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Fakurazi S, Rahman SA, Hidayat MT, Ithnin H, Moklas MAM, Arulselvan P. The combination of mitragynine and morphine prevents the development of morphine tolerance in mice. Molecules 2013; 18:666-81. [PMID: 23292329 PMCID: PMC6270191 DOI: 10.3390/molecules18010666] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/17/2012] [Revised: 12/27/2012] [Accepted: 12/28/2012] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Mitragynine (MG) is the major active alkaloid found in Mitragyna speciosa Korth. In the present study, we investigated the enhancement of analgesic action of MG when combined with morphine and the effect of the combination on the development of tolerance towards morphine. Mice were administered intraperitoneally with a dose of MG (15 and 25 mg/kg b.wt) combined with morphine (5 mg/kg b.wt) respectively for 9 days. The antinociceptive effect was evaluated by a hot plate test. The protein expression of cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP) and cAMP response element binding (CREB) was analyzed by immunoblot. Toxicological parameters especially liver and kidney function tests were assessed after the combination treatment with MG and morphine. The concurrent administration of MG and morphine showed significant (p < 0.05) increase in latency time when compared to morphine alone group and the outstanding analgesic effects in the combination regimens were maintained until day 9. For the protein expression, there was a significant increment of cAMP and CREB levels (p < 0.05) in group treated with 5 mg/kg morphine but there was no significant change of these protein expressions when MG was combined with morphine. There was a significant changes in toxicological parameters of various treated groups. The combination treatment of MG and morphine effectively reduce the tolerance due to the chronic administration of morphine.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sharida Fakurazi
- Department of Human Anatomy, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Universiti Putra Malaysia, 43400 UPM Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia; E-Mails: (M.T.H.); (M.A.M.M.)
- Laboratory of Vaccines and Immunotherapeutics, Institute of Bioscience, Universiti Putra Malaysia, 43400 UPM Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia; E-Mail:
| | - Shamima Abdul Rahman
- Faculty of Pharmacy, Cyberjaya University College of Medical Sciences, 63000 Cyberjaya, Selangor, Malaysia; E-Mail:
| | - Mohamad Taufik Hidayat
- Department of Human Anatomy, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Universiti Putra Malaysia, 43400 UPM Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia; E-Mails: (M.T.H.); (M.A.M.M.)
| | - Hairuszah Ithnin
- Department of Pathology, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Universiti Putra Malaysia, 43400 UPM Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia; E-Mail:
| | - Mohamad Aris Mohd Moklas
- Department of Human Anatomy, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Universiti Putra Malaysia, 43400 UPM Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia; E-Mails: (M.T.H.); (M.A.M.M.)
| | - Palanisamy Arulselvan
- Laboratory of Vaccines and Immunotherapeutics, Institute of Bioscience, Universiti Putra Malaysia, 43400 UPM Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia; E-Mail:
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Lim EL, Seah TC, Koe XF, Wahab HA, Adenan MI, Jamil MFA, Majid MIA, Tan ML. In vitro evaluation of cytochrome P450 induction and the inhibition potential of mitragynine, a stimulant alkaloid. Toxicol In Vitro 2012; 27:812-24. [PMID: 23274770 DOI: 10.1016/j.tiv.2012.12.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/01/2012] [Revised: 12/04/2012] [Accepted: 12/13/2012] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
CYP450 enzymes are key determinants in drug toxicities, reduced pharmacological effect and adverse drug reactions. Mitragynine, an euphoric compound was evaluated for its effects on the expression of mRNAs encoding CYP1A2, CYP2D6 and CYP3A4 and protein expression and resultant enzymatic activity. The mRNA and protein expression of CYP450 isoforms were carried out using an optimized multiplex qRT-PCR assay and Western blot analysis. CYP1A2 and CYP3A4 enzyme activities were evaluated using P450-Glo™ assays. The effects of mitragynine on human CYP3A4 protein expression were determined using an optimized hCYP3A4-HepG2 cell-based assay. An in silico computational method to predict the binding conformation of mitragynine to the active site of the CYP3A4 enzyme was performed and further validated using in vitro CYP3A4 inhibition assays. Mitragynine was found to induce mRNA and protein expression of CYP1A2. For the highest concentration of 25 μM, induction of mRNA was approximately 70% that of the positive control and was consistent with the increased CYP1A2 enzymatic activity. Thus, mitragynine is a significant in vitro CYP1A2 inducer. However, it appeared to be a weak CYP3A4 inducer at the transcriptional level and a weak CYP3A4 enzyme inhibitor. It is therefore, unlikely to have any significant clinical effects on CYP3A4 activity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ee Lin Lim
- Malaysian Institute of Pharmaceuticals & Nutraceuticals, Ministry of Science, Technology & Innovation (MOSTI), Pulau Pinang, Malaysia
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103
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Hassan Z, Muzaimi M, Navaratnam V, Yusoff NHM, Suhaimi FW, Vadivelu R, Vicknasingam BK, Amato D, von Hörsten S, Ismail NIW, Jayabalan N, Hazim AI, Mansor SM, Müller CP. From Kratom to mitragynine and its derivatives: physiological and behavioural effects related to use, abuse, and addiction. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2012. [PMID: 23206666 DOI: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2012.11.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 216] [Impact Index Per Article: 18.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Kratom (or Ketum) is a psychoactive plant preparation used in Southeast Asia. It is derived from the plant Mitragyna speciosa Korth. Kratom as well as its main alkaloid, mitragynine, currently spreads around the world. Thus, addiction potential and adverse health consequences are becoming an important issue for health authorities. Here we reviewed the available evidence and identified future research needs. It was found that mitragynine and M. speciosa preparations are systematically consumed with rather well defined instrumentalization goals, e.g. to enhance tolerance for hard work or as a substitute in the self-treatment of opiate addiction. There is also evidence from experimental animal models supporting analgesic, muscle relaxant, anti-inflammatory as well as strong anorectic effects. In humans, regular consumption may escalate, lead to tolerance and may yield aversive withdrawal effects. Mitragynine and its derivatives actions in the central nervous system involve μ-opioid receptors, neuronal Ca²⁺ channels and descending monoaminergic projections. Altogether, available data currently suggest both, a therapeutic as well as an abuse potential.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zurina Hassan
- Centre for Drug Research, Universiti Sains Malaysia, 11800 Minden, Penang, Malaysia
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104
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Le D, Goggin MM, Janis GC. Analysis of Mitragynine and Metabolites in Human Urine for Detecting the Use of the Psychoactive Plant Kratom. J Anal Toxicol 2012; 36:616-25. [DOI: 10.1093/jat/bks073] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
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105
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Ahmad K, Aziz Z. Mitragyna speciosa use in the northern states of Malaysia: a cross-sectional study. JOURNAL OF ETHNOPHARMACOLOGY 2012; 141:446-450. [PMID: 22440259 DOI: 10.1016/j.jep.2012.03.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 86] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/13/2011] [Revised: 02/27/2012] [Accepted: 03/04/2012] [Indexed: 05/31/2023]
Abstract
ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE The consumption of Mitragyna speciosa (MS) for its psychoactive effects is widely reported amongst people in the villages in Thailand and Malaysia even though its use is illegal. AIM OF THE STUDY This study examined the pattern of MS use, its reported effects and explored its potential to cause dependence. MATERIALS AND METHODS We used both convenience and snowball-sampling methods to recruit participants in a border town between two northern states in Malaysia. Face-to-face interviews were conducted with the use of a structured questionnaire on 562 respondents who gave oral consent to participate in the study. RESULTS The response rate was 91%. The majority of the respondents (88%) reported daily use of MS. The main mode of using MS was by drinking the MS extract as tea (90%). The mean age of starting MS use was 28.3 (SD=8.1) years. A variety of reasons were given for using MS including for social and recreational needs, stamina and physical endurance, pain relief and improved sexual performance. Despite its reported usefulness in weaning off opiate addiction, 460 (87%) admitted they were not able to stop using MS. Only education level had a statistically significant association with the ability to stop or not stop the use of MS (χ(2)=31.0, df=1, p<0.001). Significantly higher proportions of those with a lower education level (38%) were able to stop using MS compared to respondents with a higher education level. CONCLUSIONS Our study provides important information on the pattern of MS use, its effects and its potential to cause addiction, as there has been growing interest in MS as evidenced by the number of advertisements for its sale on the Internet. Future study is required to explore its psychological and social impact on users.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kamarudin Ahmad
