Dissolution and antioxidant potential of apigenin self nanoemulsifying drug delivery system (SNEDDS) for oral delivery

Self-nanoemulsifying drug delivery systems (SNEDDS) have been used to improve the oral bioavailability of various drugs. In the current study, apigenin was developed as SNEDDS to solve its dissolution problem and enhance oral bioavailability and antioxidant potential. SNEDDS were prepared by mixing Gelucire 44/14, Tween 80, and PEG 400 under controlled conditions. The droplet of diluted SNEDDS demonstrated a spherical shape with a size of less than 100 nm and a neutral charge. The very fast self-emulsification was obtained within 32 s, and the transmittance values exceeded 99%. The highest drug loading was 90.10 ± 0.24% of the initial load with the highest %encapsulation efficiency of 84.20 ± 0.03%. FT-IR and DSC spectra showed no interaction between components. The dissolution in buffer pH 1.2, 4.5, and 6.8 showed significantly higher dissolved apigenin than the apigenin coarse powder. The dissolution profiles were fitted to the Korsmeyer-Peppas kinetics. The cellular antioxidant activities in Caco-2 cells were approximately 52.25-54.64% compared to no treatment and were higher than the apigenin coarse powder (12.70%). Our work highlights the potential of SNEDDS to enhance the dissolution and permeability of apigenin and promote antioxidant efficacy, which has a strong chance of being developed as a bioactive compound for nutraceuticals.

Recent advances in the use of composite titanium dioxide nanomaterials in the food industry

Titanium dioxide (TiO2 ) nanomaterials have attracted significant attention due to their good biocompatibility and potential for multifunctional applications. In the last few years, there has been growing interest in the use of TiO2 nanomaterials in the food industry. However, a systematic review of the synthesis methods, properties, and applications of TiO2 nanomaterials in the food industry is lacking. In this review, we provide a summary of the synthesis and properties of TiO2 nanomaterials and their composites, with a focus on their applications in the food industry. We also discuss the potential benefits and risks of using TiO2 nanomaterials in food applications. This review aims to promote food innovation and improve food quality and safety.

Nanotechnology and E-Sensing for Food Chain Quality and Safety

Nowadays, it is well known that sensors have an enormous impact on our life, using streams of data to make life-changing decisions. Every single aspect of our day is monitored via thousands of sensors, and the benefits we can obtain are enormous. With the increasing demand for food quality, food safety has become one of the main focuses of our society. However, fresh foods are subject to spoilage due to the action of microorganisms, enzymes, and oxidation during storage. Nanotechnology can be applied in the food industry to support packaged products and extend their shelf life. Chemical composition and sensory attributes are quality markers which require innovative assessment methods, as existing ones are rather difficult to implement, labour-intensive, and expensive. E-sensing devices, such as vision systems, electronic noses, and electronic tongues, overcome many of these drawbacks. Nanotechnology holds great promise to provide benefits not just within food products but also around food products. In fact, nanotechnology introduces new chances for innovation in the food industry at immense speed. This review describes the food application fields of nanotechnologies; in particular, metal oxide sensors (MOS) will be presented.

Production of rumen- and gastrointestinal-resistant nanoparticles to deliver lysine to dairy cows

Supplementing diets with rumen-protected lysine is a common strategy to meet the nutritional needs of high-producing dairy cows. This work addressed two separate but crucial issues: the lysine protection degree across the entire digestive tract as well as the production scalability of the proposed delivery systems. This was achieved by evaluating, in vitro or ex vivo, previously developed rumen-resistant lipid nanoparticles regarding their stability in the digestive tract and in the bloodstream of the dairy cow as well as how their production could be scaled-up. Results showed that the developed nanoparticles were able to resist digestion along the digestive tract but were degraded in the blood over 24 h. Thus, releasing their content to be used by the animal. In vitro viability assays were also performed, with the nanoparticles being found not to be inherently toxic when using nanoparticle concentrations up to 1 mg/mL. Results showed that neither the purity of the used lipids nor the production method significantly altered the nanoparticles' properties or their ruminal resistance. Furthermore, the shelf-life of these nanoparticles was assessed, and they were found to retain their properties and remain usable after at least 1 month of storage. Moreover, a pilot-scale production allowed the production of nanoparticles with similar properties to the previous ones made using standard methods. To summarize, the proposed rumen-resistant nanoparticles presented potential as orally ingested lysine delivery systems for dairy cattle supplementation, being capable of a large-scale production using cheaper components while maintaining their properties and without any efficiency loss. It should however be noted that these results were obtained mainly in vitro and further in vivo bioavailability and production experiments are needed before this technology can be confirmed as a viable way of delivering lysine to dairy cows.

