Core–shell-type lipid–polymer hybrid nanoparticles as a drug delivery platform

Novel Self-Assembled Polycaprolactone-Lipid Hybrid Nanoparticles Enhance the Antibacterial Activity of Ciprofloxacin

Ciprofloxacin (CIP), a widely used antibiotic, is a poor biopharmaceutical resulting in low bioavailability. We optimized a CIP polymer-lipid hybrid nanoparticle (CIP-PLN) delivery system to enhance its biopharmaceutical attributes and the overall therapeutic performance. CIP-PLN formulations were prepared by a direct emulsification-solvent-evaporation method. Varying the type and ratio of lipid was tried to optimize a CIP-PLN formulation. All the prepared formulations were evaluated for their particle size, polydispersity index, zeta potential, physical stability, and drug entrapment efficiency. The drug in vitro release profile was also studied. Antibacterial activities were tested by the agar diffusion method for all CIP-PLN formulations against an Escherichia coli clinical bacterial isolate (EC04). CIP-PLN formulations showed average sizes in the range of 133.9 ± 1.7 nm to 217.1 ± 0.8 nm, exhibiting high size uniformity as indicated by polydispersity indices lower than 0.25. The entrapment efficiency was close to 80% for all formulations. The differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) thermograms indicated the existence of CIP in the amorphous state in all PLN formulations. Fourier transform infrared spectra indicated deep incorporation of molecular CIP within the polymer matrix. The release profile of CIP from PLN formulas showed a uniform prolonged drug profile, extended for a week from most formulations with a zero-order kinetics. The antibacterial activity of CIP-PLN formulations showed significantly higher antibacterial activity only with F4 containing lecithin as the lipid component. In conclusion, we successfully optimized a CIP-PLN formulation with a low nanoparticle size in a close range, high percentage of entrapment efficiency and drug loading, uniform prolonged release rate, and higher antibacterial activity against the EC04 clinical isolate.

Food-Derived Nanoscopic Drug Delivery Systems for Treatment of Rheumatoid Arthritis

Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) is a severe systemic inflammatory disease with no cure at present. Recent developments in the understanding of inflammation and nanomaterial science have led to increased applications of nanostructured drug delivery systems in the treatment of RA. The present review summarizes novel fabrications of nanoscale drug carriers using food components as either the delivered drugs or carrier structures, in order to achieve safe, effective and convenient drug administration. Polyphenols and flavonoids are among the most frequently carried anti-RA therapeutics in the nanosystems. Fatty substances, polysaccharides, and peptides/proteins can function as structuring agents of the nanocarriers. Frequently used nanostructures include nanoemulsions, nanocapsules, liposomes, and various nanoparticles. Using these nanostructures has improved drug solubility, absorption, biodistribution, stability, targeted accumulation, and release. Joint vectorization, i.e., using a combination of bioactive molecules, can bring elevated therapeutic outcomes. Utilization of anti-arthritic chemicals that can self-assemble into nanostructures is a promising research orientation in this field.

A liposome-micelle-hybrid (LMH) oral delivery system for poorly water-soluble drugs: Enhancing solubilisation and intestinal transport

A novel liposome-micelle-hybrid (LMH) carrier system was developed as a superior oral drug delivery platform compared to conventional liposome or micelle formulations. The optimal LMH system was engineered by encapsulating TPGS micelles in the aqueous core of liposomes and its efficacy for oral delivery was demonstrated using lovastatin (LOV) as a model poorly soluble drug with P-gp (permeability glycoprotein) limited intestinal absorption. LOV-LMH was characterised as unilamellar, spherical vesicles encapsulating micellar structures within the interior aqueous core and showing an average diameter below 200 nm. LMH demonstrated enhanced drug loading, water apparent solubility and extended/controlled release of LOV compared to conventional liposomes and micelles. LMH exhibited enhanced LOV absorption and transportation in a Caco-2 cell monolayer model of the intestine by inhibiting the P-gp transporter system compared to free LOV. The LMH system is a promising novel oral delivery approach for enhancing bioavailability of poorly water-soluble drugs, especially those presenting P-gp effluxes limited absorption.

Optimized Polyethylene Glycolylated Polymer-Lipid Hybrid Nanoparticles as a Potential Breast Cancer Treatment

Purpose: The aim of this work is to optimize a polyethylene glycolated (PEGylated) polymer–lipid hybrid nanoparticulate system for the delivery of anastrozole (ANS) to enhance its biopharmaceutical attributes and overall efficacy. Methods: ANS loaded PEGylated polymer–lipid hybrid nanoparticles (PLNPs) were prepared by a direct emulsification solvent evaporation method. The physical incorporation of PEG was optimized using variable ratios. The produced particles were evaluated to discern their particle size and shape, zeta-potential, entrapment efficiency, and physical stability. The drug-release profiles were studied, and the kinetic model was analyzed. The anticancer activity of the ANS PLNPs on estrogen-positive breast cancer cell lines was determined using flow cytometry. Results: The prepared ANS-PLNPs showed particle sizes in the range of 193.6 ± 2.9 to 218.2 ± 1.9 nm, with good particle size uniformity (i.e., poly-dispersity index of around 0.1). Furthermore, they exhibited relatively low zeta-potential values ranging from −0.50 ± 0.52 to 6.01 ± 4.74. The transmission electron microscopy images showed spherical shape of ANS-PLNPs and the compliance with the sizes were revealed by light scattering. The differential scanning calorimetry DSC patterns of the ANS PLNPs revealed a disappearance of the characteristic sharp melting peak of pure ANS, supporting the incorporation of the drug into the polymeric matrices of the nanoparticles. Flow cytometry showed the apoptosis of MCF-7 cell lines in the presence of ANS-PLNPs. Conclusion: PEGylated polymeric nanoparticles presented a stable encapsulated system with which to incorporate an anticancer drug (ANS) with a high percentage of entrapment efficiency (around 80%), good size uniformity, and induction of apoptosis in MCF-7 cells.

Nanocarriers in effective pulmonary delivery of siRNA: current approaches and challenges

Research on siRNA is increasing due to its wide applicability as a therapeutic agent in irreversible medical conditions. siRNA inhibits expression of the specific gene after its delivery from formulation to cytosol region of a cell. RNAi (RNA interference) is a mechanism by which siRNA is silencing gene expression for a particular disease. Numerous studies revealed that naked siRNA delivery is not preferred due to instability and poor pharmacokinetic performance. Nanocarriers based delivery of siRNA has the advantage to overcome physiological barriers and protect the integrity of siRNA from degradation by RNAase. Various diseases like lung cancer, cystic fibrosis, asthma, etc can be treated effectively by local lung delivery. The selective targeted therapeutic action in diseased organ and least off targeted cytotoxicity are the key benefits of pulmonary delivery. The current review highlights recent developments in pulmonary delivery of siRNA with novel nanosized formulation approach with the proven in vitro/in vivo applications.