- Department of Pharmacy, Faculty of Medicine, University of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
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106
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Orio L, Alexandru L, Cravotto G, Mantegna S, Barge A. UAE, MAE, SFE-CO2 and classical methods for the extraction of Mitragyna speciosa leaves. ULTRASONICS SONOCHEMISTRY 2012; 19:591-595. [PMID: 22054912 DOI: 10.1016/j.ultsonch.2011.10.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/01/2011] [Revised: 07/14/2011] [Accepted: 07/19/2011] [Indexed: 05/31/2023]
Abstract
Mitragyna speciosa, a tropical plant indigenous to Southeast Asia, is well known for its psychoactive properties. Its leaves are traditionally chewed by Thai and Malaysian farmers and manual labourers as it causes a numbing, stimulating effect. The present study aims to evaluate alkaloid yield and composition in the leaf extracts. For this purpose we have compared several non-conventional extraction techniques with classic procedures (room temperature or under heating). Dried M. speciosa leaves belonging to three batches of different origin (from Thailand, Malaysia and Indonesia) were extracted using ultrasound-assisted extraction (UAE), microwave-assisted extraction (MAE) and supercritical carbon dioxide extraction SFE-CO(2), using methanol, ethanol, water and binary mixtures. The extracts were compared using an HPLC/ESI-MS analysis of mitragynine and four other related alkaloids which were present in the alkaloid fraction. The extraction technique influences both the raw product yield and the relative alkaloid content of M. speciosa leaves. Of the several methods tested, MAE in a closed vessel at 110 °C (60 W, methanol/water 1:1) gave the highest alkaloid fraction amount, while UAE with an immersion horn at 25 °C (21.4 kHz, 50 W, methanol) showed the best yield for mitragynine. This work may prove to be a useful contribution to forensic, toxicological and pharmacognosy studies. Although the potential applications of M. speciosa alkaloids clearly need further investigation, these results may facilitate the scaling-up of their extraction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laura Orio
- Dipartimento di Scienza e Tecnologia del Farmaco, Università di Torino, Via P Giuria 9, 10235 Torino, Italy
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107
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108
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Kim J, Schneekloth JS, Sorensen EJ. A chemical synthesis of 11-methoxy mitragynine pseudoindoxyl featuring the interrupted Ugi reaction. Chem Sci 2012; 3:2849-2852. [PMID: 23878716 DOI: 10.1039/c2sc20669b] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
A synthesis of 11-methoxy mitragynine pseudoindoxyl, a new member of the mitragynine class of opioid agonists, from a derivative of the Geissman-Waiss lactone is described. An internal attack of an electron-rich aromatic ring on an electrophilic nitrilium ion and a late-stage construction of the functionalized piperidine ring by the method of reductive cyclization are the pivotal transformations; both ring annulations proceed in a highly diastereoselective fashion. The construction of substituted indoxyl frameworks by the interrupted Ugi method offers an attractive alternative to the strategy of oxidatively rearranging indoles.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jimin Kim
- Department of Chemistry, Princeton University, Frick Chemistry Laboratory, Princeton, New Jersey 08544, USA. ; Tel: +1-609-258-8135
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109
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Saltan Çitoğlu G, Bahadır Acıkara Ö, Sever Yılmaz B, Özbek H. Evaluation of analgesic, anti-inflammatory and hepatoprotective effects of lycorine from Sternbergia fisheriana (Herbert) Rupr. Fitoterapia 2012; 83:81-7. [DOI: 10.1016/j.fitote.2011.09.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/14/2011] [Revised: 09/15/2011] [Accepted: 09/17/2011] [Indexed: 10/17/2022]
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Kapp FG, Maurer HH, Auwärter V, Winkelmann M, Hermanns-Clausen M. Intrahepatic cholestasis following abuse of powdered kratom (Mitragyna speciosa). J Med Toxicol 2011; 7:227-31. [PMID: 21528385 DOI: 10.1007/s13181-011-0155-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 101] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Kratom (Mitragyna speciosa) is a common medical plant in Thailand and is known to contain mitragynine as the main alkaloid. According to an increase in published reports and calls at German poison control centers, it has been used more frequently as a drug of abuse in the western hemisphere during the last couple of years. Despite this increase, reports of severe toxicity are rare within the literature. CASE REPORT We describe a case of a young man who presented with jaundice and pruritus after intake of kratom for 2 weeks in the absence of any other causative agent. Alkaloids of M. speciosa were detected in the urine. CONCLUSION While M. speciosa is gaining in popularity among illicit drug users, its adverse effects remain poorly understood. This is the first published case of intrahepatic cholestasis after kratom abuse.
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Affiliation(s)
- Friedrich G Kapp
- Poisons Information Center VIZ-Freiburg, Department of Pediatrics and Adolescent Medicine, University Medical Center Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany.
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111
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Evaluation of the effects of Mitragyna speciosa alkaloid extract on cytochrome P450 enzymes using a high throughput assay. Molecules 2011; 16:7344-56. [PMID: 21876481 PMCID: PMC6264431 DOI: 10.3390/molecules16097344] [Citation(s) in RCA: 60] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/04/2011] [Revised: 08/08/2011] [Accepted: 08/19/2011] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
The extract from Mitragyna speciosa has been widely used as an opium substitute, mainly due to its morphine-like pharmacological effects. This study investigated the effects of M. speciosa alkaloid extract (MSE) on human recombinant cytochrome P450 (CYP) enzyme activities using a modified Crespi method. As compared with the liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry method, this method has shown to be a fast and cost-effective way to perform CYP inhibition studies. The results indicated that MSE has the most potent inhibitory effect on CYP3A4 and CYP2D6, with apparent half-maximal inhibitory concentration (IC(50)) values of 0.78 µg/mL and 0.636 µg/mL, respectively. In addition, moderate inhibition was observed for CYP1A2, with an IC(50) of 39 µg/mL, and weak inhibition was detected for CYP2C19. The IC(50) of CYP2C19 could not be determined, however, because inhibition was <50%. Competitive inhibition was found for the MSE-treated CYP2D6 inhibition assay, whereas non-competitive inhibition was shown in inhibition assays using CYP3A4, CYP1A2 and CYP2C19. Quinidine (CYP2D6), ketoconazole (CYP3A4), tranylcypromine (CYP2C19) and furafylline (CYP1A2) were ACCESSused as positive controls throughout the experiments. This study shows that MSE may contribute to an herb-drug interaction if administered concomitantly with drugs that are substrates for CYP3A4, CYP2D6 and CYP1A2.
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112
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Vuppala PK, Boddu SP, Furr EB, McCurdy CR, Avery BA. Simple, Sensitive, High-Throughput Method for the Quantification of Mitragynine in Rat Plasma Using UPLC-MS and Its Application to an Intravenous Pharmacokinetic Study. Chromatographia 2011. [DOI: 10.1007/s10337-011-2128-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/17/2022]
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113
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Purintrapiban J, Keawpradub N, Kansenalak S, Chittrakarn S, Janchawee B, Sawangjaroen K. Study on glucose transport in muscle cells by extracts from Mitragyna speciosa (Korth) and mitragynine. Nat Prod Res 2011; 25:1379-87. [PMID: 18846471 DOI: 10.1080/14786410802267627] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Abstract
The leaves of Mitragyna speciosa Korth (Rubiaceae) have been used in folk medicine for its unique medicinal properties. This study examined the water, methanolic and crude alkaloidal extracts from M. speciosa leaves and its major constituent mitragynine for the enhancement of glucose transport. Cellular uptake of radioactive 2-deoxyglucose was determined in rat L8 myotubes. Involving signalling pathway was determined with the specific inhibitors. Cell cytotoxicity was monitored by lactate dehydrogenase assay. Protein levels of glucose transporters (GLUTs) were measured by Western blotting. The results show that test samples significantly increased the rate of glucose uptake. The uptake was associated with increase in GLUT1 protein content. Co-incubation with insulin had no additional effect, but the cellular uptake was decreased by wortmannin and SB 203580, specific inhibitors of phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase (PI3K) and p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase (p38 MAPK), respectively. It is concluded that the increased glucose transport activity of M. speciosa is associated with increases in activities of the key enzymes dependent to the insulin-stimulated glucose transport for its acute action, and increases in the GLUT1 content for its long-term effect. This study demonstrated the effect of M. speciosa in stimulating glucose transport in muscle cells, implicating the folkloric use of M. speciosa leaves for treating diabetes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Juntipa Purintrapiban
- Faculty of Medicine, Department of Biomedical Sciences, Prince of Songkla University, Hat-Yai, Songkhla, Thailand.
