographolide possesses antioxidative properties against cigarette smoke-induced lung injury probably via augmentation of Nrf2 activity and may have therapeutic potential for treating COPD.

In vitro and in vivo anti-inflammatory effect of Rhodomyrtus tomentosa methanol extract

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Rhodomyrtus tomentosa (Aiton) Hassk. is a representative Thai medicinal plant traditionally used in South Asian countries to relieve various inflammatory symptoms. However, no systematic studies on its anti-inflammatory activity and mechanisms have been reported.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The effect of the methanol extract from the leaves of this plant (Rt-ME) on the production of inflammatory mediators [nitric oxide (NO) and prostaglandin E2 (PGE2)] and the molecular mechanism of Rt-ME-mediated inhibition, including target enzymes, were studied with RAW264.7, peritoneal macrophage, and HEK293 cells. Additionally, the in vivo anti-inflammatory activity of this extract was evaluated with mouse gastritis and colitis models.

RESULTS

Rt-ME clearly inhibited the production of NO and PGE2 in lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-activated RAW264.7 cells and peritoneal macrophages in a dose-dependent manner. According to RT-PCR, immunoblotting and immunoprecipitation analyses and a kinase assay with mRNA, whole cell extract, and nucleus lysates from RAW264.7 cells and mice, it was revealed that Rt-ME was capable of suppressing the activation of both nuclear factor (NF)-κB and activator protein (AP)-1 pathways by directly targeting Syk/Src and IRAK1/IRAK4.

CONCLUSION

Rt-ME could have anti-inflammatory properties by suppressing Syk/Src/NF-kB and IRAK1/IRAK4/AP-1 pathways and will be further developed as a herbal remedy for preventive and/or curative purposes in various inflammatory diseases.

Naturally derived anti-inflammatory compounds from Chinese medicinal plants

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Though inflammatory response is beneficial to body damage repair, if it is out of control, it can produce adverse effects on the body. Although purely western anti-inflammatory drugs, orthodox medicines, can control inflammation occurrence and development, it is not enough. The clinical efficacy of anti-inflammation therapies is unsatisfactory, thus the search for new anti-inflammation continues. Chinese Material Medica (CMM) remains a promising source of new therapeutic agents. CMM and herbal formulae from Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM), unorthodox medicines, play an improtant anti-inflammatory role in multi-targets, multi-levels, and multi-ways in treating inflammation diseases in a long history in China, based on their multi-active ingredient characteristics. Due to these reasons, recently, CMM has been commercialized as an anti-inflammation agent which has become increasingly popular in the world health drug markets. Major research contributions in ethnopharmacology have generated vast amount of data associated with CMM in anti-inflammtion aspect. Therefore, a systematic introduction of CMM anti-inflammatory research progress is of great importance and necessity.

AIM OF THE STUDY

This paper strives to describe the progress of CMM in the treatment of inflammatory diseases from different aspects, and provide the essential theoretical support and scientific evidence for the further development and utilization of CMM resources as a potential anti-inflammation drug through a variety of databases.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

Literature survey was performed via electronic search (SciFinder®, Pubmed®, Google Scholar and Web of Science) on papers and patents and by systematic research in ethnopharmacological literature at various university libraries.

RESULTS

This review mainly introduced the current research on the anti-inflammatory active ingredient, anti-inflammatory effects of CMM, their mechanism, anti-inflammatory drug development of CMM, and toxicological information.

CONCLUSION

CMM is used clinically to treat inflammation symptoms in TCM, and its effect is mediated by multiple targets through multiple active ingredients. Although scholars around the world have made studies on the anti-inflammatory studies of CMM from different pathways and aspects and have made substantial progress, further studies are warranted to delineate the inflammation actions in more cogency models, establish the toxicological profiles and quality standards, assess the potentials of CMM in clinical applications, and make more convenient preparations easy to administrate for patients. Development of the clinically anti-inflammatory drugs are also warranted.

Andrographolide protects against LPS-induced acute lung injury by inactivation of NF-κB

BACKGROUND

Nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB) is a central transcriptional factor and a pleiotropic regulator of many genes involved in acute lung injury. Andrographolide is found in the plant of Andrographis paniculata and widely used in Traditional Chinese Medicine, exhibiting potently anti-inflammatory property by inhibiting NF-κB activity. The purpose of our investigation was designed to reveal the effect of andrographolide on various aspects of LPS induced inflammation in vivo and in vitro.

METHODS AND RESULTS

In vivo, BALB/C mice were subjected to LPS injection with or without andrographolide treatments to induce ALI model. In vitro, MLE-12 cells were stimulated with LPS in the presence and absence of andrographolide. In vivo, pulmonary inflammation, pulmonary edema, ultrastructure changes of type II alveolar epithelial cells, MPO activity, total cells, neutrophils, macrophages, TNF-α, IL-6 and IL-1β in BALF, along with the expression of VCAM-1 and VEGF were dose-dependently attenuated by andrographolide. Meanwhile, in vitro, the expression of VCAM-1 and VEGF was also reduced by andrographolide. Moreover, our data showed that andrographolide significantly inhibited the ratios of phospho-IKKβ/total IKKβ, phospho-IκBα/total IκBα and phospho-NF-κB p65/total NF-κB p65, and NF-κB p65 DNA binding activities, both in vivo and in vitro.