Nanotechnology as a Platform for the Development of Injectable Parenteral Formulations: A Comprehensive Review of the Know-Hows and State of the Art

Within recent decades, the development of nanotechnology has made a significant contribution to the progress of various fields of study, including the domains of medical and pharmaceutical sciences. A substantially transformed arena within the context of the latter is the development and production of various injectable parenteral formulations. Indeed, recent decades have witnessed a rapid growth of the marketed and pipeline nanotechnology-based injectable products, which is a testimony to the remarkability of the aforementioned contribution. Adjunct to the ability of nanomaterials to deliver the incorporated payloads to many different targets of interest, nanotechnology has substantially assisted to the development of many further facets of the art. Such contributions include the enhancement of the drug solubility, development of long-acting locally and systemically injectable formulations, tuning the onset of the drug’s release through the endowment of sensitivity to various internal or external stimuli, as well as adjuvancy and immune activation, which is a desirable component for injectable vaccines and immunotherapeutic formulations. The current work seeks to provide a comprehensive review of all the abovementioned contributions, along with the most recent advances made within each domain. Furthermore, recent developments within the domains of passive and active targeting will be briefly debated.

Nose-to-brain delivery of antipsychotics using nanotechnology: a review

INTRODUCTION

Orally-administered antipsychotics are effective in the management of psychosis-related disorders although generation-specific adverse drug reactions (ADRs) significantly hinder clinical outcomes, driven by issues such as patient non-compliance. Direct nose-to-brain (N2B) delivery of antipsychotics via the olfactory epithelium could avert peripheral ADRs by maximizing cerebral drug concentrations, and reducing drug levels in the periphery. However, there exist physicochemical challenges related to psychotropic drugs, alongside biochemical barriers associated with targeting the olfactory region. Nanotechnological approaches present a viable strategy for the development of intranasal antipsychotic formulations where drug stability, mucosal absorption and cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)-bioavailability can be optimized.

AREAS COVERED

This review explores the unique anatomical features of the nasal cavity as a pathway for antipsychotic drug delivery to the brain. Nanocarrier-based approaches to encapsulate antipsychotics, and enhance stability, absorption and bioavailability are explored. The aim of this review is to determine current knowledge gaps for direct N2B psychotropic drug delivery, and identify clinically acceptable strategies to overcome them.

EXPERT OPINION

The olfactory epithelium may be the most effective and direct administration route for antipsychotic delivery to the central nervous system (CNS). This research is novel and has the potential to revolutionize the mode of delivery of neurological medicines to the CNS in the future.

Lipid-core/polymer-shell hybrid nanoparticles: synthesis and characterization by fluorescence labeling and electrophoresis

Among the lipid nanoparticles, lipid polymer hybrid nanoparticles (HNPs) composed of an oily core and a polymeric shell display interesting features as efficient drug carriers due to the high loading capability of the oil phase and the stability and surface functionalization of the polymer shell. Herein, we formulated lipid-core/polymer-shell hybrid nanoparticles (HNPs) using a simple nanoprecipitation method involving Vitamin E Acetate (VEA) as the oily core and a tailor-made amphiphilic polymer as a wrapping shell. The fluorescence labeling of the oil, using a newly developed green fluorogenic BODIPY tracker, and of the polymer using a covalent attachment of a red emitting rhodamine was done to assess the formation, the composition and the stability of these new hybrid nanoparticles using dual color electrophoresis gel analysis. This technique, combined to conventional DLS and electronic microscopy analysis, allowed us to quickly determine that 20 wt% of the polymer was an optimal ratio for obtaining stable HNPs by nanoprecipiation. Finally, we showed that using different polymeric shells, various HNPs can be obtained and finely discriminated using a combined approach of electrophoresis and two-color labeling.

Antitumor activity of gemcitabine hydrochloride loaded lipid polymer hybrid nanoparticles (LPHNs): In vitro and in vivo

The present study demonstrated the application of gemcitabine hydrochloride (GEM) loaded lipid polymer hybrid nanoparticles (LPHNs) for the enhancement the chemotherapeutic response. GEM, which is an anti-tumor drug, is frequently utilized for the treatment of non-small cell lung cancer, breast cancer and pancreatic cancer. GEM loaded LPHNs were formed and examined for pharmacokinetic profile and in vivo anticancer activity. Modified double emulsion solvent evaporation method was employed in the preparation of the LPHNs. Cytotoxicities of the GEM loaded LPHNs formulation were evaluated on MCF-7 and MDA-MB-231 cells by MTT assays. Pharmacokinetics and in vivo anticancer efficacy studies were conducted following intraperitoneal administration in female Sprague-Dawley rats. In vivo pharmacokinetic studies in rats exhibited the advantage of the GEM loaded LPHNs over commercial product Gemko® and the GEM loaded LPHNs had longer circulation time. The half-life of GEM in LPHNs formulation was notable advanced (4.2 folds) comparing to commercial product of GEM (native). These findings indicated that GEM loaded LPHNs can be used for enhancing antitumor efficacy for breast cancer treatment.

Preparation of Gel-Liposome Nanoparticles for Drug Delivery Applications

Liposomes are amongst the most effective delivery vehicles developed to date. Despite many advantages including biocompatibility, biodegradability, and the ability to carry both hydrophilic and lipophilic compounds, liposomes suffer from low physical stability. This limitation can be effectively addressed by inclusion of a polymeric scaffold within the core of liposomes. Given the versatility of poly (ethylene glycol) (PEG) hydrogels, these polymers have a great potential for the use in liposomal core. As a step towards the development of a robust liposomal delivery platform, here we aim to develop a simple and reliable technique for the fabrication of liposomes with PEG gel cores. We assess the resultant nanoparticles using scanning electron microscopy and dynamic light scattering and demonstrate that the presented approach can successfully produce gel-liposome nanoparticles with spherical shape and 150-200 nm size. These nanoparticles are further evaluated for colloidal stability in physiological solution. Moreover, we demonstrate the versatility of this method by studying the effect of changing (A) the membrane composition in liposomes, and (B) the hydrogel concentration in liposomal core, on the formation of gel-liposome particles.

