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Milione S, Mercurio I, Troiano G, Melai P, Agostinelli V, Nante N, Bacci M. Drugs and psychoactive substances in the Tiber River. AUST J FORENSIC SCI 2016. [DOI: 10.1080/00450618.2016.1212270] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Stefania Milione
- Department of Medical, Surgical, Neurological, Metabolic, and Aging Sciences, Second University of Naples, Italy
| | - Isabella Mercurio
- Forensic Medicine, Department of Medical Sciences, Surgical and Neurosciences, Hospital Santa Maria alle Scotte, Siena, Italy
| | | | | | | | - Nicola Nante
- Postgraduate School of Public Health University of Siena, Italy
| | - Mauro Bacci
- Legal Medicine, Forensic Science and Sports Medicine, University of Perugia, Italy
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102
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A comparison between wastewater-based drug data and an illicit drug use survey in a selected community. THE INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF DRUG POLICY 2016; 34:20-6. [DOI: 10.1016/j.drugpo.2016.04.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/24/2015] [Revised: 11/09/2015] [Accepted: 04/04/2016] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
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103
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Camacho-Muñoz D, Petrie B, Castrignanò E, Kasprzyk-Hordern B. Enantiomeric Profiling of Chiral Pharmacologically Active Compounds in the Environment with the Usage of Chiral Liquid Chromatography
Coupled with Tandem Mass Spectrometry. CURR ANAL CHEM 2016; 12:303-314. [PMID: 27713682 PMCID: PMC5024650 DOI: 10.2174/1573411012666151009195039] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/05/2015] [Revised: 06/30/2015] [Accepted: 06/30/2015] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
The issue of drug chirality is attracting increasing attention among the scientific community. The phenomenon of chirality has been overlooked in environmental research (environmental occurrence, fate and toxicity) despite the great impact that chiral pharmacologically active compounds (cPACs) can provoke on ecosystems. The aim of this paper is to introduce the topic of chirality and its implications in environmental contamination. Special attention has been paid to the most recent advances in chiral analysis based on liquid chromatography coupled with mass spectrometry and the most popular protein based chiral stationary phases. Several groups of cPACs of environmental relevance, such as illicit drugs, human and veterinary medicines were discussed. The increase in the number of papers published in the area of chiral environmental analysis indicates that researchers are actively pursuing new opportunities to provide better understanding of environmental impacts resulting from the enantiomerism of cPACs.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Bruce Petrie
- Department of Chemistry, University of Bath, Bath, United Kingdom
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104
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Investigation of agreement between wastewater-based epidemiology and survey data on alcohol and nicotine use in a community. Drug Alcohol Depend 2016; 162:170-5. [PMID: 26980372 DOI: 10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2016.03.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/07/2016] [Revised: 03/02/2016] [Accepted: 03/04/2016] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND/AIMS Alcohol and nicotine are the two most used substances world-wide and associated with increased burden of disease. Since surveys on substance use may be difficult due to response biases, wastewater-based epidemiology (WBE) was developed as a more objective measure of nicotine and alcohol use. This study compares estimates of nicotine and alcohol use from a wastewater sampling campaign in a medium-sized Belgian city with a concurrently executed population survey. METHODS 29,083 letters about participation in an online survey study on weekly alcohol and tobacco use were sent to the inhabitants of Lier, Belgium. Wastewater samples were collected from the associated treatment plant in four bi-weekly periods. Samples were analyzed using liquid chromatography coupled to tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS). Ethylsulfate was used as alcohol biomarker and cotinine and trans-3'-hydroxycotinine as nicotine biomarker. RESULTS 263 (1%) surveys were filled out on average per week. According to survey data, alcohol and nicotine were used less than in the rest of Belgium and this was matched by the wastewater data. Nicotine use, but not alcohol use, showed a significant variation over the sampling periods. Both nicotine and alcohol showed increase use during the weekend while only alcohol showed a different use pattern throughout the week. CONCLUSION No correlation between WBE and survey data could be demonstrated, possibly due to small sample sizes. However, this study shows that weekly trends in alcohol and nicotine use can be quickly detected from wastewater analysis and the occurrence of major events such as festivals can be identified.