CONCLUSIONS

These results indicate that andrographolide dose-dependently suppressed the severity of LPS-induced ALI, more likely by virtue of andrographolide-mediated NF-κB inhibition at the level of IKKβ activation. These results suggest andrographolide may be considered as an effective and safe drug for the potential treatment of ALI.

Methanol extract of Hopea odorata suppresses inflammatory responses via the direct inhibition of multiple kinases

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Hopea odorata Roxb. (Dipterocarpaceae) is a representative Thai ethnopharmacological herbal plant used in the treatment of various inflammation-related diseases. In spite of its traditional use, systematic studies of its anti-inflammatory action have not been performed.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The inhibitory activities of a Hopea odorata methanol extract (Ho-ME) on the production of nitric oxide (NO), tumour necrosis factor (TNF)-α, and prostaglandin E(2) (PGE(2)) in RAW264.7 cells and peritoneal macrophages were investigated. The effects of Ho-ME on the gastritis symptoms induced by HCl/EtOH and on ear oedemas induced by arachidonic acid were also examined. Furthermore, to identify the immunopharmacological targets of this extract, nuclear fractionation, a reporter gene assay, immunoprecipitation, immunoblot analysis, and a kinase assay were employed.

RESULTS

Ho-ME strongly inhibited the release of NO, PGE(2), and TNF-α in RAW264.7 cells and peritoneal macrophages stimulated by lipopolysaccharide (LPS). Ho-ME also clearly suppressed the gene expression of pro-inflammatory cytokines and chemokines, such as interferon (IFN)-β, interleukin (IL)-12, and monocyte chemotactic protein-1 (MCP-1). By analysing the inhibited target molecules, Syk and Src were found to be suppressed in the inhibition of nuclear factor (NF)-κB pathway. In addition, the observed downregulation of activator protein (AP)-1 and cAMP response element-binding (CREB) was due to the direct inhibition of interleukin-1 receptor-associated kinase (IRAK)1 and IRAK4, which was also linked to the suppression of c-Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK) and p38. In agreement with the in vitro observations, this extract also ameliorated the inflammatory symptoms in EtOH/HCl-induced gastritis and arachidonic acid-induced ear oedemas in mice.

CONCLUSION

Ho-ME has potential as a functional herbal remedy targeting Syk- and Src-mediated anti-inflammatory mechanisms. Future pre-clinical studies will be needed to investigate this possibility.

Changes in the contents of four active diterpenoids at different growth stages in Andrographis paniculata (Burm.f.) Nees (Chuanxinlian)

Background

The therapeutic activities of Andrographis paniculata are attributed to four major active diterpenoids: andrographolide (AP₁), 14-deoxy-11,12-didehydroandrographolide (AP₃), neoandrographolide (AP₄), and 14-deoxyandrographolide (AP₆). This study aims to quantify the four active diterpenoids in various plant organs of A. paniculata at different growth stages in greenhouse and field experiments, with a developed HPLC-diode array detector (HPLC-DAD) method for simultaneous determination of these diterpenoids.

Methods

Plants were grown in greenhouse and in field conditions, harvested at different growth stages, and separated into different organs for determination of the four active diterpenoids by an HPLC-DAD method.

Results

The most abundant diterpenoid was AP₆ between seedling and vegetative stages in the greenhouse experiment (13.38 to 23.71 mg/g in 2006 and 10.67 to 24.54 mg/g in 2007). High levels of AP₆ were also detected in leaves at the transfer stage in the greenhouse experiment (36.05 ± 0.69 mg/g) and field experiment (30.59 ± 1.39 mg/g). The levels of AP₆ then decreased as plants matured. The highest content of AP₄ was in cotyledons (16.65 ± 4.48 mg/g) at the transfer stage. The highest contents of AP₁ were detected in leaves at seed-forming stage in greenhouse experiment (24.72 ± 1.89 mg/g) and vegetative stage in field experiment (43.16 ± 0.92 mg/g). Flowers of A. paniculata contained high levels of AP₁ (21.42 ± 3.74 mg/g). AP₃ and AP₄ were at low levels in leaves at all growth stages.

Conclusion

In A. paniculata, AP₆ was at the highest level in leaves at transfer stage in both greenhouse and field experiments. AP₁ was at the highest level in leaves at vegetative stage and seed-forming stage in field and greenhouse experiments, respectively. The contents of AP₃ and AP₄ in leaves were low at all growth stages.

CHP1002, a novel andrographolide derivative, inhibits pro-inflammatory inducible nitric oxide synthase and cyclooxygenase-2 expressions in RAW264.7 macrophages via up-regulation of heme oxygenase-1 expression

Andrographolides, a type of diterpene lactone, are widely known to have anti-inflammatory and anti-oxidative properties. CHP1002, a synthetic derivative of andrographolide, has similar anti-inflammatory action in mouse ear swelling test and rat paw edema test. In the present study, the mechanism of anti-inflammatory effects of CHP1002 was investigated in RAW264.7 macrophages. CHP1002 potently suppressed inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) and cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) expressions in lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-stimulated RAW264.7 macrophages. CHP1002 reduced the production of iNOS-derived nitric oxide (NO) and COX-2-derived prostaglandin E2 (PGE2). CHP1002 induced heme oxygenase-1 (HO-1) expression via activation of extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK) and NF-E2 related factor 2 transcription factor (Nrf2). Down-regulation of LPS-induced iNOS and COX-2 expressions was partially reversed by the HO-1 inhibitor zinc protoporphyrin (ZnPP). In addition, CHP1002 significantly attenuated LPS-induced TNF-α, IL-1β and IL-6 production. CHP1002 effectively induced HO-1 and was capable of inhibiting some macrophage-derived pro-inflammatory mediators, which may be closely correlated with its anti-inflammatory action.