Trimethyl chitosan nanoparticles for ocular baicalein delivery: Preparation, optimization, in vitro evaluation, in vivo pharmacokinetic study and molecular dynamics simulation

To improve ocular bioavailability of baicalein (BAI), trimethyl chitosan coated lipid nanoparticles of baicalein (TMC-BAI-LNPs) were prepared, optimized and characterized. The properties of TMC-BAI-LNPs such as morphology, particle size, zeta potential and fourier transform infrared spectroscopy were investigated. Additionally, molecular dynamics simulation was applied as a new method to evaluate drug-biological membrane interactions. Transmission electron microscopy showed that the LNPs were approximately spherical in shape with a smooth surface. TMC-BAI-LNPs had a particle size of 162.8 nm, a positive surface charge with a zeta potential of 26.6 mV. The entrapment efficiency and drug loading values of BAI in the formulation were 90.65% and 2.04%, respectively. Moreover, in vitro drug release revealed that TMC-BAI-LNPs had a sustained release effect. In vivo studies indicated TMC-BAI-LNPs had no ocular irritation and the AUC of TMC-BAI-LNPs was 3.17-fold than that of the control (p < 0.01). Molecular dynamics simulation data showed that BAI had a poor membrane permeability, which limited the ocular bioavailability. The results indicated that TMC-BAI-LNPs might open up a new avenue for ocular administration. Furthermore, molecular dynamics simulation could predict permeability of drugs.

An efficient controlled release strategy for hypertension therapy: Folate-mediated lipid nanoparticles for oral peptide delivery

Hypertension is an important cardiovascular disease, which need long-term medication. Thus, oral drug delivery system is a preferred route for hypertension patients due to the convenience and compliance. Val-Leu-Pro-Val-Pro (VLPVP, VP5) is an angiotensin converting enzyme inhibitory peptide with antihypertensive effects. However, the oral peptide delivery is faced with obstacles, such as gastric acid, enzyme degradation and intestine barriers. Herein, we developed a controlled release system consisting of a PLGA core encapsulated with VP5 and a folate-decorated lipid shell (FA-VP5-LNPs) for the oral delivery of antihypertensive peptide. The results found that FA-VP5-LNPs exhibited high stability and possessed a controlled release behavior. Besides, FA-VP5-LNPs improved the cellular uptake both in Caco-2 and HT29 cells and enhanced in situ intestinal absorption in SD rats. The in vivo bioavailability study showed a superior oral absorption of FA-VP5-LNPs, and the AUC_{0-72 h} of FA-VP5-LNPs was 30.71-fold higher than that of free VP5. The pharmacodynamics study exhibited that FA-VP5-LNPs maintained strong antihypertensive effect for six days compared with free VP5, which may reduce the frequency of administration and improve patient compliance. In addition, the nano-formulations showed no toxicity to cells and tissues. These promising results suggested that FA-VP5-LNPs could overcome the intestinal barrier and provide a potential strategy for enhancing peptide delivery and improve the antihypertensive effects.

Co-Delivery of Curcumin and Cisplatin to Enhance Cytotoxicity of Cisplatin Using Lipid-Chitosan Hybrid Nanoparticles

Background

Lipid-polymer hybrid nanoparticles (LPHNP) are suitable for co-delivery of hydrophilic and lipophilic drugs. The structural advantages of polymers and biomimetic properties of lipids enable higher encapsulation of drugs and controlled release profile. Lipid-polymer hybrid nanoparticles have been prepared for co-delivery of curcumin and cisplatin for enhanced cytotoxicity against ovarian cancer.

Material and Methods

Chitosan, cisplatin, curcumin, Lipoid S75 were selected as structural components and ionic gelation method was used for preparation of LPHNPs. Nanoparticles were formed via ionic interaction of positively charged chitosan and negatively charged lipid.

Results

The optimized nanoparticles were of 225 nm with cationic charge. The encapsulation efficiency was greater than 80% with good drug loading. The drug release profile showed controlled release behavior of both curcumin and cisplatin simultaneously and the absence of burst release. The in vitro therapeutic efficacy and cellular association was evaluated using A2780 ovarian cell lines. To further investigate therapeutic efficacy, we developed 3D spheroids as tumor model to mimic the in vivo conditions. The cytotoxicity and uptake of co-loaded LPHNPs were evaluated on 3D spheroids and results indicated increased chemosensitization and enhanced therapeutic efficacy of co-loaded LPHNPs.

Conclusion

Lipid-polymer hybrid nanoparticles could be a suitable platform for co-delivery of curcumin and cisplatin for enhanced cytotoxic effect on ovarian cell lines.

Herbal ethosomal gel containing luliconazole for productive relevance in the field of biomedicine

This study includes development, characterization, and optimization of herbal ethosomal formulation. The aim of the present study is to develop drug loaded ethosomes capped with Azadirachta indica (neem) which, was further incorporated in Carbopol 934 K thereby, resulting in the formation of ethosomal gel. The formulation is aimed to express effective treatment against fungal infection. The build was formulated using drug (Luliconazole), soyalecithin, ethanolic neem extract and propylene glycol. In total nine ethosomal, formulations of distinct concentrations of ingredients were processed, to determine out the optimized formulation among the all. Further the prepared drug loaded ethosomes were subjected to various evaluation parameters like particle size, zeta potential, polydispersity index (PDI) and % entrapment efficiency. For the evaluation of its surface morphology, transmission electron microscopy was executed whereas, atomic force microscopy was carried out which contributes in detail and depth information of surface morphology. For the analysis of thermal behavior Thermal gravimetric analysis graph was obtained for luliconazole, soyalecithin, neem extract, physical mixture and optimized formulation (LF5). Attenuated total internal reflection Fourier transforms infra-red spectroscopy was performed for luliconazole, soyalecithin, neem extract, physical mixture, and optimized formulation (LF5) to examine the interaction between the drug and the excipients. Viscosity, pH, spreadability and extrudability of the ethosomal gel were calculated to determine the suitability of the formulation for topical application. In vitro drug permeation study and antifungal activity was executed out with the aid of Wistar albino rat skin model and tube dilution assay respectively. The complete study wrap up, that this herbal ethosomal approach provides advanced sustained and targeted delivery of luliconazole. On analyzing the results, ethosomal formulation LF5 was found to be optimized one, due to its optimum concentration of soyalecithin (300 mg) and ethanol (35%). Hence it has maximum entrapment efficiency of 86.56 ± 0.74%. Optimum vesicle size, zeta potential, and PDI were found to be 155.30 ± 1.2 nm, - 42.20 ± 0.3 mV, and 0.186 ± 0.07 respectively. In vitro drug permeation study expresses release of 83.45 ± 2.51 in 24 h whereas; the in vivo activity proved that LF5 is more active and effective against Candida parapsilosis in comparison to Aspergillus niger. In the end, it was estimated that ethosomal suspension and lyophilized ethosomal suspension was utmost stable at 4 °C/60 ± 5 RH. The complete study clearly indicates that the buildup of ethosomal formulation with luliconazole and neem extract show synergistic effect thereby, expressing excellent result against the treatment of fungal infection.