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Utar Z, Majid MIA, Adenan MI, Jamil MFA, Lan TM. Mitragynine inhibits the COX-2 mRNA expression and prostaglandin E₂ production induced by lipopolysaccharide in RAW264.7 macrophage cells. JOURNAL OF ETHNOPHARMACOLOGY 2011; 136:75-82. [PMID: 21513785 DOI: 10.1016/j.jep.2011.04.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 70] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/04/2011] [Revised: 03/24/2011] [Accepted: 04/05/2011] [Indexed: 05/30/2023]
Abstract
ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE [corrected] Mitragyna speciosa Korth (Rubiaceae) is one of the medicinal plants used traditionally to treat various types of diseases especially in Thailand and Malaysia. Its anti-inflammatory and analgesic properties in its crude form are well documented. In this study, the cellular mechanism involved in the anti-inflammatory effects of mitragynine, the major bioactive constituent, was investigated. MATERIALS AND METHODS The effects of mitragynine on the mRNA and protein expression of COX-1 and COX-2 and the production of prostaglandin E(2) (PGE(2)) were investigated in LPS-treated RAW264.7 macrophage cells. Quantitative RT-PCR was used to assess the mRNA expression of COX-1 and COX-2. Protein expression of COX-1 and COX-2 were assessed using Western blot analysis and the level of PGE(2) production was quantified using Parameter™ PGE(2) Assay (R&D Systems). RESULTS Mitragynine produced a significant inhibition on the mRNA expression of COX-2 induced by LPS, in a dose dependent manner and this was followed by the reduction of PGE(2) production. On the other hand, the effects of mitragynine on COX-1 mRNA expression were found to be insignificant as compared to the control cells. However, the effect of mitragynine on COX-1 protein expression is dependent on concentration, with higher concentration of mitragynine producing a further reduction of COX-1 expression in LPS-treated cells. CONCLUSIONS These findings suggest that mitragynine suppressed PGE(2) production by inhibiting COX-2 expression in LPS-stimulated RAW264.7 macrophage cells. Mitragynine may be useful for the treatment of inflammatory conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zulkhurnain Utar
- Malaysian Institute of Pharmaceuticals and Nutraceuticals (IPharm), Ministry of Science, Technology and Innovation (MOSTI), Sains@USM Complex, 10, Persiaran Bukit Jambul, 11900 Bayan Lepas, Pulau Pinang, Malaysia
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115
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Philipp AA, Wissenbach DK, Weber AA, Zapp J, Maurer HH. Metabolism studies of the Kratom alkaloids mitraciliatine and isopaynantheine, diastereomers of the main alkaloids mitragynine and paynantheine, in rat and human urine using liquid chromatography-linear ion trap-mass spectrometry. J Chromatogr B Analyt Technol Biomed Life Sci 2011; 879:1049-55. [PMID: 21450536 DOI: 10.1016/j.jchromb.2011.03.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/14/2010] [Revised: 02/28/2011] [Accepted: 03/02/2011] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
Mitragyna speciosa (Kratom in Thai), native in Southeast Asia, is increasingly misused as a herbal drug of abuse. During metabolism studies on the Kratom alkaloids mitragynine, its diastereomers speciogynine and speciociliatine as well as paynantheine in rats and humans, further isomeric compounds were detected in Kratom users' urine. The question arose whether these compounds were formed from the low abundant, isomeric alkaloids mitraciliatine (MC) and isopaynantheine (ISO-PAY). Therefore, the aim of the presented study was to identify using liquid chromatography-linear ion trap-mass spectrometry their phase I and II metabolites in rat urine after administration of pure MC or ISO-PAY, to confirm their formation in humans, and finally to confirm whether the above-mentioned isomeric compounds in human urine represent MC and ISO-PAY and/or their metabolites. The metabolic pathways of both alkaloids in rats were found to be comparable to those of their corresponding diastereomers. In the human urines tested, not all metabolites found in rats could be detected because of the much lower amounts of MC and ISO-PAY in Kratom. However, all the above-mentioned so far unknown isomeric compounds could be identified in the human urine samples as MC, ISO-PAY and/or their metabolites. The used LC separation was also suitable for the differentiation of all other Kratom alkaloids and their metabolites in human urine.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anika A Philipp
- Department of Experimental and Clinical Toxicology, Institute of Experimental and Clinical Pharmacology and Toxicology, Saarland University, Homburg (Saar), Germany
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Abstract
In recent years, besides the classic designer drugs of the amphetamine type, a series of new drug classes appeared on the illicit drugs market. The chemistry, pharmacology, toxicology, metabolism, and toxicokinetics is discussed of 2,5-dimethoxy amphetamines, 2,5-dimethoxy phenethylamines, beta-keto-amphetamines, phencyclidine derivatives as well as of herbal drugs, ie, Kratom. They have gained popularity and notoriety as rave drugs. The metabolic pathways, the involvement of cytochrome P450 isoenzymes in the main pathways, and their roles in hepatic clearance are also summarized.
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117
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Monitoring of kratom or Krypton intake in urine using GC-MS in clinical and forensic toxicology. Anal Bioanal Chem 2010; 400:127-35. [DOI: 10.1007/s00216-010-4464-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/28/2010] [Revised: 11/16/2010] [Accepted: 11/22/2010] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
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118
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Nelsen JL, Lapoint J, Hodgman MJ, Aldous KM. Seizure and coma following Kratom (Mitragynina speciosa Korth) exposure. J Med Toxicol 2010; 6:424-6. [PMID: 20411370 PMCID: PMC3550469 DOI: 10.1007/s13181-010-0079-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 116] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Reports of toxicity secondary to Kratom are rare and lack of diagnostic testing in human specimens has prevented confirmatory explanation of observed clinical effects. We present a novel case of serious human toxicity following Kratom use confirmed via quantitative analysis of urine by high performance liquid chromatography coupled to electrospray tandem mass spectrometry. A 64 year-old male was witnessed to have a seizure at home following kratom consumption. Upon arrival to the emergency department (ED), the patient was unresponsive. While in the ED, the patient sustained a second seizure. He was intubated to protect his airway. The remainder of his hospital course was uneventful. A urine specimen was collected shortly after admission and sent for analysis. The mitragynine concentration in the urine was 167 ± 15 ng/ml. We report a rare case of Kratom toxicity characterized by a seizure and coma confirmed by urinary analysis of mitragynine by high performance liquid chromatography coupled to electrospray tandem mass spectrometry. The proposed mechanism for this reaction is unclear but suggested mechanisms include adenosine binding or stimulation of adrenergic and/or serotonergic receptors similar to tramadol.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jamie L Nelsen
- Department of Emergency Medicine, SUNY Upstate Medical University, Upstate New York Poison Center, 250 Harrison Street, Syracuse, NY 13210, USA.