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105
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Population surveys compared with wastewater analysis for monitoring illicit drug consumption in Italy in 2010-2014. Drug Alcohol Depend 2016; 161:178-88. [PMID: 26875670 DOI: 10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2016.02.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/09/2015] [Revised: 01/12/2016] [Accepted: 02/01/2016] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Monitoring consumption by population surveys (PS) is an important way to challenge the spread of illicit drugs (ID). To improve the information, we explored a complementary method, particularly wastewater analysis (WWA). METHODS We estimated the prevalence of use by PS, and the consumption by WWA, of cocaine, opioids, cannabis, methamphetamine and MDMA (ecstasy) from 2010 to 2014 in Italy and compared the results. RESULTS According to PS, cannabis and cocaine were the ID most used in Italy (last month prevalence 3.0% and 0.43% respectively in 2010) followed by opioids (0.17%) and amphetamines (0.14%). WWA gave similar findings, with cannabis consumption (4.35 g THC/day/1000 inhabitants) exceeding cocaine (0.78 g), heroin (0.092 g), methamphetamine and MDMA (0.103 g). The time trend investigated by PS showed significant decreases for all ID from 2010 to 2012. WWA also indicated a reduction of consumption for methamphetamine (p<0.0001) and heroin (p<0.01). Both methods showed an increase for cannabis in 2014 (p<0.001) with the other ID unchanged. Spatial investigations by WWA showed that cannabis and cocaine were consumed significantly more in central Italy than in the north and south. PS indicated the same but only for cannabis. WWA was helpful to study weekly patterns of consumption, showing increases in cocaine and MDMA at weekends. CONCLUSIONS PS and WWA were confirmed as complementary methods and when used together improved the information on ID use in Italy. We suggest that the combined use of the two approaches can give better information on ID use in the population.
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106
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Castrignanò E, Lubben A, Kasprzyk-Hordern B. Enantiomeric profiling of chiral drug biomarkers in wastewater with the usage of chiral liquid chromatography coupled with tandem mass spectrometry. J Chromatogr A 2016; 1438:84-99. [DOI: 10.1016/j.chroma.2016.02.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 65] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/29/2015] [Revised: 01/15/2016] [Accepted: 02/04/2016] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
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107
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Klupczynska A, Dereziński P, Krysztofiak J, Kokot ZJ. Estimation of drug abuse in 9 Polish cities by wastewater analysis. Forensic Sci Int 2016; 260:14-21. [DOI: 10.1016/j.forsciint.2015.12.042] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/23/2015] [Revised: 12/23/2015] [Accepted: 12/27/2015] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
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108
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Spatial and temporal trends in alcohol consumption in Belgian cities: A wastewater-based approach. Drug Alcohol Depend 2016; 160:170-6. [PMID: 26804900 DOI: 10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2016.01.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/23/2015] [Revised: 11/17/2015] [Accepted: 01/05/2016] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND In recent years, scientific evidence has emerged that wastewater-based epidemiology can deliver complementary information concerning the use of different substances of abuse. In this study, the potential of wastewater-based epidemiology in monitoring spatial and temporal trends in alcohol consumption in different populations in Belgium has been examined. METHODS Concentrations of ethyl sulphate, a minor Phase-II metabolite of ethanol, in 163 influent wastewater samples from eight wastewater treatment plants in Belgium in the period 2013-2015 were measured with liquid chromatography coupled to tandem mass spectrometry and used to estimate alcohol consumption. RESULTS The highest levels of alcohol consumption were detected in the metropoles Antwerp and Brussels compared to smaller villages. Annual variations were detected, with a higher alcohol consumption measured in 2013 compared with 2014. The weekly pattern showed a clear week and weekend difference in alcohol use, with intermediate levels on Monday and Friday. The results were extrapolated and a use of 5.6L pure alcohol per year per inhabitant aged 15+ has been estimated in Belgium. The comparison with available information on drinking habits of the Belgian population further demonstrated the usefulness of the wastewater-based epidemiology approach. CONCLUSIONS This is the largest wastewater-based epidemiology study monitoring alcohol consumption to date, demonstrating that objective and quick information on spatio-temporal trends in alcohol consumption on a local and (inter)national scale can be obtained.