Non-small cell lung cancer combination therapy: Hyaluronic acid modified, epidermal growth factor receptor targeted, pH sensitive lipid-polymer hybrid nanoparticles for the delivery of erlotinib plus bevacizumab

Non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) is the leading cause of cancer-related mortality in China. This study aimed to develop a hyaluronic acid (HA) decorated, pH sensitive lipid-polymer hybrid nanoparticles (LPH NPs) to co-deliver erlotinib (ERL) and bevacizumab (BEV) (HA-ERL/BEV-LPH NPs) for targeting and suppressing NSCLC. HA contained pH sensitive nano-materials were synthesized by acylation reaction. HA-ERL/BEV-LPH NPs were prepared using a sonication method. To explore the efficiency of the system, we evaluated the physicochemical parameters and performed a release study, a cellular uptake assay, a cytotoxicity evaluation, and several in vivo anti-tumor studies in comparison with free drugs and single drug systems. All LPH NPs samples have particle sizes of about 100-120 nm, polydispersity index values range from 0.12 to 0.15, and negative zeta potentials. HA-ERL/BEV-LPH NPs contained pH sensitive adipic acid dihydrazide (ADH) showed fast drug release at pH 5.5 than pH 7.4. After 21 days, the tumor volume of the HA-ERL/BEV-LPH NPs group (229.2 ± 13.1 mm³) was significantly smaller than 0.9 % NaCl control group (1126.3 ± 39.4 mm³), with a tumor inhibition rate of 79.7 ± 3.2 %. The maximum plasma ERL concentrations, half life period, and area under the curve of HA-ERL/BEV-LPH NPs were 21.6 μg/mL, 7.57 h, and 290.3 mg/L·h). With the highest tumor tissue accumulation concentration (25.3 μg/mL) and low system toxicity, HA-ERL/BEV-LPH NPs. HA-ERL/BEV-LPH NPs could be used as a promising system for the combination therapy of NSCLC.

Lipid-chitosan hybrid nanoparticles for controlled delivery of cisplatin

Lipid-polymer hybrid nanoparticles (LPHNP) are delivery systems for controlled drug delivery at tumor sites. The superior biocompatible properties of lipids and structural advantages of polymers can be obtained using this system for controlled drug delivery. In this study, cisplatin-loaded lipid-chitosan hybrid nanoparticles were formulated by the single step ionic gelation method based on ionic interaction of positively charged chitosan and negatively charged lipid. Formulations with various chitosan to lipid ratios were investigated to obtain the optimal particle size, encapsulation efficiency, and controlled release pattern. Transmission electron microscope and dynamic light scattering analysis demonstrated a size range of 181–245 nm and a zeta potential range of 20–30 mV. The stability of the formulation was demonstrated by thermal studies. Cytotoxicity and cellular interaction of cisplatin-loaded LPHNP were investigated using in vitro cell-based assays using the A2780 ovarian carcinoma cell line. The pharmacokinetics study in rabbits supported a controlled delivery of cisplatin with enhanced mean residence time and half-life. These studies suggest that cisplatin loaded LPHNP have promise as a platform for controlled delivery of cisplatin in cancer therapy.

Near infrared fluorogenic probe as a prodrug model for evaluating cargo release by nanoemulsions

We developed Pro-HD, a NIR fluorogenic prodrug model. We evaluated its efficient cell delivery using biocompatible nanoemulsions and its hydrolysis into the fluorescent HD drug model once delivered in cancer cells.

Nanohybrid carriers: the yin–yang equilibrium between natural and synthetic in biomedicine

Nanocarriers are key players in biomedicine applications. The development of hybrid nanoparticles stems from the need to enhance their quality by lowering disadvantages and fusing the positive qualities of both natural and synthetic materials.

Therapeutic lipid-coated hybrid nanoparticles against bacterial infections

One of the most important health concerns in society is the development of pathogen-causing nosocomial infections. Since the first discovery of antibiotics, bacterial infections have been highly treatable. However, with evolution and the nondiscretionary usage of antibiotics, pathogens have also found new ways to survive the onslaught of antibiotics by surviving intracellularly or through the formation of obstinate biofilms, and through these, the outcomes of regular antibiotic treatments may now be unsatisfactory. Lipid-coated hybrid nanoparticles (LCHNPs) are the next-generation core–shell structured nanodelivery system, where an inorganic or organic core, loaded with antimicrobials, is enveloped by lipid layers. This core–shell structure, with multifarious decorations, not only improves the loading capabilities of therapeutics but also has the potential to improve therapeutic delivery, especially for targeting biofilm-based and intracellular bacterial infections. Although there has been significant interest in the development of LCHNPs, they have yet to be widely exploited for bacterial infections. In this review, we will provide an overview on the latest development of LCHNPs and the various approaches in synthesizing this nano-delivery system. In addition, a discussion on future perspectives of LCHNPs, in combination with other novel anti-bacterial technologies, will be provided towards the end of this review.

Lipid-coated hybrid nanoparticles are next-generation core–shell structured nanodelivery systems, which improve the loading capabilities of therapeutics and can improve therapeutic delivery, especially for targeting biofilm-based and intracellular bacterial infections.

Inhalable hybrid nanocarriers for respiratory disorders

Rapid advancements in the field of drug delivery lead to increased use of inhalable formulations as they are cost effective, noninvasive, and targeted and have less systemic side effects and above all better patient compliance. Development of inhalable hybrid systems has offered manifold advantages to this area of drug delivery. Inclusion of polymer and lipid, inorganic and organic substances, and metallic nanoparticles all of them aim to achieve codelivery of drugs which are incompatible in single phase systems. The recent progress in nanotechnology has gained momentum toward delivery of siRNA and miRNA and vaccines to the targeted site. The present work is an attempt to compile all the hybrid and inhalable systems to give readers an overview toward this delivery system as much more work is needed in this field to achieve better resolution of inflammatory disorders.