Andrographolide and its analogues: versatile bioactive molecules for combating inflammation and cancer

1. Andrographis paniculata (Burm. f) Nees, commonly known as 'king of bitters', is a herbaceous plant belonging to the Family Acanthaceae. It has been widely used for centuries in Asian countries like China, India, Thailand and Malaysia for the treatment of sore throat, flu and upper respiratory tract infections. 2. Andrographolide, 14-deoxy-11,12-didehydroandrographolide and neoandrographolide are examples of the major labdane diterpenoids isolated from A. paniculata. These bioactive molecules have exhibited varying degrees of anti-inflammatory and anticancer activities in both in vitro and in vivo experimental models of inflammation and cancer. 3. Extensive libraries of andrographolide analogues have been synthesised mainly by modifying the α,β-unsaturated γ-butyrolactone moiety, the two double bonds Δ(8,(17)) and Δ(12,(13)) and the three hydroxyls at C-3 (secondary), C-14 (allylic) and C-19 (primary). Many of these synthetic analogues exhibit superior anticancer activity over the naturally occurring andrographolides. 4. Andrographolide and its derivatives have been shown to have anti-inflammatory effects in experimental models of asthma, stroke and arthritis, as well as in patients with upper respiratory tract infections. Andrographolide reduces the production of cytokines, chemokines, adhesion molecules, nitric oxide and lipid mediators, probably via inhibition of the nuclear factor (NF)-κB signalling pathway. 5. The anticancer mechanisms for andrographolide include inhibition of Janus tyrosine kinases-signal transducers and activators of transcription, phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase and NF-κB signalling pathways, suppression of heat shock protein 90, cyclins and cyclin-dependent kinases, metalloproteinases and growth factors, and the induction of tumour suppressor proteins p53 and p21, leading to inhibition of cancer cell proliferation, survival, metastasis and angiogenesis. 6. Andrographolide drug discovery is a promising strategy for the development of a novel class of anti-inflammatory and anticancer drugs.

Src and Syk are targeted to an anti-inflammatory ethanol extract of Aralia continentalis

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Aralia continentalis Kitagawa (Araliaceae) is a representative ethnomedicinal herbal plant traditionally prescribed in Korea to relieve various inflammatory symptoms. However, the exact molecular mechanism of its anti-inflammatory activity has not been fully investigated.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The effect of the ethanol extract from the roots of this plant (Ac-EE) on the production of the inflammatory mediator nitric oxide (NO) was studied in RAW264.7 cells. Its effect on inflammatory symptoms (gastritis and hepatitis) in mice was also examined. In particular, the molecular inhibitory mechanism was analysed by measuring the activation of transcription factors and their upstream signalling and the kinase activity of target enzymes.

RESULTS

Ac-EE dose-dependently suppressed NO production in lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-activated RAW264.7 cells. This extract also displayed curative activity against EtOH/HCl-induced gastritis and LPS-induced hepatitis in mice. Ac-EE-mediated anti-inflammatory activity was found to be at the transcriptional level, as it blocked the activation of the nuclear factor (NF)-κB pathway composed of Syk and Src, according to immunoblotting and immunoprecipitation analyses and a kinase assay with whole and nucleus lysates from RAW264.7 cells and mice.

CONCLUSION

Ac-EE may be developed as a functional herbal remedy targeting Syk- and Src-mediated anti-inflammatory mechanisms. Future work using pre-clinical studies will be needed to investigate this possibility.

Inhibitory effect of andrographolide in 3T3-L1 adipocytes differentiation through the PPARγ pathway

Andrographolide (AG), an active compound found in Andrographis paniculate Nees, has been shown to exert anti-inflammatory, anticancer and anti-hyperglycemic effects. However, its biological activities against obesity have not been reported. The purpose of this study was to investigate the effect of AG on the differentiation of 3T3-L1 preadipocytes. We found AG significantly inhibited not only on adipocyte differentiation induced by standard adipogenic agents and MDI, but also on the adipogenesis-related transcription factor, peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor γ (PPARγ), as well as the expressions of the PPARγ targeted genes, such as CD36, LPL, FAS and other adiocyte markers. Taken together, our data showed AG inhibited the early stage of adipogenic differentiation, in part via the inhibition of PPARγ-dependent mechanisms.

Hypolipidemic effects of andrographolide and neoandrographolide in mice and rats

Andrographolide (AND) and neoandrographolide (NEO) are the diterpenoids from the Andrographis paniculata (Acanthaceae). It is reported the diterpenoids exhibit a wide spectrum of biological activities. The aim of this study was to investigate the hypolipidemic effect of AND and NEO in hyperlipidemic mice induced by 75% yolk emulsion and in hyperlipidemic rats induced by high fat emulsion, respectively. The results showed that the levels of triglyceride, total cholesterol (TC) and low-density lipoprotein cholesterol were reduced by AND and NEO in a dose-dependent tendency in mice. Compared with the model group, the plasma TC levels of experimental groups with AND and NEO at 100 mg/kg dosage decreased by 23.9 and 20.2% in rats, respectively (P < 0.05). It was also found that the plasma aspartate transaminase and alanine transaminase levels were significantly decreased by feeding with AND and NEO in rats, compared with positive group (simvastatin) (P < 0.01). Otherwise, AND and NEO could protect the cardiovascular due to down-regulation of iNOS expression and up-regulation of eNOS expression. In conclusion, AND and NEO have potent hypolipidemic effects and protect the cardiovascular without significant liver damage.