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119
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Philipp AA, Wissenbach DK, Weber AA, Zapp J, Maurer HH. Phase I and II metabolites of speciogynine, a diastereomer of the main Kratom alkaloid mitragynine, identified in rat and human urine by liquid chromatography coupled to low- and high-resolution linear ion trap mass spectrometry. JOURNAL OF MASS SPECTROMETRY : JMS 2010; 45:1344-1357. [PMID: 20967737 DOI: 10.1002/jms.1848] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/16/2010] [Accepted: 09/15/2010] [Indexed: 05/30/2023]
Abstract
Mitragyna speciosa (Kratom in Thai), a Thai medical plant, is misused as herbal drug of abuse. Besides the most abundant alkaloids mitragynine (MG) and paynantheine (PAY), several other alkaloids were isolated from Kratom leaves, among them the third abundant alkaloid is speciogynine (SG), a diastereomer of MG. The aim of this present study was to identify the phase I and II metabolites of SG in rat urine after the administration of a rather high dose of the pure alkaloid and then to confirm these findings using human urine samples after Kratom use. The applied liquid chromatography coupled to low- and high-resolution mass spectrometry (LC-HRMS-MS) provided detailed information on the structure in the MS(n) mode particularly with high resolution. For the analysis of the human samples, the LC separation had to be improved markedly allowing the separation of SG and its metabolites from its diastereomer MG and its metabolites. In analogy to MG, besides SG, nine phase I and eight phase II metabolites could be identified in rat urine, but only three phase I and five phase II metabolites in human urine. These differences may be caused by the lower SG dose applied by the user of Kratom preparations. SG and its metabolites could be differentiated in the human samples from the diastereomeric MG and its metabolites comparing the different retention times determined after application of the single alkaloids to rats. In addition, some differences in MS(2) and/or MS(3) spectra of the corresponding diastereomers were observed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anika A Philipp
- Department of Experimental and Clinical Toxicology, Institute of Experimental and Clinical Pharmacology and Toxicology, Saarland University, D-66421 Homburg (Saar), Germany
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Bahadir O, Citoğlu GS, Smejkal K, Dall'Acqua S, Ozbek H, Cvacka J, Zemlicka M. Analgesic compounds from Scorzonera latifolia (Fisch. and Mey.) DC. JOURNAL OF ETHNOPHARMACOLOGY 2010; 131:83-87. [PMID: 20541001 DOI: 10.1016/j.jep.2010.06.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/08/2009] [Revised: 05/25/2010] [Accepted: 06/01/2010] [Indexed: 05/29/2023]
Abstract
ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE A traditional mastic named yaki sakizi prepared from the roots of Scorzonera latifolia (Fisch. and Mey.) DC. is used as a folk remedy for treatment of pain in Turkish folk medicine. AIM OF THE STUDY To isolate and identify the compounds responsible for the antinociceptive activity of S. latifolia using bioassay-guided fractionation. MATERIALS AND METHODS The methanolic extract of the S. latifolia roots was prepared and subjected to isolation procedures such as solvent-solvent partitioning and column chromatography. Writhing and tail-flick tests were used to determine the antinociceptive activity. RESULTS The n-hexane fraction of the S. latifolia root methanolic extract showed potent antinociceptive activity in both writhing and tail-flick tests. Three compounds were isolated from n-hexane fraction using bioassay-guided chromatographic purification. Isolated compounds were the triterpene taraxasteryl myristate, taraxasteryl acetate, and fern-7-en-3-beta-one, structures were elucidated by means of MS and NMR techniques. Both taraxasterol derivatives showed promising antinociceptive activity when compared to reference compounds. CONCLUSION Results of the present study support the usage of S. latifolia in Turkish folk medicine. Both plant root extract and the isolated compounds showed promising antinociceptive activities. Our results suggested that antinociceptive activity of the plant extract is probably caused by the synergistic interaction of the isolated compounds.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ozlem Bahadir
- Ankara University, Faculty of Pharmacy, Department of Pharmacognosy, 06100, Tandoğan, Ankara, Turkey
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Chittrakarn S, Keawpradub N, Sawangjaroen K, Kansenalak S, Janchawee B. The neuromuscular blockade produced by pure alkaloid, mitragynine and methanol extract of kratom leaves (Mitragyna speciosa Korth.). JOURNAL OF ETHNOPHARMACOLOGY 2010; 129:344-349. [PMID: 20371282 DOI: 10.1016/j.jep.2010.03.035] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/29/2009] [Revised: 02/24/2010] [Accepted: 03/29/2010] [Indexed: 05/29/2023]
Abstract
AIM OF THE STUDY The effects of pure alkaloid, mitragynine and a methanolic extract of kratom leaves were investigated on neuromuscular junction and compound nerve action potential. MATERIALS AND METHODS Wistar rats were killed by cervical dislocation and decapitated. The phrenic nerve-hemidiaphragms, hemidiaphragms and sciatic nerve were isolated. RESULTS Kratom methanolic extract present at 0.1-1 mg/mL and mitragynine (0.0156 mg/mL) decreased the muscle twitch on the isolated phrenic nerve-hemidiaphragm and hemidiaphragm preparation. Muscle relaxation caused by kratom extract (1 mg/mL) was greater than the effect of mitragynine. Pancuronium and succinylcholine potentiated the effect of kratom extract. It also had a direct relaxation effect on the hemidiaphragm muscle. The muscle relaxation caused by kratom extract was not antagonized by neostigmine, tetraethylammonium and calcium chloride. High concentrations of kratom extract (10-40 mg/mL) and mitragynine (2 mg/mL) blocked the nerve conduction, amplitude and duration of compound nerve action potential. CONCLUSIONS The mechanism of action of kratom extract might not act as a competitive antagonist of acetylcholine yet its dominant effect was at the neuromuscular junction and not at the skeletal muscle or somatic nerve.
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Affiliation(s)
- Somsmorn Chittrakarn
- Department of Pharmacology, Faculty of Science, Prince of Songkla University, Hat-Yai, Songkhla, Thailand.
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122
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Takahashi N, Ito T, Matsuda Y, Kogure N, Kitajima M, Takayama H. Determination of absolute configuration of trimeric indole alkaloid, psychotrimine, by first asymmetric total synthesis. Chem Commun (Camb) 2010; 46:2501-3. [PMID: 20309475 DOI: 10.1039/b923918a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
The first asymmetric total synthesis of psychotrimine, a trimeric indole alkaloid, was accomplished via an asymmetric Ireland-Claisen rearrangement to construct a chiral quaternary carbon center, thereby establishing the absolute configuration of psychotrimine.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nobuaki Takahashi
- Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Chiba University, 1-33 Yayoi-cho, Inage-ku, Chiba 263-8522, Japan
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Vicknasingam B, Narayanan S, Beng GT, Mansor SM. The informal use of ketum (Mitragyna speciosa) for opioid withdrawal in the northern states of peninsular Malaysia and implications for drug substitution therapy. THE INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF DRUG POLICY 2010; 21:283-8. [PMID: 20092998 DOI: 10.1016/j.drugpo.2009.12.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 169] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/07/2009] [Revised: 12/09/2009] [Accepted: 12/15/2009] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Ketum (krathom) has been mentioned in the literature as a traditional alternative to manage drug withdrawal symptoms though there are no studies indicating its widespread use for this purpose. This study examines the reasons for ketum consumption in the northern areas of peninsular Malaysia where it is widely used. METHODS A cross-sectional survey of 136 active users was conducted in the northern states of Kedah and Penang in Malaysia. On-site urine screening was done for other substance use. FINDINGS Ketum users were relatively older (mean 38.7 years) than the larger substance using group. Nearly 77% (104 subjects) had previous drug use history, whilst urine screening confirmed 62 subjects were also using other substances. Longer-term users (use >2 years) had higher odds of being married, of consuming more than the average three glasses of ketum a day and reporting better appetite. Short-term users had higher odds of having ever used heroin, testing positive for heroin and of using ketum to reduce addiction to other drugs. Both groups used ketum to reduce their intake of more expensive opiates, to manage withdrawal symptoms and because it was cheaper than heroin. These findings differ from those in neighbouring Thailand where ketum was used primarily to increase physical endurance. CONCLUSIONS No previous study has shown the use of ketum to manage opioid withdrawal symptoms except for a single case reported in the US. Ketum was described as affordable, easily available and having no serious side effects despite prolonged use. It also permitted self-treatment that avoids stigmatisation as a drug dependent. The claims of so many subjects on the benefits of ketum merits serious scientific investigation. If prolonged use is safe, the potential for widening the scope and reach of substitution therapy and lowering its cost are tremendous, particularly in developing countries.