Bioinspired Polymeric-based Core-shell Smart Nano-systems

Smart nanosystems (SNs) have the potential to revolutionize drug delivery. Conventional drug delivery systems have poor drug-loading, early burst release, limited therapeutic effects, etc. Thus, to overcome these problems, researchers have taken advantage of the host-guest interactions as bioinspired nanosystems which can deliver nanocarriers more efficiently with the maximum drug loading capacity and improved therapeutic efficacy as well as bioavailability. SNs employ nanomaterials to form cage molecules by entrapping new nanocarriers called smart nanosystems in their cargo and design. The activities of SNs are based on responsive materials that interact with the stimuli either by changing their properties or conformational structures. The aptitude of living systems to respond to stimuli and process information has encouraged researchers to build up integrated nanosystems exhibiting similar function and therapeutic response. Various smart materials, including polymers, have been exhaustively employed in fabricating different stimuli-responsive nanosystems which can deliver bioactive molecules to a specific site for a certain period with minimal side effects. SNs have been widely explored to deliver diverse kinds of therapeutic agents ranging from bioactive compounds, genes, and biopharmaceuticals like proteins and peptides, to diagnostic imaging agents for biomedical applications. Nanotechnology-based different nanosystems are promising for health care issues. The advancement of SNs with physical science and engineering technology in synthesizing nanostructures and their physicochemical characterization should be exploited in medicine and healthcare for reducing mortality rate, morbidity, disease prevalence and general societal burden.

Assessment of the hepatoprotective effect of developed lipid-polymer hybrid nanoparticles (LPHNPs) encapsulating naturally extracted β-Sitosterol against CCl4 induced hepatotoxicity in rats

The hepatoprotective effect of β-Sitosterol (BSS), a natural phytosterol, after being formulated into a suitable pharmaceutical drug delivery system has not been widely explored. BSS was isolated from Centaurea pumilio L., identified and formulated as lipid-polymer hybrid nanoparticles (LPHNPs) using the poly(D,L-lactide-co-glycolide) polymer and DSPE-PEG-2000 lipid in different ratios. The selected formulation, prepared with a lipid: polymer: drug ratio of 2:2:2, had an entrapment efficiency (EE%) of 94.42 ± 3.8, particle size of 181.5 ± 11.3 nm, poly dispersity index (PDI) of 0.223 ± 0.06, zeta potential of −37.34 ± 3.21 and the highest drug release after 24 h. The hepatoprotective effect of the formulation at two different doses against CCl₄ induced hepatotoxicity was evaluated in rats. The results showed that the BSS-LPHNPs (400 mg/kg) have the ability to restore the liver enzymes (alanine aminotransferase (ALT) and aspartate aminotransferase (AST)), liver lipid peroxidation markers (malondialdehyde (MDA) and catalase (CAT)), total bilirubin and albumin to their normal levels without inhibitory effect on the CYP2E1 activity. Also, the formulation could maintain the normal histological structure of liver tissue and decrease the cleaved caspase-3 expression. LPHNPs formulation encapsulating natural BSS is a promising hepatoprotective drug delivery system.

Lipid-based nanodelivery approaches for dopamine-replacement therapies in Parkinson's disease: From preclinical to translational studies

The incidence of Parkinson's disease (PD), the second most common neurodegenerative disorder, has increased exponentially as the global population continues to age. Although the etiological factors contributing to PD remain uncertain, its average incidence rate is reported to be 1% of the global population older than 60 years. PD is primarily characterized by the progressive loss of dopaminergic (DAergic) neurons and/or associated neuronal networks and the subsequent depletion of dopamine (DA) levels in the brain. Thus, DA or levodopa (l-dopa), a precursor of DA, represent cardinal targets for both idiopathic and symptomatic PD therapeutics. While several therapeutic strategies have been investigated over the past decade for their abilities to curb the progression of PD, an effective cure for PD is currently unavailable. Even DA replacement therapy, an effective PD therapeutic strategy that provides an exogenous supply of DA or l-dopa, has been hindered by severe challenges, such as a poor capacity to bypass the blood-brain barrier and inadequate bioavailability. Nevertheless, with recent advances in nanotechnology, several drug delivery systems have been developed to bypass the barriers associated with central nervous system therapeutics. In here, we sought to describe the adapted lipid-based nanodrug delivery systems used in the field of PD therapeutics and their recent advances, with a particular focus placed on DA replacement therapies. This work initially explores the background of PD; offers descriptions of the most recent molecular targets; currently available clinical medications/limitations; an overview of several lipid-based PD nanotherapeutics, functionalized nanoparticles, and technical aspects in brain delivery; and, finally, presents future perspectives to enhance the use of nanotherapeutics in PD treatment.

The potential of lipid-polymer nanoparticles as epigenetic and ROS control approaches for COPD

Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) is a lung disease caused by an inflammatory response to various inhaled toxins, especially cigarette smoke. Reactive oxygen species (ROS) and epigenetic abnormality are intimately related to the pathology of COPD, and the overproduction of ROS results in a decrease of histone deacetylase 2 (HDAC2), leading to glucocorticoid resistance. Therefore, a novel treatment that simultaneously reduces ROS level and glucocorticoid resistance is urgently needed. In this study, we developed a codelivery system using core-shell type lipid-polymer nanoparticles (LPNs) composed of a poly(lactic acid) (PLA) core encapsulating a potent antioxidant Mn-porphyrin dimer (MnPD) and a cationic lipid (DOTAP) shell that binds HDAC2-encoding plasmid DNA (pHDAC2), as a new therapeutic approach toward COPD. The transfection of pHDAC2 combined with the elimination of ROS by MnPD exhibited a significant enhancement of intracellular HDAC2 expression levels, suggesting that the multi-antioxidative activity of MnPD plays a crucial role in the expression of HDAC2. Moreover, treatment with LPNs efficiently ameliorated the steroid resistance in COPD models in vitro as evidenced by the lowered expression levels of IL-8. Recovery from mitochondrial dysfunction may be the mechanism underlying the action of LPNs. The PLA-MnPD/DOTAP/pHDAC2 system proposed offers a new therapeutic approach for COPD based on the synergism of ROS elimination and HDAC2 expression.

Surface engineering of nanomaterials with phospholipid-polyethylene glycol-derived functional conjugates for molecular imaging and targeted therapy

In recent years, phospholipid-polyethylene glycol-derived functional conjugates have been widely employed to decorate different nanomaterials, due to their excellent biocompatibility, long blood circulation characteristics, and specific targeting capability. Numerous in vivo studies have demonstrated that nanomedicines peripherally engineered with phospholipid-polyethylene glycol-derived functional conjugates show significantly increased selective and efficient internalization by target cells/tissues. Targeting moieties including small-molecule ligands, peptides, proteins, and antibodies are generally conjugated onto PEGylated phospholipids to decorate liposomes, micelles, hybrid nanoparticles, nanocomplexes, and nanoemulsions for targeted delivery of diagnostic and therapeutic agents to diseased sites. In this review, the synthesis methods of phospholipid-polyethylene glycol-derived functional conjugates, biophysicochemical properties of nanomedicines decorated with these conjugates, factors dominating their targeting efficiency, as well as their applications for in vivo molecular imaging and targeted therapy were summarized and discussed.