Andrographolide inhibits the expression and metabolic activity of cytochrome P450 3A4 in the modified Caco-2 cells

AIM OF THE STUDY

The aim of this study is to examine the effects of andrographolide on intestinal enzyme cytochrome P450 3A4 (CYP3A4) and predict whether oral administration of andrographolide-containing remedy leads to herb-drug interaction.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Caco-2 cells are treated with 1α, 25-dihydroxyvitamin D3 for 3 wks to induce the expression of CYP3A4, and then andrographolide (1, 10, 100 μM) is added and treated for 72 h. Upon the further 4-h testosterone (250 μM) or nifedipine (200 μM) treatment, the basolateral medium samples and the Caco-2 monolayers are collected for analyses.

RESULTS

Andrographolide (1, 10, 100 μM) significantly down-regulates the mRNA level and protein level of CYP3A4, and inhibits nifedipine oxidation and testosterone 6β-hydroxylation.

CONCLUSION

Oral administration of andrographolide likely leads to reduction of the metabolic activity of intestinal CYP3A4, therefore herb preparations containing andrographolide may result to herb-drug interactions in combination therapy.

Andrographolide exerted its antimicrobial effects by upregulation of human β-defensin-2 induced through p38 MAPK and NF-κB pathway in human lung epithelial cells

Andrographis paniculata (Burm. f) Nees is a traditional herbal medicine for the treatment of infection and inflammation in China. Andrographolide (andro) is one of the major components. Human β-defensin-2 (hBD-2) is an inducible antimicrobial peptide that plays an important role in innate immunity. The present study aimed to investigate the effect of andro on upregulation of hBD-2 and the key signaling pathways involved in andro-induced hBD-2 expression. Real-time reverse transcription – PCR and Western blot assays showed that andro (1.0–10 µmol/L) can upregulate the expression of hBD-2 in a dose-dependent manner. Further studies suggested that hBD-2 mRNA and protein expression in responsive to andro were attenuated by pretreatment with SB203580 (an inhibitor of p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase (p38 MAPK)), MG-132 (an inhibitor of nuclear factor κB (NF-κB)), and an NF-κB activator inhibitor, but not by an inhibitor of ERK (PD98059) or by an inhibitor of JNK(SP600125). Moreover, we found that a second p38 MAPK inhibitor (SB202190) significantly blocked andro-mediated hBD-2 induction in SPC-A-1 lung epithelial cells. Finally, the p-c-Jun transcription factor activity assay also showed that AP-1 activity was induced by andro compared with the untreated group. We conclude that andro may exert its antimicrobial effects by upregulating the expression of hBD-2 through the p38 MAPK and NF-κB pathway.

Therapeutic potential of andrographolide for treating endometriosis

BACKGROUND

Mounting evidence shows that nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB) plays an important role in endometriosis. We therefore evaluated the therapeutic potential of andrographolide, an NF-κB inhibitor.

METHODS

Primary cell cultures were performed using ectopic endometrial tissue specimens and their homologous eutopic endometrial specimens from 16 women with endometriosis, as well as control samples from 4 women without endometriosis. Andrographolide was evaluated for an effect on cell proliferation and cell cycle, DNA-binding activity of NF-κB and expression of cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) and tissue factor (TF). In a rat model of endometriosis, andrographolide treatment was evaluated for an effect on lesion size, hotplate response latency and expression of phosphorylated p50 and p65, COX-2 and nerve growth factor (NGF) in ectopic endometrium.

RESULTS

Andrographolide dose dependently suppressed proliferation and cell cycle progression, attenuated DNA-binding activity of NF-κB in endometriotic stromal cells and inhibited COX-2 and TF expression. In the rat experiment, induced endometriosis resulted in reduced response latency. Andrographolide treatment significantly reduced lesion size in a dose-dependent manner and significantly increased response latency. Andrographolide treatment also significantly reduced immunoreactivity of COX-2, phosphorylated p50 and p65, and NGF in ectopic endometrium.

CONCLUSIONS

Treatment with andrographolide significantly suppresses the growth of ectopic endometrium in vitro and in vivo, and results in a significant improvement in generalized hyperalgesia in rats with induced endometriosis. Therefore, andrographolide may be cytoreductive and may relieve pain symptoms in women with endometriosis. With excellent safety and cost profiles, andrographolide could be a promising therapeutic agent for endometriosis.