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Philipp AA, Wissenbach DK, Weber AA, Zapp J, Zoerntlein SW, Kanogsunthornrat J, Maurer HH. Use of liquid chromatography coupled to low- and high-resolution linear ion trap mass spectrometry for studying the metabolism of paynantheine, an alkaloid of the herbal drug Kratom in rat and human urine. Anal Bioanal Chem 2009; 396:2379-91. [PMID: 19902190 DOI: 10.1007/s00216-009-3239-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/20/2009] [Revised: 10/12/2009] [Accepted: 10/13/2009] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
The Thai medicinal plant Mitragyna speciosa (Kratom in Thai) is misused as a herbal drug of abuse. During studies on the main Kratom alkaloid mitragynine (MG) in rats and humans, several dehydro analogs could be detected in urine of Kratom users, which were not found in rat urine after administration of pure MG. Questions arose as to whether these compounds are formed from MG only by humans or whether they are metabolites formed from the second abundant Kratom alkaloid paynantheine (PAY), the dehydro analog of MG. Therefore, the aim of the presented study was to identify the phase I and II metabolites of PAY in rat urine after administration of the pure alkaloid. This was first isolated from Kratom leaves. Liquid chromatography-linear ion trap mass spectrometry provided detailed structure information of the metabolites in the MS(n) mode particularly with high resolution. Besides PAY, the following phase I metabolites could be identified: 9-O-demethyl PAY, 16-carboxy PAY, 9-O-demethyl-16-carboxy PAY, 17-O-demethyl PAY, 17-O-demethyl-16,17-dihydro PAY, 9,17-O-bisdemethyl PAY, 9,17-O-bisdemethyl-16,17-dihydro PAY, 17-carboxy-16,17-dihydro PAY, and 9-O-demethyl-17-carboxy-16,17-dihydro PAY. These metabolites indicated that PAY was metabolized via the same pathways as MG. Several metabolites were excreted as glucuronides or sulfates. The metabolism studies in rats showed that PAY and its metabolites corresponded to the MG-related dehydro compounds detected in urine of the Kratom users. In conclusion, PAY and its metabolites may be further markers for a Kratom abuse in addition of MG and its metabolites.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anika A Philipp
- Department of Experimental and Clinical Toxicology, Institute of Experimental and Clinical Pharmacology and Toxicology, Saarland University, 66421 Homburg (Saar), Germany
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125
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Philipp AA, Wissenbach DK, Zoerntlein SW, Klein ON, Kanogsunthornrat J, Maurer HH. Studies on the metabolism of mitragynine, the main alkaloid of the herbal drug Kratom, in rat and human urine using liquid chromatography-linear ion trap mass spectrometry. JOURNAL OF MASS SPECTROMETRY : JMS 2009; 44:1249-1261. [PMID: 19536806 DOI: 10.1002/jms.1607] [Citation(s) in RCA: 82] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/27/2023]
Abstract
Mitragynine (MG) is an indole alkaloid of the Thai medicinal plant Mitragyna speciosa (Kratom in Thai) and reported to have opioid agonistic properties. Because of its stimulant and euphoric effects, Kratom is used as a herbal drug of abuse. The aim of the presented study is to identify the phase I and II metabolites of MG in rat and human urine after solid-phase extraction (SPE) using liquid chromatography-linear ion trap mass spectrometry providing detailed structure information in the MSn mode particularly with high resolution. The seven identified phase I metabolites indicated that MG was metabolized by hydrolysis of the methylester in position 16, O-demethylation of the 9-methoxy group and of the 17-methoxy group, followed, via the intermediate aldehydes, by oxidation to carboxylic acids or reduction to alcohols and combinations of some steps. In rats, four metabolites were additionally conjugated to glucuronides and one to sulfate, but in humans, three metabolites to glucuronides and three to sulfates.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anika A Philipp
- Department of Experimental and Clinical Toxicology, Institute of Experimental and Clinical Pharmacology and Toxicology, Saarland University, D-66421 Homburg (Saar), Germany
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126
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Kikura-Hanajiri R, Kawamura M, Maruyama T, Kitajima M, Takayama H, Goda Y. Simultaneous analysis of mitragynine, 7-hydroxymitragynine, and other alkaloids in the psychotropic plant “kratom” (Mitragyna speciosa) by LC-ESI-MS. Forensic Toxicol 2009. [DOI: 10.1007/s11419-009-0070-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 76] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
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127
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McClatchey WC, Mahady GB, Bennett BC, Shiels L, Savo V. Ethnobotany as a pharmacological research tool and recent developments in CNS-active natural products from ethnobotanical sources. Pharmacol Ther 2009; 123:239-54. [PMID: 19422851 DOI: 10.1016/j.pharmthera.2009.04.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/13/2009] [Accepted: 04/13/2009] [Indexed: 02/02/2023]
Abstract
The science of ethnobotany is reviewed in light of its multi-disciplinary contributions to natural product research for the development of pharmaceuticals and pharmacological tools. Some of the issues reviewed involve ethical and cultural perspectives of healthcare and medicinal plants. While these are not usually part of the discussion of pharmacology, cultural concerns potentially provide both challenges and insight for field and laboratory researchers. Plant evolutionary issues are also considered as they relate to development of plant chemistry and accessing this through ethnobotanical methods. The discussion includes presentation of a range of CNS-active medicinal plants that have been recently examined in the field, laboratory and/or clinic. Each of these plants is used to illustrate one or more aspects about the valuable roles of ethnobotany in pharmacological research. We conclude with consideration of mutually beneficial future collaborations between field ethnobotanists and pharmacologists.
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Affiliation(s)
- Will C McClatchey
- Department of Botany, University of Hawai;i at Manoa, Honolulu, HI 96822, USA.
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128
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Abstract
Background: Traditional and current opioid pharmacology is fundamentally based on interactions between opioid receptors and compounds isolated from natural sources. Adverse effects associated with opioids have led to the search for compounds with diminished side effects. Discussion: Recent discoveries of non-nitrogenous and structurally diverse alkaloids as novel opioid ligands have led to renewed interest in the development of novel chemotypes for opioid receptors. Conclusion: The strong history of natural products as opioid receptor ligands suggests that nature is one of the most promising for the identification of novel opioids. This review highlights the vast potential of investigating natural products as novel probes of opioid receptors.
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129
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Maruyama T, Kawamura M, Kikura-Hanajiri R, Takayama H, Goda Y. The botanical origin of kratom (Mitragyna speciosa; Rubiaceae) available as abused drugs in the Japanese markets. J Nat Med 2009; 63:340-4. [PMID: 19294483 DOI: 10.1007/s11418-009-0325-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/11/2008] [Accepted: 02/09/2009] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Kratom is the leaves of Mitragyna speciosa (Rubiaceae). Recently, kratom has been sold in street shops or on the Internet in Japan for the purpose of abuse due to its opium-like effects. In this study, we investigated the botanical origin of the commercial kratom products using the internal transcribed spacer (ITS) sequence analysis of rDNA in preparation for future regulation of this product. In addition, a previously reported method to authenticate the plant, utilizing polymerase chain reaction-restriction fragment length polymorphism (PCR-RFLP) was applied to the same products in order to estimate the method's accuracy and utility. The ITS sequence analysis of the commercial kratoms revealed that most of them were derived from M. speciosa or closely related plants, while the others were made from the same tribe plant as M. speciosa. The reported PCR-RFLP method could clearly distinguish kratoms from the other psychoactive plants available in the Japanese markets and also from related plants. The authentication method is considered to be useful for the practical regulation of the plant due to its wide range of application, high accuracy and simplicity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Takuro Maruyama
- National Institute of Health Sciences, Division of Pharmacognosy, Phytochemistry and Narcotics, 1-18-1 Kamiyoga, Setagaya-ku, Tokyo, 158-8501, Japan
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130
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Ma J, Yin W, Zhou H, Liao X, Cook JM. General approach to the total synthesis of 9-methoxy-substituted indole alkaloids: synthesis of mitragynine, as well as 9-methoxygeissoschizol and 9-methoxy-N(b)-methylgeissoschizol. J Org Chem 2009; 74:264-73. [PMID: 19046119 DOI: 10.1021/jo801839t] [Citation(s) in RCA: 76] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Herein, the full details of the synthesis of the 9-methoxy-substituted Corynanthe indole alkaloids mitragynine (1), 9-methoxygeissoschizol (3), and 9-methoxy-N(b)-methylgeissoschizol (4) are described. Initially, an efficient synthetic route to the optically active 4-methoxytryptophan ethyl ester 20 on a multigram scale was developed via a Mori-Ban-Hegedus indole synthesis. The ethyl ester of D-4-methoxytryptophan 20 was obtained with a radical-mediated regioselective bromination of indoline 12 serving as a key step. Alternatively, the key 4-methoxytryptophan intermediate 22 could be synthesized by the Larock heteroannulation of aryl iodide 10b with the internal alkyne 21a. The use of the Boc-protected aniline 10b was crucial to the success of this heteroannulation. The alpha,beta-unsaturated ester 6 was synthesized via the Pictet-Spengler reaction as the pivotal step. This was followed by a Ni(COD)(2)-mediated cyclization to set up the stereocenter at C-15. The benzyloxy group in 31 was removed to provide the intermediate ester 5. This chiral tetracyclic ester 5 was employed to accomplish the first total synthesis of 9-methoxygeissoschizol (3) and 9-methoxy-N(b)-methylgeissoschizol (4) as well as the opioid agonistic indole alkaloid mitragynine (1).