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Thai PK, Lai FY, Edirisinghe M, Hall W, Bruno R, O'Brien JW, Prichard J, Kirkbride KP, Mueller JF. Monitoring temporal changes in use of two cathinones in a large urban catchment in Queensland, Australia. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2016; 545-546:250-255. [PMID: 26747989 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2015.12.038] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/24/2015] [Revised: 11/28/2015] [Accepted: 12/08/2015] [Indexed: 06/05/2023]
Abstract
Wastewater analysis was used to examine prevalence and temporal trends in the use of two cathinones, methylone and mephedrone, in an urban population (>200,000 people) in South East Queensland, Australia. Wastewater samples were collected from the inlet of the sewage treatment plant that serviced the catchment from 2011 to 2013. Liquid chromatography coupled with tandem mass spectrometry was used to measure mephedrone and methylone in wastewater sample using direct injection mode. Mephedrone was not detected in any samples while methylone was detected in 45% of the samples. Daily mass loads of methylone were normalized to the population and used to evaluate methylone use in the catchment. Methylone mass loads peaked in 2012 but there was no clear temporal trend over the monitoring period. The prevalence of methylone use in the catchment was associated with the use of MDMA, the more popular analogue of methylone, as indicated by other complementary sources. Methylone use was stable in the study catchment during the monitoring period whereas mephedrone use has been declining after its peak in 2010. More research is needed on the pharmacokinetics of emerging illicit drugs to improve the applicability of wastewater analysis in monitoring their use in the population.
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Affiliation(s)
- Phong K Thai
- Queensland University of Technology, Garden Point, Brisbane, QLD 4001, Australia; The University of Queensland, The National Research Centre for Environmental Toxicology, 39 Kessels Road, Coopers Plains, QLD 4108, Australia.
| | - Foon Yin Lai
- The University of Queensland, The National Research Centre for Environmental Toxicology, 39 Kessels Road, Coopers Plains, QLD 4108, Australia
| | - Methsiri Edirisinghe
- Queensland Health Forensic Scientific Services, Queensland Government, 39 Kessels Road, Coopers Plains, QLD 4108, Australia
| | - Wayne Hall
- The University of Queensland, Centre for Youth Substance Abuse Research, Royal Brisbane and Women's Hospital, Herston, QLD 4029, Australia
| | - Raimondo Bruno
- School of Psychology, University of Tasmania, Private Bag 30, Hobart, TAS 7001, Australia
| | - Jake W O'Brien
- The University of Queensland, The National Research Centre for Environmental Toxicology, 39 Kessels Road, Coopers Plains, QLD 4108, Australia
| | - Jeremy Prichard
- Faculty of Law, University of Tasmania, Private Bag 89, Hobart, TAS 7001, Australia
| | - K Paul Kirkbride
- School of Chemical and Physical Sciences, Flinders University, Adelaide, SA 5001, Australia
| | - Jochen F Mueller
- The University of Queensland, The National Research Centre for Environmental Toxicology, 39 Kessels Road, Coopers Plains, QLD 4108, Australia
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Mardal M, Kinyua J, Ramin P, Miserez B, Van Nuijs ALN, Covaci A, Meyer MR. Screening for illicit drugs in pooled human urine and urinated soil samples and studies on the stability of urinary excretion products of cocaine, MDMA, and MDEA in wastewater by hyphenated mass spectrometry techniques. Drug Test Anal 2016; 9:106-114. [PMID: 26888521 DOI: 10.1002/dta.1957] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/01/2015] [Revised: 01/05/2016] [Accepted: 01/13/2016] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
Abstract