Suppression of matrix metalloproteinase-9 expression by andrographolide in human monocytic THP-1 cells via inhibition of NF-κB activation

There is much evidence indicating that human leukemic cells and monocytes/macrophages synthesize, and secrete, several matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs), and participate in the degradation of extracellular matrix components in tissue lesions. In this study, we investigated the effects and mechanisms of andrographolide, extracted from the herb Andrographis paniculata, on human monocytic MMPs expression and activation. Andrographolide (1-50 μM) exhibited concentration-dependent inhibition of MMP-9 activation, induced by either tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), or lipopolysaccharide (LPS), in THP-1cells. In addition, andrographolide did not present an inhibitory effect on MMP-9 enzymatic activity at a concentration of 50 μM. By contrast, enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) showed that andrographolide partially affect TIMP-1 levels. Western blot analysis showed that both TNF-α, and LPS stimulators attenuated MMP-9 protein expression in a concentration-dependent manner. Using reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR), we found that andrographolide suppressed expression of MMP-9 messenger RNA. Furthermore, we also found that andrographolide could significantly inhibit the degradation of inhibitor-κB-α (IκB-α) induced by TNF-α. We used electrophoretic mobility shift assay and reporter gene detection to show that andrographolide also markedly inhibited NF-κB signaling, anti-translocation and anti-activation. In conclusion, we demonstrate that andrographolide attenuates MMP-9 expression, and its main mechanism might involve the NF-κB signal pathway. These results provide new opportunities for the development of new anti-inflammatory and leukemic therapies.

Nain-e Havandi Andrographis paniculata present yesterday, absent today: a plenary review on underutilized herb of Iran's pharmaceutical plants

Nain-e Havandi (Andrographis paniculata Nees.) (AP) is an annual herbaceous plant belonging to the family Acanthacea. Only a few species of Andrographis genus out of 28 are medicinally concerned of which AP is the most important. Knowledge about the arrival of AP to Iran is extremely lacking but most probably it has been imported from India. However, evidence implies the familiarity of Iran's folkloric medicine with this plant, but it has been disappeared from contemporary medicine for unknown reasons. Presence of active ingredients from diterpenoids group such as andrographolide, neoandrographolide and 14-deoxy-11,12-didehydroandrographolide has given incredible unique medicinal properties to the plant. Traditionally, Nain-e Havandi has been used in the role of a non-farm plant as a remedy for skin problems, flu, respiratory disease, and snakebite in East and Southeast Asia for centuries. Recently, it has been utilized as a treatment for HIV, hepatitis, diabetes, cancer and kidney disorders. Intensive cultivation of the herb started only in the past decade in countries such as China, India, Thailand, Indonesia, West Indies, Mauritius and to some extent, in Malaysia. Availability of different ecological zones in Iran complies with reestablishment of AP in tropical and temperate regions of the country. This is killing two birds with one stone, supporting the conservational and economic aspects.

Effects and mechanisms of actions of Chinese herbal medicines for asthma

Asthma is a chronic inflammatory disorder of airways that affects approximately 300 million adults and children worldwide. Most therapy currently uses bronchodilators and corticosteroids. Systemic side effects from chronic use of these drugs are concern. Chinese medicine (CM) has a long history of human use in China and other Asian countries and well received by the patients. But as one component of Western integrative medicine (WIM), it is required that CM use is supported by scientific evidence. On the other hand, there are also suggestions that Western standardized medicine should consider personalized practice. In recent years there have been an increasing studies to narrow the gap between CM, the personalized medicine and Western medicine, evidence based medicine. This communication reviews several CM studies published in the English language in details by reviewing the effects and mechanisms of actions on asthma from clinic and experimental studies.Chinese herbal medicines exhibit broad actions on multiple asthma pathologic mechanisms. These mechanisms may involve antiinflammatory and immunomodulatory effects, inhibiting airway remodeling and normalization of hypothalamus, pituitary and adrenal (HPA)-axis disturbances. However, the mechanisms of actions of Chinese herbal medicines for asthma are not fully understood. More controlled clinical studies are warranted and some anti-asthma CM may be proved to be effective when used as monotherapy or complementary asthma therapies.

Andrographolide acts as an anti-inflammatory agent in LPS-stimulated RAW264.7 macrophages by inhibiting STAT3-mediated suppression of the NF-κB pathway

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL SIGNIFICANCE

Inflammation is involved in numerous diseases, such as chronic inflammatory disease and cancer. Many plant products exhibit useful biological activities, including antifungal, antibacterial, and anti-inflammatory actions.

AIM OF STUDY

However, our understanding of the anti-inflammatory effects of andrographolide is limited.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

We use lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-stimulated macrophages as a model of inflammation to investigate the anti-inflammatory effects of andrographolide, which contains polyphenolic structures.

RESULTS

We found that andrographolide exhibited a potent anti-inflammatory effect. In this study, we investigated the inhibitory effects of andrographolide on the induction of nitric oxide synthase (NOS) and cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) as well as their respective downstream products, NO and PGE2, in RAW264.7 cells treated with LPS. Treatment with andrographolide also reduced nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB) and activation protein-1 (AP-1) DNA-binding activity. Western blot analysis showed that andrographolide significantly inhibited the phosphorylation of signal transducer and activator of transcription-3 (STAT3) and the protein expression of CCAAT/enhancer-binding protein δ (C/EBPδ). We also found that andrographolide suppressed LPS-induced suppressor of cytokine signalling 1 and 3 (SOCS1 and 3) mRNA expression, which, in turn, inhibited apoptosis signalling and mitochondria membrane potential activation. Our results demonstrate that andrographolide downregulates inflammatory iNOS and COX-2 gene expression by inhibiting the activation of NF-κB and STAT3 by interfering with the expression of SOCS1 and SOCS3 signalling.

CONCLUSION

Therefore, andrographolide exerts a potent anti-inflammatory effect and could potentially be developed as a useful agent for the chemoprevention of cancer or inflammatory diseases.