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Affiliation(s)
- Jun Ma
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of WisconsinMilwaukee, 3210 North Cramer, Milwaukee, Wisconsin 53211, USA
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131
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Babu KM, McCurdy CR, Boyer EW. Opioid receptors and legal highs: Salvia divinorum and Kratom. Clin Toxicol (Phila) 2008; 46:146-52. [PMID: 18259963 DOI: 10.1080/15563650701241795] [Citation(s) in RCA: 135] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Salvia divinorum and Mitragyna speciosa ("Kratom"), two unscheduled dietary supplements whose active agents are opioid receptor agonists, have discrete psychoactive effects that have contributed to their increasing popularity. Salvia divinorum contains the highly selective kappa- opioid receptor agonist salvinorin A; this compound produces visual hallucinations and synesthesia. Mitragynine, the major alkaloid identified from Kratom, has been reported as a partial opioid agonist producing similar effects to morphine. An interesting minor alkaloid of Kratom, 7-hydroxymitragynine, has been reported to be more potent than morphine. Both Kratom alkaloids are reported to activate supraspinal mu- and delta- opioid receptors, explaining their use by chronic narcotics users to ameliorate opioid withdrawal symptoms. Despite their widespread Internet availability, use of Salvia divinorum and Kratom represents an emerging trend that escapes traditional methods of toxicologic monitoring. The purpose of this article is to familiarize toxicologists and poison control specialists with these emerging psychoactive dietary supplements.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kavita M Babu
- Division of Medical Toxicology, Department of Emergency Medicine, University of Massachusetts Medical School, Worcester, Massachusetts 01655, USA.
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MGM-9 [(E)-methyl 2-(3-ethyl-7a,12a-(epoxyethanoxy)-9-fluoro-1,2,3,4,6,7,12,12b-octahydro-8-methoxyindolo[2,3-a]quinolizin-2-yl)-3-methoxyacrylate], a derivative of the indole alkaloid mitragynine: a novel dual-acting mu- and kappa-opioid agonist with potent antinociceptive and weak rewarding effects in mice. Neuropharmacology 2008; 55:154-65. [PMID: 18550129 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuropharm.2008.05.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/27/2007] [Revised: 04/10/2008] [Accepted: 05/02/2008] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Mitragynine is a major indole alkaloid isolated from the Thai medicinal plant Mitragyna speciosa that has opium-like properties, although its chemical structure is quite different from that of morphine. We attempted to develop novel analgesics derived from mitragynine, and thus synthesized the ethylene glycol-bridged and C10-fluorinated derivative of mitragynine, MGM-9 [(E)-methyl 2-(3-ethyl-7a,12a-(epoxyethanoxy)-9-fluoro-1,2,3,4,6,7,12,12b-octahydro-8-methoxyindolo[2,3-a]quinolizin-2-yl)-3-methoxyacrylate]. We hypothesized that a dual-acting mu- and kappa-opioid agonist could produce potent antinociceptive effects with fewer rewarding effects compared with mu agonists. In this study, MGM-9 exhibited high affinity for mu- and kappa-opioid receptors with Ki values of 7.3 and 18 nM, respectively. MGM-9 showed a potent opioid agonistic effect, and its effects were meditated by mu- and kappa-opioid receptor mechanisms in in vitro assays. Subcutaneous and oral administration of MGM-9 produced potent antinociceptive effects in mouse tail-flick, hot-plate, and writhing tests. When administered orally, the antinociceptive effect of MGM-9 was seven to 22 times more potent than that of morphine. The antinociceptive effects of MGM-9 were mediated by both mu- and kappa-opioid receptors. Subcutaneous administration of MGM-9 twice daily for 5 days led to antinociceptive tolerance. In the gastrointestinal transit study, MGM-9 inhibited gastrointestinal transit, but its effect was weaker than that of morphine at equi-antinociceptive doses. Furthermore, MGM-9 induced less hyperlocomotion and fewer rewarding effects than morphine. The rewarding effect of MGM-9 was blocked by a mu antagonist and enhanced by a kappa antagonist. Taken together, the results suggest that MGM-9 is a promising novel analgesic that has a stronger antinociceptive effect and weaker adverse effects than morphine.
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133
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Matsuda Y, Kitajima M, Takayama H. First Total Synthesis of Trimeric Indole Alkaloid, Psychotrimine. Org Lett 2007; 10:125-8. [DOI: 10.1021/ol702637r] [Citation(s) in RCA: 92] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Yohei Matsuda
- Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Chiba University, 1-33 Yayoi-cho, Inage-ku, Chiba 263-8522, Japan
| | - Mariko Kitajima
- Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Chiba University, 1-33 Yayoi-cho, Inage-ku, Chiba 263-8522, Japan
| | - Hiromitsu Takayama
- Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Chiba University, 1-33 Yayoi-cho, Inage-ku, Chiba 263-8522, Japan
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Takayama H, Misawa K, Okada N, Ishikawa H, Kitajima M, Hatori Y, Murayama T, Wongseripipatana S, Tashima K, Matsumoto K, Horie S. New procedure to mask the 2,3-pi bond of the indole nucleus and its application to the preparation of potent opioid receptor agonists with a Corynanthe skeleton. Org Lett 2007; 8:5705-8. [PMID: 17134252 DOI: 10.1021/ol062173k] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Treatment of indole alkaloids with hypervalent iodine in the presence of ethylene glycol provides 2,3-ethylene glycol bridged adducts that could be converted into the original indoles under mild reductive conditions. This procedure, which involves masking of the reactivity of the indole nucleus at the beta-position, was utilized for the modification of the benzene ring of the indoline derivative and was applied to the preparation of potent opioid receptor agonists with the Corynanthe skeleton. [reaction: see text]
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Affiliation(s)
- Hiromitsu Takayama
- Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Chiba University, Chiba 263-8522, Japan.
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135
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Ma J, Yin W, Zhou H, Cook JM. Total synthesis of the opioid agonistic indole alkaloid mitragynine and the first total syntheses of 9-methoxygeissoschizol and 9-methoxy-Nb-methylgeissoschizol. Org Lett 2007; 9:3491-4. [PMID: 17685530 PMCID: PMC2526544 DOI: 10.1021/ol071220l] [Citation(s) in RCA: 95] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
An enantiospecific method for the synthesis of 4-methoxytryptophan has been developed via a regiospecific Larock heteroannulation and employed for the first total syntheses of 9-methoxygeissoschizol and 9-methoxy-Nb-methylgeissoschizol, as well as the total synthesis of the opioid agonistic alkaloid mitragynine. The asymmetric Pictet-Spengler reaction and a Ni(COD)2-mediated cyclization served as key steps.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jun Ma
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee, 3210 N. Cramer, Milwaukee, WI 53211
| | - Wenyuan Yin
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee, 3210 N. Cramer, Milwaukee, WI 53211
| | - Hao Zhou
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee, 3210 N. Cramer, Milwaukee, WI 53211
| | - James M. Cook
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee, 3210 N. Cramer, Milwaukee, WI 53211
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136
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Kumarnsit E, Vongvatcharanon U, Keawpradub N, Intasaro P. Fos-like immunoreactivity in rat dorsal raphe nuclei induced by alkaloid extract of Mitragyna speciosa. Neurosci Lett 2007; 416:128-32. [PMID: 17316993 DOI: 10.1016/j.neulet.2007.01.061] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/12/2006] [Revised: 12/18/2006] [Accepted: 01/26/2007] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
Mitragyna speciosa (MS) has been traditionally used for medicinal purposes especially in southern Thailand. Previously, an alkaloid extract of this plant was demonstrated to mediate antinociception, partly, through the descending serotonergic system. The present study investigated the stimulatory effect of the MS extract on the dorsal raphe nucleus and its antidepressant-like activity. The MS extract containing approximately 60% mitragynine as a major indole alkaloid was used to treat the animals. The stimulatory effect of the MS extract was determined by detecting the expression of the immediate early gene, cfos, in the dorsal raphe nucleus of male Wistar rats. The immunohistochemistry was used to detect Fos protein, the protein product of cfos gene. The present data show that a significant increase in Fos expression was observed following long-term administration of the MS extract (40 mg/kg) for 60 consecutive days. In addition, the antidepressant-like activity of the MS extract was determined by using the forced swimming test (FST) in male mice. The results show that a single injection (either 60 or 90 mg/kg doses) significantly decreased immobility time in the FST. These findings indicate that the MS extract has a stimulatory effect on the dorsal raphe nucleus and an antidepressant-like activity. Stimulation of this brain area has been known to cause antinociception. These findings suggest that the MS extract might produce antinociceptive and/or antidepressive actions partly through activation of the dorsal raphe nucleus. Moreover, the dorsal raphe nucleus may be one of site of MS action in the central nervous system.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ekkasit Kumarnsit
- Department of Physiology, Faculty of Science, Prince of Songkla University, Songkhla Province 90112, Thailand.