Monitoring population drug use through wastewater-based epidemiology (WBE) is a useful method to quantitatively follow trends and estimate total drug consumption in communities. Concentrations of drug biomarkers might be low in wastewater due to dilution; and therefore analysis of pooled urine (PU) is useful to detect consumed drugs and identify targets of illicit drugs use. The aims of the study were (1) to screen PU and urinated soil (US) samples collected at festivals for illicit drug excretion products using hyphenated techniques; (2) to develop and validate a hydrophilic interaction liquid chromatography - mass spectrometry / mass spectrometry (HILIC-MS/MS) method of quantifying urinary targets of identified drugs in wastewater; and (3) to conduct a 24 h stability study, using PU and US to better reflect the chemical environment for targets in wastewater. Cocaine (COC) and ecstasy-like compounds were the most frequently detected illicit drugs; an analytical method was developed to quantify their excretion products. Hydroxymethoxymethamphetamine (HMMA), 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA), 3,4-methylenedioxyamphetamine (MDA), HMMA sulfate (HMMA-S), benzoylecgonine (BE), and cocaethylene (CE) had 85-102% of initial concentration after 8 h of incubation, whereas COC and ecgonine methyl ester (EME) had 74 and 67% after 8 h, respectively. HMMA showed a net increase during 24 h of incubation (107% ± 27, n = 8), possibly due to the cleavage of HMMA conjugates, and biotransformation of MDMA. The results suggest HMMA as analytical target for MDMA consumption in WBE, due to its stability in wastewater and its excretion as the main phase I metabolite of MDMA. Copyright © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marie Mardal
- Department of Experimental and Clinical Toxicology, Institute of Experimental and Clinical Pharmacology and Toxicology, Saarland University, Homburg, Germany
| | - Juliet Kinyua
- Toxicological Center, Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Antwerp, Antwerp, Belgium
| | - Pedram Ramin
- Department of Environmental Engineering, Technical University of Denmark, Kongens Lyngby, Denmark
| | - Bram Miserez
- TICTAC Communications Ltd, St George's, University of London, London, SW17 0RE, UK
| | - Alexander L N Van Nuijs
- Toxicological Center, Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Antwerp, Antwerp, Belgium
| | - Adrian Covaci
- Toxicological Center, Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Antwerp, Antwerp, Belgium
| | - Markus R Meyer
- Department of Experimental and Clinical Toxicology, Institute of Experimental and Clinical Pharmacology and Toxicology, Saarland University, Homburg, Germany.,Department of Pharmacology and Pharmacoepidemiology, Heidelberg University Hospital, Heidelberg, Germany
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111
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Community Sewage Sensors towards Evaluation of Drug Use Trends: Detection of Cocaine in Wastewater with DNA-Directed Immobilization Aptamer Sensors. Sci Rep 2016; 6:21024. [PMID: 26876971 PMCID: PMC4753446 DOI: 10.1038/srep21024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/29/2015] [Accepted: 01/14/2016] [Indexed: 12/04/2022] Open
Abstract
Illicit drug use has a global concern and effective monitoring and interventions are highly required to combat drug abuse. Wastewater-based epidemiology (WBE) is an innovative and cost-effective approach to evaluate community-wide drug use trends, compared to traditional population surveys. Here we report for the first time, a novel quantitative community sewage sensor (namely DNA-directed immobilization of aptamer sensors, DDIAS) for rapid and cost-effective estimation of cocaine use trends via WBE. Thiolated single-stranded DNA (ssDNA) probe was hybridized with aptamer ssDNA in solution, followed by co-immobilization with 6-mercapto-hexane onto the gold electrodes to control the surface density to effectively bind with cocaine. DDIAS was optimized to detect cocaine at as low as 10 nM with a dynamic range from 10 nM to 5 μM, which were further employed for the quantification of cocaine in wastewater samples collected from a wastewater treatment plant in seven consecutive days. The concentration pattern of the sampling week is comparable with that from mass spectrometry. Our results demonstrate that the developed DDIAS can be used as community sewage sensors for rapid and cost-effective evaluation of drug use trends, and potentially implemented as a powerful tool for on-site and real-time monitoring of wastewater by un-skilled personnel.