Liposome-Enveloped Molecular Nanogels

Novel hydrogel@liposome particles were prepared by pH-triggered molecular gel formation inside of liposomes loaded with a low-molecular weight gelator derived from l-valine (1). Liposome formation was carried out using l-α-phosphatidylcholine (PC) and cholesterol as components of the lipid bilayer. Molecular hydrogelator 1 and pyranine, a ratiometric fluorescent pH probe, were entrapped in the liposomes at pH 9 and posterior acidification with d-glucono-1,5-lactone to pH 5-6 provoked intraliposomal gel formation. Removal of the lipid bilayer with sodium dodecyl sulfate yielded naked nanogel particles. The systems were characterized by transmission electron microscopy and dynamic light scattering. The hydrogel@liposomes were loaded with doxorubicin, showing a similar release than that observed for liposomes. The hybrid particles described here are the first case of nonpolymeric hydrogel@liposome systems reported. This type of nanocarriers merges the benefits of liposomal vehicles with the inherent stimuli responsiveness and enhanced biocompatibility of hydrogels formed by low-molecular weight molecules, foretelling a potential use in environmentally sensitive drug release.

Langmuir-Blodgett films of membrane lipid in the presence of hybrid silsesquioxane, a promising component of biomaterials

Functionalized polyhedral oligomeric silsesquioxanes (POSS) derivatives have great potential in biomedical applications such as tissue engineering, drug delivery, biosensors, dental composites and biomedical devices. Having the above in mind, in this paper, the study of the surface characteristics of binary Langmuir-Blodgett films consisting of an open cage silsesquioxane POSS-poly (ethylene glycol) (POSS-PEG) and 1,2-dimyristoyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphoethanolamine (DMPE), as a representative of phospholipid was conducted based on contact angle measurements of three liquids. The measured values of the contact angle (with water, formamide and diiodomethane as the wetting liquids) allowed to calculate surface free energy of the films from van Oss et al. approach. The film structure of the deposited layers was evaluated using an atomic force microscope. Analysis of the obtained results led to the conclusion, that the pure DMPE molecules create agglomerates onto a solid substrate, whereas the POSS-PEG molecules form a homogenous monolayer. After an addition of POSS-PEG to lipid film, changes in the surface properties are visible. The wettability as well as surface free energy depend on the molar ratio of both components. The AFM images shed more light on the changes of the DMPE monolayer topography caused by the POSS-PEG addition.

Core‑shell type thermo‑nanoparticles loaded with temozolomide combined with photothermal therapy in melanoma cells

A novel core-shell type thermo-nanoparticle (CSTNP) co-loaded with temozolomide (TMZ) and the fluorescein new indocyanine green dye IR820 (termed IT-CSTNPs) was designed and combined with a near-infrared (NIR) laser to realize its photothermal conversion. The IT-CSTNPs were prepared using a two-step synthesis method and comprised a thermosensitive shell and a biodegradable core. IR820 and TMZ were entrapped in the shell and the core, respectively. Dynamic light scattering results demonstrated that the average hydrodynamic size of the IT-CSTNPs was 196.4±3.1 nm with a ζ potential of −24.9±1.3 mV. The encapsulation efficiencies of TMZ and IR820 were 6.1 and 16.6%, respectively. Temperature increase curves under NIR laser irradiation indicated that the IT-CSTNPs exhibited the desired photothermal conversion efficiency. The in vitro drug release curves revealed a suitable release capability of IT-CSTNP under physiological conditions, whereas NIR laser irradiation accelerated the drug release. Inverted fluorescence microscopy and flow cytometry results revealed that the uptake of IT-CSTNPs by A375 melanoma cells occurred in a concentration-dependent manner. Confocal laser scanning microscopy results indicated that IT-CSTNPs entered tumour cells via endocytosis and were located in intercellular lysosomes. In summary, the present study explored the photothermal conversion capability, cellular uptake, and intracellular localization of IT-CSTNPs.

Amphiphilic copolymers change the nature of the ordered-to-disordered phase transition of lipid membranes from discontinuous to continuous

The phase behaviour as a function of temperature is explored for pure phospholipid (DPPC) and hybrid lipid-polymer (DPPC/Pluronic L64) bilayers with the aid of atomistic MD simulations. The range of the fixed-temperature simulations includes temperatures below and above the known melting temperature (Tm) for DPPC membranes. For the pure lipid bilayer, the main phase transition is discontinuous, as verified by the abrupt changes observed in the membrane structure, elasticity and the lipid diffusivity near the critical temperature Tm, which lies in the region 298.15-303.15 K. A pre-transition step is detected at 298.15 K which has been identified as the ripple phase (Pβ'), where ordered and disordered lipids coexist, causing thickness fluctuations. In the ordered gel phase, the positional ordering as assessed by the lipid radial distribution functions is long-range and some degree of hexagonal packing is measured. The hybrid bilayers on the other hand, transform from a more ordered to a disordered phase in a continuous manner, without finite jumps in their properties. No signs of the ripple phase are identified and the ordered phase exhibits very limited hexagonal packing and some positional ordering that decays fast. The effect of the inserted polymers in the two phases is reversed; at low temperatures, they render the membrane thinner, less cohesive and less ordered compared to the pure one, with the lipids assuming faster diffusion rates, whereas at high temperatures, the polymer interaction with the lipids acts reducing their diffusivity, but also increasing the lipid tail ordering and the membrane stiffness. The ability of the amphiphilic L64 copolymers to change the nature of the main phase transition of lipid membranes and their properties both in the ordered and the disordered phase is of vital importance for the prediction of both the efficacy of hybrid lipid/polymer nanoparticles as drug delivery vehicles as well as their potential adverse implications during interactions with healthy cell membranes.