Andrographolide inhibits ICAM-1 expression and NF-κB activation in TNF-α-treated EA.hy926 cells

Several lines of evidence indicate that inflammation and endothelial cell dysfunction are important initiating events in atherosclerosis. Tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), a pro-inflammatory cytokine, induces the expression of cell adhesion molecules and results in monocyte adherence and atheromatous plaque formation. Andrographolide (AP) is a major bioactive diterpene lactone in Andrographis paniculata that has anti-inflammatory activity. A previous study demonstrated the role of heme oxygenase 1 (HO-1) in the inhibition of TNF-α-induced ICAM-1 expression by AP. The present study investigated the effect of AP on the IKK/NF-κB signaling pathway, which mediates TNF-α-induced ICAM-1 expression in EA.hy926 cells. Similar to the previous study, AP inhibited TNF-α-induced ICAM-1 mRNA and protein levels, its expression on the cell surface, and subsequent adhesion of HL-60 cells to EA.hy926 cells. AP inhibited TNF-α-induced κB inhibitor (IκB) kinase (IKK) and IκBα activation, p65 nuclear translocation, NF-κB and DNA binding activity, and promoter activity of ICAM-1. Although AP increased the intracellular cAMP concentration and induced the phosphorylation of cAMP response element-binding protein (CREB), knocking down CREB protein expression by transfecting the cells with CREB-specific small interfering RNA did not relieve the inhibition of ICAM-1 expression by AP. Taken together, these results suggest that AP down-regulates TNF-α-induced ICAM-1 expression at least in part via attenuation of activation of NF-κB in EA.hy926 cells rather than through activation of CREB. The results suggest that AP may have potential as a cardiovascular-protective agent.

Andrographolide attenuates tumor necrosis factor-alpha-induced insulin resistance in 3T3-L1 adipocytes

Andrographolide (AG), the primary bioactive component of Andrographils paniculate Nees, has showed an anti-diabetic effect. However, the molecular mechanism has not been clarified. In this study, we demonstrated that AG increased glucose uptake in 3T3-L1 cells in a time- and dosedependent manner. The activation of insulin signaling by AG was initiated from phosphotyrosine of IRS-1 and further passed on through phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase (PI3K) and the downstream signaling cascades. Moreover importantly, pretreatment cells with AG suppressed the TNF-α induced activation of NF-κB signaling pathway and its downstream inflammatory factors expression, therefore ameliorating insulin resistance. In conclusion, AG can improve insulin sensitivity through inhibition of NF-κB pathway. These findings are helpful in understanding the anti-diabetic properties of AG and can be of interest for the therapeutic application of AG in glucose controlling.

Neuroprotective effects of andrographolide in a rat model of permanent cerebral ischaemia

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE

Andrographolide is a diterpenoid lactone isolated from a traditional medicinal herb, Andrographis paniculata. It possesses potent anti-inflammatory activity. The present study examined potential therapeutic effects of andrographolide on cerebral ischaemia using a rat model with permanent middle cerebral artery occlusion (pMCAO).

EXPERIMENTAL APPROACH

The MCA in rats was permanently occluded (by cautery), and 24 h later neurological effects were assessed with behavioural scores. Infarct volume and microglial activation were determined histologically. The p65 form of the transcription factor, nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB), was measured by Western blot, and cytokines by immunoassay of brain extracts.

KEY RESULTS

Andrographolide, given i.p. 1 h after pMCAO, reduced infarct volume with a maximum reduction of approximately 50% obtained at 0.1 mg·kg(-1). Neurological deficits were also reduced by andrographolide, reflecting a correlation between infarct volume and neurological deficits. pMCAO was found to induce activation of microglia and elevate tumour necrosis factor (TNF)-α, interleukin (IL)-1β and prostaglandin (PG)E(2) in the ischaemic brain areas. Andrographolide (0.1 mg·kg(-1)) significantly attenuated or abolished these effects. In addition, andrographolide suppressed the translocation of p65 from cytosol to nucleus, indicating reduced NF-κB activation.

CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS

Andrographolide exhibited neuroprotective effects, with accompanying suppression of NF-κB and microglial activation, and reduction in the production of cytokines including TNF-α and IL-1β, and pro-inflammatory factors such as PGE(2). Our findings suggest that andrographolide may have therapeutic value in the treatment of stroke.

A novel microwave-assisted extraction for the isolation of andrographolide from Andrographis paniculata and its in vitro antioxidant activity

Andrographis paniculata has a long history of use in traditional medicine and andrographolide is one of its potent compounds. In this study, a rapid isolation of andrographolide (colourless, bitter and crystalline diterpene lactone) was carried out by a newly developed microwave-assisted extraction. The extraction intensity, time and amount of solvent were optimised prior to this. The conventional heating method provided a 0.4452% yield of andrographolide and microwave heating at 210 W for 40 min provided a 0.589% yield. Compared to conventional extraction procedures, the results suggested that the proposed method was an effective alternative for the extraction of andrographolide. The isolated compounds were found to be the same by UV, HPTLC and 1H-NMR studies. The isolated andrographolide was tested for in vitro antioxidant activity, and showed a potent free radical scavenging activity.