Gene knockdown in HaCaT cells by small interfering RNAs entrapped in grapefruit-derived extracellular vesicles using a microfluidic device

Small interfering RNAs (siRNAs) knockdown the expression of target genes by causing mRNA degradation and are a promising therapeutic modality. In clinical practice, lipid nanoparticles (LNPs) are used to deliver RNAs, such as siRNA and mRNA, into cells. However, these artificial nanoparticles are toxic and immunogenic. Thus, we focused on extracellular vesicles (EVs), natural drug delivery systems, for the delivery of nucleic acids. EVs deliver RNAs and proteins to specific tissues to regulate various physiological phenomena in vivo. Here, we propose a novel method for the preparation siRNAs encapsulated in EVs using a microfluidic device (MD). MDs can be used to generate nanoparticles, such as LNPs, by controlling flow rate to the device, but the loading of siRNAs into EVs using MDs has not been reported previously. In this study, we demonstrated a method for loading siRNAs into grapefruit-derived EVs (GEVs), which have gained attention in recent years for being plant-derived EVs developed using an MD. GEVs were collected from grapefruit juice using the one-step sucrose cushion method, and then GEVs-siRNA-GEVs were prepared using an MD device. The morphology of GEVs and siRNA-GEVs was observed using a cryogenic transmission electron microscope. Cellular uptake and intracellular trafficking of GEVs or siRNA-GEVs to human keratinocytes were evaluated by microscopy using HaCaT cells. The prepared siRNA-GEVs encapsulated 11% of siRNAs. Moreover, intracellular delivery of siRNA and gene suppression effects in HaCaT cells were achieved using these siRNA-GEVs. Our findings suggested that MDs can be used to prepare siRNA-EV formulations.

Synthesis, Controlled Release, and Stability on Storage of Chitosan-Thyme Essential Oil Nanocapsules for Food Applications

The nanoencapsulation of thyme essential oil has been greatly important in food science, given its remarkable antioxidant and antimicrobial capacity. However, its analysis in storage has not been established in terms of physical stability, antioxidant capacity, and release studies. In this paper, chitosan-thyme oil nanocapsules were prepared by the ionic gelation method. These were characterized for differential calorimetry, release kinetic, and infrared spectroscopy. The chitosan-thyme oil nanocapsules were stored at 4 and 25 °C for 5 weeks, the changes in particle size, zeta potential, stability (diffuse reflectance), and antioxidant capacity were analyzed and associated with nanocapsules' functionality. The results show that the storage time and temperature significantly modify the particle size (keeping the nano-size throughout the storage), the release of the bioactive was Fickian with t^0.193 according to Korsmery & Peppas and best described by Higuchi model associated with changes in the zeta potential from 8 mV to -11 mV at 4 °C. The differential scanning calorimetry and infrared spectroscopy results confirm the good integration of the components. The antioxidant capacity revealed a direct relationship with residual oil concentration with a decrease in the ABTS test of 15% at 4 °C and 37% at 25 °C. The residual bioactive content was 77% at 4 °C and 62% at 25 °C, confirming nanoencapsulation effectiveness. The present investigation provides helpful information so that these systems can be applied in food conservation.

Nanoparticles in the Food Industry and Their Impact on Human Gut Microbiome and Diseases

The use of inorganic nanoparticles (NPs) has expanded into various industries including food manufacturing, agriculture, cosmetics, and construction. This has allowed NPs access to the human gastrointestinal tract, yet little is known about how they may impact human health. As the gut microbiome continues to be increasingly implicated in various diseases of unknown etiology, researchers have begun studying the potentially toxic effects of these NPs on the gut microbiome. Unfortunately, conflicting results have limited researcher’s ability to evaluate the true impact of NPs on the gut microbiome in relation to health. This review focuses on the impact of five inorganic NPs (silver, iron oxide, zinc oxide, titanium dioxide, and silicon dioxide) on the gut microbiome and gastrointestinal tract with consideration for various methodological differences within the literature. This is important as NP-induced changes to the gut could lead to various gut-related diseases. These include irritable bowel syndrome (IBS), inflammatory bowel disease (IBD), celiac disease, and colorectal cancer. Research in this area is necessary as the use of NPs in various industries continues to grow along with the number of people suffering from chronic gastrointestinal diseases.

Influence of Stabilizing and Encapsulating Polymers on Antioxidant Capacity, Stability, and Kinetic Release of Thyme Essential Oil Nanocapsules

The release kinetics, stability, and antioxidant capacity of thyme essential oil polymeric nanocapsules as a function of encapsulating (poly-ε-caprolactone and ethylcellulose) and stabilizing (polyvinyl alcohol and Pluronic^® F-127) polymers were established. Samples were evaluated in terms of particle size, zeta potential, release kinetics, calorimetry, infrared spectra, antioxidant capacity, and diffuse reflectance. The particle size obtained was below 500 nm in all cases, ensuring nanometric size. Zeta potential as a function of the stabilizing polymer. Encapsulation efficiency was higher in the samples that contained ethyl cellulose (around 70%), associated with its affinity for the molecules contained in the essential oil. Differential scanning calorimetry revealed a strong dependence on the encapsulating polymers as a function of the melting temperatures obtained. Infrared spectra confirmed that the polymeric nanocapsules had the typical bands of the aromatic groups of thyme essential oil. The antioxidant capacity evaluated is a function exclusively of the active content in the nucleolus of the nanocapsules. Nanoencapsulation was not a significant factor. Diffuse reflectance revealed high physical stability of the dispersions related directly to the particle size and zeta potential obtained (either by ionic or steric effect). These findings confirm favorable characteristics that allow proposing these systems for potential applications in food processing and preservation.