Targeted Codelivery of an Antigen and Dual Agonists by Hybrid Nanoparticles for Enhanced Cancer Immunotherapy

Among approaches of current cancer immunotherapy, a dendritic cell (DC)-targeted vaccine based on nanotechnology could be a promising way to efficiently induce potent immune responses. To enhance DC targeting and vaccine efficiency, we included imiquimod (IMQ), a toll-like receptor 7/8 (TLR 7/8) agonist, and monophosphoryl lipid A (MPLA), a TLR4 agonist, to synthesize lipid-polymer hybrid nanoparticles using PCL-PEG-PCL and DOTAP (IMNPs) as well as DSPE-PEG-mannose (MAN-IMNPS). The spatiotemporal delivery of MPLA (within the outer lipid layer) to extracellular TLR4 and IMQ (in the hydrophobic core of NPs) to intracellular TLR7/8 can activate DCs synergistically to improve vaccine efficacy. Ovalbumin (OVA) as a model antigen was readily absorbed by positively charged DOTAP and showed a quick release in vitro. Our results demonstrated that this novel nanovaccine enhanced cellular uptake, cytokine production, and maturation of DCs. Compared with the quick metabolism of free OVA-agonists, the depot effect of OVA-IMNPs was observed, whereas MAN-OVA-IMNPs promoted trafficking to secondary lymphoid organs. After immunization with a subcutaneous injection, the nanovaccine, especially MAN-OVA-IMNPs, induced more antigen-specific CD8⁺ T cells, greater lymphocyte activation, stronger cross-presentation, and more generation of memory T cells, antibody, IFN-γ, and granzyme B. Prophylactic vaccination of MAN-OVA-IMNPs significantly delayed tumor development and prolonged the survival in mice. The therapeutic tumor challenge indicated that MAN-OVA-IMNPs prohibited tumor progression more efficiently than other formulations, and the combination with an immune checkpoint blockade further enhanced antitumor effects. Hence, the DC-targeted vaccine codelivery with IMQ and MPLA adjuvants by hybrid cationic nanoparticles in a spatiotemporal manner is a promising multifunctional antigen delivery system in cancer immunotherapy.

Conception of nanosized hybrid liposome/poloxamer particles to thicken the interior core of liposomes and delay hydrophilic drug delivery

Liposomes are nanocarriers composed of phospholipids, especially designed to potentially carry drugs. However, liposomes suffer in terms of leakage of small hydrophilic drugs. To control the release, a system with lipid shell and polymeric viscous core, namely Hybrid liposome/polymer inside (HLP_in), has been designed. For this purpose, we setup a syringe pump apparatus equipped with homemade tubing system. HLPin formulation consisting of poloxamer (5% w/v) was found to be optimal when produced at injection rates of 5 mL.min^-1. Then, we tend to characterize the HLP_in with DLS, TEM, TRPS, thermal analysis and densitometry in comparison with a polymer added after formation of the liposomes. The optimal formulation was evaluated for its stability and cytotoxicity. The selected conditions and composition resulted in nanocarriers which are highly reproducible with mono-disperse size distribution with an average size of 206 ± 4.8 nm and a polydispersity index of 0.15 ± 0.015. Densitometry and thermal analysis results confirmed the formation of HLP_in. Interestingly, HLP_in were stable over 2 months, produced no cytotoxicity and exhibited slow release of rhodamine and Doxorubicin in comparison to liposome formulation. Our homemade tubing system coupled with syringe pump apparatus achieved reproducible, precisely controlled production for the HLPin formulation which can be scale up.

Red blood cells as an efficient in vitro model for evaluating the efficacy of metallic nanoparticles

Blood and the linings of blood vessels may be regarded as a fifth tissue type. The human body contains 5 × 10⁹ red blood cells (RBCs) per ml, a total of 2.5 × 10¹³ cells in the 5 l of blood present in the body. With an average lifetime of 125 days, human RBCs are destroyed by leukocytes in the spleen and liver. Nowadays red blood cells are extensively used to study various metabolic functions. Nanoparticles (NP) are being widely accepted for drug delivery system. This review summarizes the red blood cells, NPs and their characteristics on the basis of the RBC components along with drug delivery systems through RBCs. Further, we also discussed that how erythrocytes can be used as an efficient in vitro model for evaluating the efficacy of various nanocomposite materials.

Emulsion and miniemulsion techniques in preparation of polymer nanoparticles with versatile characteristics

In recent years, polymer nanoparticles (PNPs) have found their ways into numerous applications extending from electronics to photonics, conducting materials to sensors and medicine to biotechnology. Physical properties and surface morphology of PNPs are the most important parameters that significantly affect on their exploitations and can be controlled through the synthesis process. Emulsion and miniemulsion techniques are among the most efficient and wide-spread methods for preparation of PNPs. The objective of this review is to present and highlight the recent developments in the advanced PNPs with specific properties that are produced through emulsion and miniemulsion processes.

Trastuzumab-Coated Nanoparticles Loaded With Docetaxel for Breast Cancer Therapy

Docetaxel (DTX) is commonly used for breast cancer treatment. Tween 80 used for DTX dissolution in its clinical formulation causes severe hypersensitivity and other adverse reactions. In this study, trastuzumab (Tmab)-coated lipid-polymer hybrid nanoparticles (PLNs) were prepared, composed of poly (d, l-lactide-co-glycolide), PLGA; polyethylenimine (PEI); and lipids. The PLGA/PEI/lipid formed a hydrophobic core, while Tmab was electrostatically adsorbed on the surface of the PLNs as a ligand that targets human epidermal growth factor receptor 2 (HER2)-positive breast cancer cells. The resulting PLNs, electrostatically adsorbed Tmab-bearing PLGA/PEI/lipid nanoparticles (eTmab-PPLNs), had a mean particle size of 217.4 ± 13.36 nm, a ζ potential of 0.056 ± 0.315 mV, and good stability. In vitro, the eTmab-PPLNs showed increased cytotoxicity in HER2-postive BT474 cells but not in HER2-negative MCF7 cells. Studies of the ability of eTmab-PPLNs to target HER2 were performed. The uptake of eTmab-PPLNs was shown to be dependent on HER2 expression level. Therefore, eTmab-PPLNs provide a promising therapeutic for the treatment of breast cancer.

In vitro and in vivo effect of hyaluronic acid modified, doxorubicin and gallic acid co-delivered lipid-polymeric hybrid nano-system for leukemia therapy

Objective: To investigate the hyaluronic acid (HA) modified, doxorubicin (DOX) and gallic acid (GA) co-delivered lipid-polymeric hybrid nano-system for leukemia therapy.

Methods: We produced a kind of lipid-polymer hybrid nanoparticle (LPHN) with a core-shell structure in which DOX and GA were co-loaded. In vitro and in vivo leukemia therapeutic effects of the HA modified, DOX and GA co-delivered LPHNs (HA-DOX/GA-LPHNs) were evaluated in DOX resistant human HL-60 promyelocytic leukemia cells (HL-60/ADR cells), DOX resistant human K562 chronic myeloid leukemia cells (K562/ADR cells), and HL-60/ADR cells bearing mouse model.

Results: The sizes and zeta potentials of HA modified LPHNs were about 160 nm and −40 mV. HA-DOX/GA-LPHNs showed the most prominent cytotoxicity and the best synergistic effect was obtained when DOX/GA ratio was 2/1. In vivo studies revealed that HA-DOX/GA-LPHNs inhibited tumor growth from 956 mm³ to 213 mm³, with an inhibition rate of 77.7%.

Conclusion: In summary, the study showed that HA-DOX/GA-LPHNs can be applied as a promising leukemia therapy system.