Andrographolide-induced pi class of glutathione S-transferase gene expression via PI3K/Akt pathway in rat primary hepatocytes

Andrographis paniculata is an herb widely used in China, Korea, and India for its anti-hepatotoxic, anti-viral, and anti-inflammatory effects. Andrographolide is the major bioactive diterpene lactone in A. paniculata. The pi class of glutathione S-transferase (GSTP) is one of the phase II biotransformation enzymes. Our previous study indicated that andrographolide upregulates the expression of GSTP. The aim of this study was to investigate the mechanism by which andrographolide induces GSTP gene expression in rat primary hepatocytes. In hepatocytes treated with 40 μM andrographolide, immunoblots showed maximal Akt phosphorylation at 0.5 h and maximal c-jun phosphorylation at 3 h. However, pretreatment with PI3K inhibitors, wortmannin and LY294002, or siPI3K inhibited the andrographolide-induced phosphorylation of c-jun and GSTP protein expression. EMSA showed that pretreatment with wortmannin, LY294002, or siPI3K attenuated the AP-1-DNA-binding activity caused by andrographolide. Results of immunoprecipitation indicated that nuclear c-fos/c-jun heterodimer increases with andrographolide treatment. Addition of antibodies against c-jun and c-fos decreased nuclear protein bound to the AP-1 consensus DNA sequence. In summary, andrographolide induces GSTP gene expression in rat primary hepatocytes through activation of the PI3K/Akt, phosphorylation of c-jun, nuclear accumulation of AP-1, and subsequent binding to the response element in the gene promoter region.

Modulation of the cannabinoid receptors by andrographolide attenuates hepatic apoptosis following bile duct ligation in rats with fibrosis

Bile acid-induced apoptosis plays an important role in the pathogenesis of cholestatic liver disease, and its prevention is of therapeutic interest. The aim of this study was to test whether the andrographolide limits the evolution of apoptosis in a murine model of bile duct ligation (BDL)-induced hepatic fibrosis. Male Sprague-Dawley rats were divided into four groups and hepatic apoptosis was induced by BDL for 2 weeks. The BDL animals were also treated with andrographolide (50, 100, and 200 mg/kg, i.p.) during the same time period. BDL-induced liver injury was associated with apoptosis and fibrosis, and the latter was significantly reduced in animals receiving andrographolide. The increase in serum alanine aminotransferase, asparate aminotransferase, tumor necrosis factor-alpha and IL-1beta levels caused by BDL were also significantly reduced by treatment with andrographolide. Andrographolide decreased the intrahepatic protein levels of cannabinoid receptor 1 (CB1), Bax, and cytochrome c, along with of alpha-smooth muscle actin (alpha-SMA) and transforming growth factor-beta (TGF-beta), two markers of fibrogenesis. This effect was mediated by the inactivation of the c-Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK) and extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK1/2) phosphorylation cascade, but it did not affect the p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase pathway. Additionally, andrographolide reduced the generation of hepatic lipid peroxidation and enhance senescence marker protein-30 levels to resist the hepatic oxidative stress in the presence of BDL. In conclusion, this study has identified AP as a potent protector against cholestasis-induced apoptosis in vivo. Its anti-apoptotic action largely relies on the inhibition of the oxidative stress pathway.

Combination therapy with andrographolide and d-penicillamine enhanced therapeutic advantage over monotherapy with d-penicillamine in attenuating fibrogenic response and cell death in the periportal zone of liver in rats during copper toxicosis

Long treatment regime with d-penicillamine is needed before it can exert clinically meaningful benefits in the treatment of copper toxicosis. The consequence of long-term d-penicillamine treatment is associated with numerous side effects. The limitations of d-penicillamine monotherapy prompted us to search for more effective treatment strategies that could decrease the duration of d-penicillamine therapy. The present study was designed to evaluate the therapeutic potential of d-penicillamine in combination with another hepatoprotective drug, andrographolide in treatment of copper toxicosis in rats. d-penicillamine treatment led to the excretion of copper through urine. Addition of andrographolide to d-penicillamine regime appeared to increase protection of liver by increasing the biliary excretion of copper and reduction in cholestatic injury. The early removal of the causative agent copper during combination treatment was the most effective therapeutic intervention that contributed to the early rectification of fibrosis in liver. Combination treatment reduced Kupffer cells accumulation and TNFα production in liver of copper exposed rats. In particular, andrographolide mediated the anti-inflammatory effect by inhibiting the cytokine production. However, another possible mechanism of cytoprotection of andrographolide was decreasing mitochondrial production of superoxide anions that resulted in better restoration of mitochondrial dysfunction during combination therapy than monotherapy. Furthermore, ROS inhibition by combination regimen resulted in significant decline in activation of caspase cascade. Inhibition of caspases attenuated apoptosis of hepatocytes, induced by chronic copper exposure. In summary, this study suggested that added benefit of combination treatment over use of either agent alone in alleviating the hepatotoxicity and fibrosis associated with copper toxicosis.

Effect of an extract of Andrographis paniculata leaves on inflammatory and allergic mediators in vitro

AIM OF STUDY

Andrographis paniculata has been known to possess widespread traditional application in the treatment of allergy and inflammatory diseases. In the current study, we sought to examine the effects of an extract of Andrographis paniculata leaves on inhibition of lipopolysaccharide (LPS) induced [nitric oxide (NO), prostaglandin E(2) (PGE(2)), interleukin-1beta (IL-1 beta), and interleukin-6 (IL-6)] and calcimycin (A23187) induced [leukotriene B(4) (LTB(4)), thromboxane B(2) (TXB(2)) and histamine] mediators in diverse cell based models.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Effect of an extract of Andrographis paniculata leaves (AP) was studied on inhibition of LPS induced NO, PGE(2), IL-1 beta and IL-6 in J774A.1 murine macrophages; A23187 induced LTB(4) and TXB(2) in HL-60 promyelocytic leukemic cells and histamine in RBL-2H3 rat basophilic leukemia cells.