Food-Derived Nanoscopic Drug Delivery Systems for Treatment of Rheumatoid Arthritis

Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) is a severe systemic inflammatory disease with no cure at present. Recent developments in the understanding of inflammation and nanomaterial science have led to increased applications of nanostructured drug delivery systems in the treatment of RA. The present review summarizes novel fabrications of nanoscale drug carriers using food components as either the delivered drugs or carrier structures, in order to achieve safe, effective and convenient drug administration. Polyphenols and flavonoids are among the most frequently carried anti-RA therapeutics in the nanosystems. Fatty substances, polysaccharides, and peptides/proteins can function as structuring agents of the nanocarriers. Frequently used nanostructures include nanoemulsions, nanocapsules, liposomes, and various nanoparticles. Using these nanostructures has improved drug solubility, absorption, biodistribution, stability, targeted accumulation, and release. Joint vectorization, i.e., using a combination of bioactive molecules, can bring elevated therapeutic outcomes. Utilization of anti-arthritic chemicals that can self-assemble into nanostructures is a promising research orientation in this field.

1H NMR study of the interaction of trans-resveratrol with soybean phosphatidylcholine liposomes

Resveratrol (RSV) is a well-known natural derivative with a wide range of biological and pharmacological activities. Despite of these demonstrated properties, it exhibits low both aqueous solubility and chemical stability and therefore low bioavailability. Consequently, the major concern of the technological research is to exploit delivery systems able to overcome bioavailability problems. In the recent past liposomes have been successfully studied for these purposes. In this paper, 1H-NMR spectroscopy, Nuclear Overhauser Spectroscopy (NOESY) as well as Paramagnetic Relaxation Enhancements (PRE) experiments have been carried out to quantitatively investigate the incorporation of resveratrol, at both the liposome preparation stage and by preformed liposomes, also with the aim to characterize resveratrol- soybean phosphatidylcholine (P90G) lipid bilayer interactions. Overall results of 1H NMR spectroscopy analysis suggest that RSV is located nearby the phosphocholine headgroups and also provide quantitative data on the incorporation of RSV (5% w/w), which corresponds to a 150-fold increase with respect to the solubility of RSV in water. Beside, considering that the same level of RSV incorporation was obtained via spontaneous uptake by preformed P90G liposomes, it can be concluded that RSV easily diffuses through the lipid bilayer.

Development of Nanozymes for Food Quality and Safety Detection: Principles and Recent Applications

The public concerns about agrifood safety call for innovative and reformative analytical techniques to meet the inspection requirements of high sensitivity, specificity, and reproducibility. Enzyme-mimetic nanomaterials or nanozymes, which combine enzyme-like properties with nanoscale features, emerge as an excellent tool for quality and safety detection in the agrifood sector, due to not only their robust capacity in detection but also their attraction in future-oriented exploitations. However, in-depth understanding about the fundamental principles of nanozymes for food quality and safety detection remains limited, which makes their applications largely empirical. This review provides a comprehensive overview of the principles, designs, and applications of nanozyme-based detection technique in the agrifood industry. The discussion mainly involves three mimicking types, that is, peroxidase, oxidase, and catalase-like nanozymes, capable of detecting major agrifood analytes. The current principles and strategies are classified and then discussed in details through discriminating the roles of nanozymes in diverse detection platforms. Thereafter, recent applications of nanozymes in detecting various endogenous ingredients and exogenous contaminants in foods are reviewed, and the outlook of profound developments are explained. Evidenced by the increasing publications, nanozyme-based detection techniques are narrowing the gap to practical-oriented food analytical methods, while some challenges in optimization of nanozymes, diversification of recognition-to-signal manners, and sustainability of methodology need to conquer in the future.

The Role of the Food Matrix and Gastrointestinal Tract in the assessment of biological properties of ingested engineered nanomaterials (iENMs): State of the science and knowledge gaps

Many foods contain appreciable levels of engineered nanomaterials (ENMs) (diameter < 100 nm) that may be either intentionally or unintentionally added. These ENMs vary considerably in their compositions, dimensions, morphologies, physicochemical properties, and biological responses. From a toxicological point of view, it is often convenient to classify ingested ENMs (iENMs) as being either inorganic (such as TiO₂, SiO₂, Fe₂O₃, or Ag) or organic (such as lipid, protein, or carbohydrate), since the former tend to be indigestible and the latter are generally digestible. At present there is a relatively poor understanding of how different types of iENMs behave within the human gastrointestinal tract (GIT), and how the food matrix and biopolymers transform their physico-chemical properties and influence their gastrointestinal fate. This lack of knowledge confounds an understanding of their potential harmful effects on human health. The purpose of this article is to review our current understanding of the GIT fate of iENMs, and to highlight gaps where further research is urgently needed in assessing potential risks and toxicological implications of iENMs. In particular, a strong emphasis is given to the development of standardized screening methods that can be used to rapidly and accurately assess the toxicological properties of iENMs.