Flurbiprofen loaded ethosomes - transdermal delivery of anti-inflammatory effect in rat model

Background

Ethosomes have been widely used in Transdermal Drug Delivery System (TDDS) as they increase the permeation of drug across the skin.

Methods

Flurbiprofen loaded vesicular ethosomes were formulated, optimized and characterized for particle size, entrapment efficiency, poly dispersive index (PDI), microscopy using Atomic force microscopy (AFM), Scanning electron microscope (SEM) and Transmission electron microscopy (TEM) and Interaction of drug and excipients were studied using Fourier transform infra-red (FTIR) spectroscopy, Differential scanning colorimetry (DSC), Thermo gravimetric analysis (TGA). Further, ethosomal formulations of flurbiprofen were evaluated for stability study of three months and in vitro drug permeation study was carried out using albino rat skin. In addition, skin irritation test was evaluated by Draize test and in vivo study of prepared formulation was examined through paw edema assay by inducing carrageenan and cold plate method.

Results

Amongst all formulations, EF5 formulation exhibited ideal surface morphology, with maximum entrapment efficiency (95%) with optimal excipient concentration i.e. 200 mg phospholipid and 35% ethanol. The ideal vesicle size was achieved as 162.2 ± 2 nm, with zeta potential − 48.14 ± 1.4 mV with the PDI of 0.341. In-vitro permeation study shows a release of 82.56 ± 2.11 g/cm² in 24 h and transdermal flux was found as 226.1 μg/cm²/h. Cold plate test indicates that the formulation EF5 showed a marked analgesic activity and Carrageenan induced paw edema test indicates that the formulation EF5 inhibits the increase in paw edema. Ethosomal suspension at 4 °C showed maximum stability.

Conclusions

The overall study concluded that this ethosomal approach offers a new delivery system for sustained and targeted delivery for flurbiprofen.

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (10.1186/s12944-019-1064-x) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Nano-based approach to combat emerging viral (NIPAH virus) infection

Emergence of new virus and their heterogeneity are growing at an alarming rate. Sudden outburst of Nipah virus (NiV) has raised serious question about their instant management using conventional medication and diagnostic measures. A coherent strategy with versatility and comprehensive perspective to confront the rising distress could perhaps be effectuated by implementation of nanotechnology. But in concurrent to resourceful and precise execution of nano-based medication, there is an ultimate need of concrete understanding of the NIV pathogenesis. Moreover, to amplify the effectiveness of nano-based approach in a conquest against NiV, a list of developed nanosystem with antiviral activity is also a prerequisite. Therefore the present review provides a meticulous cognizance of cellular and molecular pathogenesis of NiV. Conventional as well several nano-based diagnosis experimentations against viruses have been discussed. Lastly, potential efficacy of different forms of nano-based systems as convenient means to shield mankind against NiV has also been introduced.

An update on polymer-lipid hybrid systems for improving oral drug delivery

INTRODUCTION

A promising approach that has recently emerged to overcome the complex biobarriers and interrelated challenges associated with oral drug absorption is to combine the benefits of polymeric and lipid-based nanocarriers within one hybrid system. This multifaceted formulation strategy has given rise to a plethora of polymer-lipid hybrid (PLH) systems with varying nanostructures and biological activities, all of which have demonstrated the ability to improve the biopharmaceutical performance of a wide range of challenging therapeutics.

AREAS COVERED

The multitude of polymers that can be combined with lipids to exert a synergistic effect for oral drug delivery have been identified, reviewed and critically evaluated. Specific focus is attributed to preclinical studies performed within the past 5 years that have elucidated the role and mechanism of the polymer phase in altering the oral absorption of encapsulated therapeutics.

EXPERT OPINION

The potential of PLH systems has been clearly identified; however, improved understanding of the structure-activity relationship between PLH systems and oral absorption is fundamental for translating this promising delivery approach into a clinically relevant formulation. Advancing research within this field to identify optimal polymer, lipid combinations and engineering conditions for specific therapeutics are therefore encouraged.

Flurbiprofen-loaded ethanolic liposome particles for biomedical applications

Present study deals with the preparation, characterization and in-vivo evaluation of flurbiprofen loaded ethanolic liposome which provides predetermined and controlled release of drug through a transdermal drug delivery system. Ethanolic liposomes were prepared by using flurbiprofen, phospholipon 90-G, and ethanol in varied concentration ratio. The prepared ethanolic liposomes were optimized and characterized for particle size, zeta potential, polydispersive index and % entrapment efficiency. FTIR study was performed to analyze the interaction between drug and excipient. To study the thermal behavior of the formulation DSC and TGA were carried out. The surface morphology of ethanolic liposome was performed with the help of SEM, TEM, and AFM. In-vitro drug permeation study of the optimized formulation was carried out using the albino rat skin model and peripheral nociceptive activity was evaluated by writhing assay. In addition, formulations were also inspected for stability study for three months at a different temperature. The optimized formulation EF5 exhibited a particle size of 167.2 ± 3.7 nm with a zeta potential of -51.6 ± 0.2 mV and PDI of 0.209. The optimized formulation showed an ideal surface morphology with a maximum % entrapment efficiency i.e. 93.51 ± 2.1. In-vitro permeation study shows a release of 70.23% in 24 h and transdermal flux was found as 238.2 μg/cm²/h. Writhing assay demonstrate that the optimized formulation decreases the number of writhes and thus shows the peripheral analgesic activity. In stability study, optimized formulation showed maximum stability at 4 °C. These results suggest that transdermal system mediated application of flurbiprofen loaded ethanolic liposome can be considered as an effective way to afford consistent and predictable release of flurbiprofen which could provide beneficial effects in the management of various inflammatory diseases.

Traditional Chinese medicine-combination therapies utilizing nanotechnology-based targeted delivery systems: a new strategy for antitumor treatment

Cancer is a major public health problem, and is now the world’s leading cause of death. Traditional Chinese medicine (TCM)-combination therapy is a new treatment approach and a vital therapeutic strategy for cancer, as it exhibits promising antitumor potential. Nano-targeted drug-delivery systems have remarkable advantages and allow the development of TCM-combination therapies by systematically controlling drug release and delivering drugs to solid tumors. In this review, the anticancer activity of TCM compounds is introduced. The combined use of TCM for antitumor treatment is analyzed and summarized. These combination therapies, using a single nanocarrier system, namely codelivery, are analyzed, issues that require attention are determined, and future perspectives are identified. We carried out a systematic review of >280 studies published in PubMed since 1985 (no patents involved), in order to provide a few basic considerations in terms of the design principles and management of targeted nanotechnology-based TCM-combination therapies.