RESULTS AND CONCLUSION

AP illustrated significant alleviation of pro-inflammatory, inflammatory, and allergic mediators. However, no inhibition was observed against histamine release. This outcome has been summed up to deduce that AP is fairly potent in attenuating the inflammation by inhibiting pro-inflammatory (NO, IL-1 beta and IL-6), inflammatory (PGE(2) and TXB(2)) and allergic (LTB(4)) mediators.

Isolation and identification of bioactive compounds in Andrographis paniculata (Chuanxinlian)

Andrographis paniculata (Burm. f.) Nees (Acanthaceae) is a medicinal plant used in many countries. Its major constituents are diterpenoids, flavonoids and polyphenols. Among the single compounds extracted from A. paniculata, andrographolide is the major one in terms of bioactive properties and abundance. Among the andrographolide analogues, 14-deoxy-11,12-didehydroandrographolide is immunostimulatory, anti-infective and anti-atherosclerotic; neoandrographolide is anti-inflammatory, anti-infective and anti-hepatotoxic; 14-deoxyandrographolide is immunomodulatory and anti-atherosclerotic. Among the less abundant compounds from A. paniculata, andrograpanin is both anti-inflammatory and anti-infective; 14-deoxy-14,15-dehydroandrographolide is anti-inflammatory; isoandrographolide, 3,19-isopropylideneandrographolide and 14-acetylandrographolide are tumor suppressive; arabinogalactan proteins are anti-hepatotoxic. The four flavonoids from A. paniculata, namely 7-O-methylwogonin, apigenin, onysilin and 3,4-dicaffeoylquinic acid are anti-atherosclerotic.

Interactions between theophylline and salbutamol on cytokine release in human monocytes

The combination of beta(2)-adrenoceptor agonists (beta(2)-agonists) with inhaled steroids has become the standard treatment for mild to moderate asthma. Theophylline has also been combined successfully with inhaled steroids. However, the possible interaction between theophylline and beta(2)-agonists, with regard to their anti-inflammatory effects, has not been clarified. The aim of this study was to investigate the in vitro interaction between theophylline and salbutamol on cytokine generation from human monocytes and compare it with a similar interaction between dexamethasone and salbutamol. Purified monocytes from normal donors were pretreated with the drugs (alone or in combination) and stimulated with lipopolysaccharide for 24 h. Released tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-alpha) and interleukin-6 (IL-6), and their corresponding mRNA expressions, were determined and analyzed. Salbutamol (>or= 0.1 microM) significantly inhibited the release of TNF-alpha, but also significantly enhanced that of IL-6. In contrast, theophylline (50 microM) and dexamethasone (0.1 microM) strongly inhibited the generation of both cytokines. It is noteworthy that when the drugs were used in combination the effects of theophylline and salbutamol were additive in inhibiting TNF-alpha release, but theophylline blocked the IL-6-enhancing effect of salbutamol. A similar effect was seen when dexamethasone was combined with salbutamol. These results show that beta(2)-agonists have opposing effects on the generation of TNF-alpha and IL-6, but that when they were combined with clinically relevant concentrations of theophylline, theophylline, like dexamethasone, was capable of augmenting the anti-inflammatory effects of the beta(2)-agonists while at the same time preventing their proinflammatory effect. Thus, theophylline may have a potentially useful steroid-sparing effect.

Immunomodulatory activity of andrographolide on macrophage activation and specific antibody response

AIM

To investigate the immunomodulatory effects of andrographolide on both innate and adaptive immune responses.

METHODS

Andrographolide (10 microg/mL in vitro or 1 mg/kg in vivo) was used to modulate LPS-induced classical activated (M1) or IL-4-induced alternative activated (M2) macrophages in vitro and humor immune response to HBsAg in vivo. Cytokine gene expression profile (M1 vs M2) was measured by real-time PCR, IL-12/IL-10 level was detected by ELISA, and surface antigen expression was evaluated by flow cytometry, whereas phosphorylation level of ERK 1/2 and AKT was determined by Western blot. The level of anti-HBs antibodies in HBsAg immunized mice was detected by ELISA, and the number of HBsAg specific IL-4-producing splenocyte was enumerated by ELISPOT.

RESULTS

Andrographolide treatment in vitro attenuated either LPS or IL-4 induced macrophage activation, inhibited both M1 and M2 cytokines expression and decreased IL-12/IL-10 ratio (the ratio of M1/M2 polarization). Andrographolide down-regulated the expression of mannose receptor (CD206) in IL-4 induced macrophages and major histocompability complex/costimulatory molecules (MHC I, CD40, CD80, CD86) in LPS-induced macrophages. Correspondingly, anti-HBs antibody production and the number of IL-4-producing splenocytes were reduced by in vivo administration of andrographolide. Reduced phosphorylation levels of ERK1/2 and AKT were observed in macrophages treated with andrographolide.

CONCLUSION

Andrographolide can modulate the innate and adaptive immune responses by regulating macrophage phenotypic polarization and Ag-specific antibody production. MAPK and PI3K signaling pathways may participate in the mechanisms of andrographolide regulating macrophage activation and polarization.