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137
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Kitajima M, Nakayama T, Kogure N, Wongseripipatana S, Takayama H. New heteroyohimbine-type oxindole alkaloid from the leaves of Thai Mitragyna hirsuta. J Nat Med 2007. [DOI: 10.1007/s11418-006-0114-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
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138
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Takayama H, Okada N, Misawa K, Kitajima M. Preparation of Ethylene Glycol Adducts at 2,3-Positions of Indoles with Hypervalent Iodine. HETEROCYCLES 2007. [DOI: 10.3987/com-07-s(w)25] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
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139
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Sukrong S, Zhu S, Ruangrungsi N, Phadungcharoen T, Palanuvej C, Komatsu K. Molecular Analysis of the Genus Mitragyna Existing in Thailand Based on rDNA ITS Sequences and Its Application to Identify a Narcotic Species: Mitragyna speciosa. Biol Pharm Bull 2007; 30:1284-8. [PMID: 17603168 DOI: 10.1248/bpb.30.1284] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
In Thailand, there are four Mitragyna species; M. speciosa, M. hirsuta, M. diversifolia, and M. rotundifolia. One, M. speciosa, is a narcotic plant and has medicinal importance for its opium-like effect. Since the use of M. speciosa has been forbidden in Thailand, the leaves of M. diversifolia or others are frequently used as substitutes but are not considered as effective. Therefore, accurate authentication of M. speciosa is essential for both medicinal and forensic purposes. The nucleotide sequences of internal transcribed spacers (ITS) and the 5.8S coding region of nuclear ribosomal DNA (rDNA) of the Mitragyna species were analyzed. The whole length of ITS1-5.8S-ITS2 region was 608 bp in M. speciosa, 607 bp in the other species. Nineteen sites of nucleotide substitutions and 3 sites of 1-bp indels were observed, and M. speciosa showed specific sequence differed from the others. Based on the ITS sequences, a distinctive site recognized by a restriction enzyme XmaI in M. speciosa was found and then PCR-restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP) analysis was established to differentiate M. speciosa from the others. By the method, a 409-bp PCR fragment of ITS1-5.8S (partial) rDNA region from M. speciosa was cleaved into two fragments of 119 bp and 290 bp while the other species remained undigested. This method provides an effective and accurate identification of M. speciosa.
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Affiliation(s)
- Suchada Sukrong
- Department of Pharmacognosy, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok, Thailand
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140
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Matsumoto K, Hatori Y, Murayama T, Tashima K, Wongseripipatana S, Misawa K, Kitajima M, Takayama H, Horie S. Involvement of mu-opioid receptors in antinociception and inhibition of gastrointestinal transit induced by 7-hydroxymitragynine, isolated from Thai herbal medicine Mitragyna speciosa. Eur J Pharmacol 2006; 549:63-70. [PMID: 16978601 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejphar.2006.08.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 66] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/28/2006] [Revised: 07/31/2006] [Accepted: 08/04/2006] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
7-hydroxymitragynine, a constituent of the Thai herbal medicine Mitragyna speciosa, has been found to have a potent opioid antinociceptive effect. In the present study, we investigated the mechanism of antinociception and the inhibitory effect on gastrointestinal transit of 7-hydroxymitragynine, and compared its effects with those of morphine. When administered subcutaneously to mice, 7-hydroxymitragynine produced antinociceptive effects about 5.7 and 4.4 times more potent than those of morphine in the tail-flick (ED50=0.80 mg/kg) and hot-plate (ED50=0.93 mg/kg) tests, respectively. The antinociceptive effect of 7-hydroxymitragynine was significantly blocked by the mu1/mu2-opioid receptor antagonist beta-funaltrexamine hydrochloride (beta-FNA) and the mu1-opioid receptor-selective antagonist naloxonazine in both tests. Thus, 7-hydroxymitragynine acts predominantly on mu-opioid receptors, especially on mu1-opioid receptors. Isolated tissue studies further supported its specificity for the mu-opioid receptors. Further, 7-hydroxymintragynine dose-dependently (ED50=1.19 mg/kg, s.c.) and significantly inhibited gastrointestinal transit in mice, as morphine does. The inhibitory effect was significantly antagonized by beta-FNA pretreatment, but slightly antagonized by naloxonazine. The ED50 value of 7-hydroxymitragynine on gastrointestinal transit was larger than its antinociceptive ED50 value. On the other hand, morphine significantly inhibits gastrointestinal transit at a much smaller dose than its antinociceptive dose. These results suggest that mu-opioid receptor mechanisms mediate the antinociceptive effect and inhibition of gastrointestinal transit. This compound induced more potent antinociceptive effects and was less constipating than morphine.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kenjiro Matsumoto
- Laboratory of Pharmacology, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Josai International University, 1 Gumyo, Togane, Chiba 283-8555, Japan.
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141
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Ozbek H, . AT, . FO, . NS, . SA, . SK. Evaluation of Median Lethal Dose and Analgesic Activity of Foeniculum vulgare Miller Essential Oil. INT J PHARMACOL 2006. [DOI: 10.3923/ijp.2006.181.183] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
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142
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Abstract
This paper is the 27th consecutive installment of the annual review of research concerning the endogenous opioid system, now spanning over 30 years of research. It summarizes papers published during 2004 that studied the behavioral effects of molecular, pharmacological and genetic manipulation of opioid peptides, opioid receptors, opioid agonists and opioid antagonists. The particular topics that continue to be covered include the molecular-biochemical effects and neurochemical localization studies of endogenous opioids and their receptors related to behavior, and the roles of these opioid peptides and receptors in pain and analgesia; stress and social status; tolerance and dependence; learning and memory; eating and drinking; alcohol and drugs of abuse; sexual activity and hormones, pregnancy, development and endocrinology; mental illness and mood; seizures and neurologic disorders; electrical-related activity and neurophysiology; general activity and locomotion; gastrointestinal, renal and hepatic functions; cardiovascular responses; respiration and thermoregulation; and immunological responses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Richard J Bodnar
- Department of Psychology and Neuropsychology Doctoral Sub-Program, Queens College, City University of New York, Flushing, NY 11367, USA.
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143
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Matsumoto K, Takayama H, Ishikawa H, Aimi N, Ponglux D, Watanabe K, Horie S. Partial agonistic effect of 9-hydroxycorynantheidine on mu-opioid receptor in the guinea-pig ileum. Life Sci 2005; 78:2265-71. [PMID: 16266723 DOI: 10.1016/j.lfs.2005.09.030] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/17/2005] [Accepted: 09/15/2005] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Mitragynine is an indole alkaloid isolated from the Thai medicinal plant Mitragyna speciosa that is reported to have opioid agonistic properties. The 9-demethyl analogue of mitragynine, 9-hydroxycorynantheidine, is synthesized from mitragynine. 9-Hydroxycorynantheidine inhibited electrically stimulated guinea-pig ileum contraction, but its maximum inhibition was weaker than that of mitragynine and its effect was antagonized by naloxone, suggesting that 9-hydroxycorynantheidine possesses partial agonist properties on opioid receptors. Receptor binding assays revealed that 9-hydroxycorynantheidine has high affinity for mu-opioid receptors. In an assay of the guinea-pig ileum, naloxone shifted the concentration-response curves for [D-Ala(2), N-MePhe(4), Gly-ol(5)]-enkephalin (DAMGO), (5alpha,7alpha,8beta)-(+)-N-Methyl-N-[7-(1-pyrrolidinyl)-1-oxaspiro[4.5]dec-8-yl]-benzeneacetamide (U69593) and 9-hydroxycorynantheidine to the right in a competitive manner. The pA(2) values of naloxone against 9-hydroxycorynantheidine and DAMGO were very similar, but not that against U69593. As indicated by the two assay systems, the opioid effect of 9-hydroxycorynantheidine is selective for the mu-opioid receptor. 9-Hydroxycorynantheidine shifted the concentration-response curve for DAMGO slightly to the right. Pretreatment with the mu-opioid selective and irreversible antagonist beta-funaltorexamine hydrochloride (beta-FNA) shifted the concentration-response curve for DAMGO to the right without affecting the maximum response. On the other hand, beta-FNA did not affect the curve for 9-hydroxycorynantheidine, but decreased the maximum response because of the lack of spare receptors. These studies suggest that 9-hydroxycorynantheidine has partial agonist properties on mu-opioid receptors in the guinea-pig ileum.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kenjiro Matsumoto
- Laboratory of Pharmacology, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Josai International University, Togane, Chiba, Japan.
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144
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A new indole alkaloid, 7-hydroxyspeciociliatine, from the fruits of Malaysian Mitragyna speciosa and its opioid agonistic activity. J Nat Med 2005. [DOI: 10.1007/s11418-005-0001-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
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145
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McCurdy CR, Scully SS. Analgesic substances derived from natural products (natureceuticals). Life Sci 2005; 78:476-84. [PMID: 16216276 DOI: 10.1016/j.lfs.2005.09.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/22/2005] [Indexed: 02/02/2023]
Abstract
From the first recorded accounts, over 7000 years ago, various forms of natural products have been utilized to treat pain disorders. Prototypical examples of such natural products are the opium poppy (Papaver soniferum) and the bark of the willow tree (Salix spp.). It was not until the 19th century when individual compounds were isolated from these substances and were determined to posses the desired effects. The known sources of these substances have been thoroughly investigated. Over the last several decades, more analgesic substances have been purified from natural products resulting in novel structural classes and mechanisms of actions. Plants and other natural products described in historical ethnobotanical and ethnopharmacological literature have become of more recent interest in drug discovery efforts. These manuscripts and reports are being utilized to aid in the identification of natural products that have been historically employed in the alleviation of pain. A large factor that has highlighted the importance of discovering novel compounds to treat pain has been in the fundamental understanding of the complex mechanisms of pain transmission in the nervous system. Nociceptive processing involves many receptor classes, enzymes and signaling pathways. The identification of novel classes of compounds from natural sources may lead to advancing the understanding of these underlying pharmacological mechanisms. With the potential of uncovering new compounds with idealistic pharmacological profiles (i.e., no side effects, no addictive potential), natural products still hold great promise for the future of drug discovery especially in the treatment of pain disorders and potentially drug addictions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christopher R McCurdy
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, School of Pharmacy, National Center for Natural Products Research, Research Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Mississippi, University, MS 38677, USA.
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146
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Matsumoto K, Horie S, Takayama H, Ishikawa H, Aimi N, Ponglux D, Murayama T, Watanabe K. Antinociception, tolerance and withdrawal symptoms induced by 7-hydroxymitragynine, an alkaloid from the Thai medicinal herb Mitragyna speciosa. Life Sci 2005; 78:2-7. [PMID: 16169018 DOI: 10.1016/j.lfs.2004.10.086] [Citation(s) in RCA: 71] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/19/2004] [Revised: 06/21/2004] [Accepted: 10/07/2004] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
7-Hydroxymitragynine is a potent opioid analgesic alkaloid isolated from the Thai medicinal herb Mitragyna speciosa. In the present study, we investigated the opioid receptor subtype responsible for the analgesic effect of this compound. In addition, we tested whether development of tolerance, cross-tolerance to morphine and naloxone-induced withdrawal signs were observed in chronically 7-hydroxymitragynine-treated mice. Subcutaneous (s.c.) administration of 7-hydroxymitragynine produced a potent antinociceptive effect mainly through activation of mu-opioid receptors. Tolerance to the antinociceptive effect of 7-hydroxymitragynine developed as occurs to morphine. Cross-tolerance to morphine was evident in mice rendered tolerant to 7-hydroxymitragynine and vice versa. Naloxone-induced withdrawal signs were elicited equally in mice chronically treated with 7-hydroxymitragynine or morphine. 7-Hydroxymitragynine exhibited a potent antinociceptive effect based on activation of mu-opioid receptors and its morphine-like pharmacological character, but 7-hydroxymitragynine is structurally different from morphine. These interesting characters of 7-hydroxymitragynine promote further investigation of it as a novel lead compound for opioid studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kenjiro Matsumoto
- Laboratory of Pharmacolgy, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Josai International University, 1 Gumyo, Togane, Chiba 283-8555, Japan
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147
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Matsumoto K, Yamamoto LT, Watanabe K, Yano S, Shan J, Pang PKT, Ponglux D, Takayama H, Horie S. Inhibitory effect of mitragynine, an analgesic alkaloid from Thai herbal medicine, on neurogenic contraction of the vas deferens. Life Sci 2005; 78:187-94. [PMID: 16107269 DOI: 10.1016/j.lfs.2005.04.042] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/28/2005] [Accepted: 04/16/2005] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
The effect of an indole-alkaloid mitragynine isolated from the Thai medicinal herb kratom (Mitragyna speciosa) on neurogenic contraction of smooth muscle was studied in guinea-pig vas deferens. Mitragynine inhibited the contraction of the vas deferens produced by electrical transmural stimulation. On the other hand, mitragynine failed to affect the responses to norepinephrine and ATP. Mitragynine did not reduce KCl-induced contraction in the presence of tetrodotoxin, prazosin and alpha,beta-methylene ATP. Mitragynine inhibited nicotine- or tyramine-induced contraction. By using the patch-clamp technique, mitragynine was found to block T- and L-type Ca2+ channel currents in N1E-115 neuroblastoma cells. In the Ca2+ measurement by a fluorescent dye method, mitragynine reduced KCl-induced Ca2+ influx in neuroblastoma cells. The present results suggest that mitragynine inhibits the vas deferens contraction elicited by nerve stimulation, probably through its blockade of neuronal Ca2+ channels.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kenjiro Matsumoto
- Department of Pharmacology, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Josai International University, 1 Gumyo, Togane, Chiba 283-8555, Japan
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148
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Takayama H. Chemistry and pharmacology of analgesic indole alkaloids from the rubiaceous plant, Mitragyna speciosa. Chem Pharm Bull (Tokyo) 2005; 52:916-28. [PMID: 15304982 DOI: 10.1248/cpb.52.916] [Citation(s) in RCA: 219] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
The leaves of a tropical plant, Mitragyna speciosa KORTH (Rubiaceae), have been traditionally used as a substitute for opium. Phytochemical studies of the constituents of the plant growing in Thailand and Malaysia have led to the isolation of several 9-methoxy-Corynanthe-type monoterpenoid indole alkaloids, including new natural products. The structures of the new compounds were elucidated by spectroscopic and/or synthetic methods. The potent opioid agonistic activities of mitragynine, the major constituent of this plant, and its analogues were found in in vitro and in vivo experiments and the mechanisms underlying the analgesic activity were clarified. The essential structural features of mitragynines, which differ from those of morphine and are responsible for the analgesic activity, were elucidated by pharmacological evaluation of the natural and synthetic derivatives. Among the mitragynine derivatives, 7-hydroxymitragynine, a minor constituent of M. speciosa, was found to exhibit potent antinociceptive activity in mice.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hiromitsu Takayama
- Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Chiba University, Chiba, Japan.
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149
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Takayama H, Mori I, Kitajima M, Aimi N, Lajis NH. New Type of Trimeric and Pentameric Indole Alkaloids from Psychotria rostrata. Org Lett 2004; 6:2945-8. [PMID: 15330654 DOI: 10.1021/ol048971x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 107] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Two new tryptamine-related alkaloids, psychotrimine and psychopentamine, were isolated from the leaves of Psychotria rostrata, and their novel structures were elucidated on the basis of spectroscopic analyses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hiromitsu Takayama
- Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Chiba University, Chiba 263-8522, Japan.
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150
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Takayama H, Ishikawa H, Kitajima M. m-Chloroperbenzoic Acid Oxidation of Corynanthe-Type Indole Alkaloid, Mitragynine, Afforded Unusual Dimerization Products. HETEROCYCLES 2004. [DOI: 10.3987/com-04-10186] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
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