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112
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Baz-Lomba JA, Reid MJ, Thomas KV. Target and suspect screening of psychoactive substances in sewage-based samples by UHPLC-QTOF. Anal Chim Acta 2016; 914:81-90. [PMID: 26965330 DOI: 10.1016/j.aca.2016.01.056] [Citation(s) in RCA: 59] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/26/2015] [Revised: 01/18/2016] [Accepted: 01/29/2016] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
The quantification of illicit drug and pharmaceutical residues in sewage has been shown to be a valuable tool that complements existing approaches in monitoring the patterns and trends of drug use. The present work delineates the development of a novel analytical tool and dynamic workflow for the analysis of a wide range of substances in sewage-based samples. The validated method can simultaneously quantify 51 target psychoactive substances and pharmaceuticals in sewage-based samples using an off-line automated solid phase extraction (SPE-DEX) method, using Oasis HLB disks, followed by ultra-high performance liquid chromatography coupled to quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry (UHPLC-QTOF) in MS(e). Quantification and matrix effect corrections were overcome with the use of 25 isotopic labeled internal standards (ILIS). Recoveries were generally greater than 60% and the limits of quantification were in the low nanogram-per-liter range (0.4-187 ng L(-1)). The emergence of new psychoactive substances (NPS) on the drug scene poses a specific analytical challenge since their market is highly dynamic with new compounds continuously entering the market. Suspect screening using high-resolution mass spectrometry (HRMS) simultaneously allowed the unequivocal identification of NPS based on a mass accuracy criteria of 5 ppm (of the molecular ion and at least two fragments) and retention time (2.5% tolerance) using the UNIFI screening platform. Applying MS(e) data against a suspect screening database of over 1000 drugs and metabolites, this method becomes a broad and reliable tool to detect and confirm NPS occurrence. This was demonstrated through the HRMS analysis of three different sewage-based sample types; influent wastewater, passive sampler extracts and pooled urine samples resulting in the concurrent quantification of known psychoactive substances and the identification of NPS and pharmaceuticals.
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Affiliation(s)
- J A Baz-Lomba
- Norwegian Institute for Water Research, Gaustadalléen 21, NO-0349, Oslo, Norway; Faculty of Medicine, University of Oslo, PO box 1078 Blindern, 0316, Oslo, Norway.
| | - Malcolm J Reid
- Norwegian Institute for Water Research, Gaustadalléen 21, NO-0349, Oslo, Norway
| | - Kevin V Thomas
- Norwegian Institute for Water Research, Gaustadalléen 21, NO-0349, Oslo, Norway
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Mardal M, Gracia-Lor E, Leibnitz S, Castiglioni S, Meyer MR. Toxicokinetics of new psychoactive substances: plasma protein binding, metabolic stability, and human phase I metabolism of the synthetic cannabinoid WIN 55,212-2 studied using in vitro tools and LC-HR-MS/MS. Drug Test Anal 2016; 8:1039-1048. [PMID: 26810883 DOI: 10.1002/dta.1938] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/13/2015] [Revised: 10/14/2015] [Accepted: 11/24/2015] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Abstract
The new psychoactive substance WIN 55,212-2 ((R)-(+)-[2,3-dihydro-5-methyl-3-(4-morpholinylmethyl)pyrrolo-[1,2,3-de]-1,4-benzoxazin-6-yl]-1-napthalenylmethanone) is a potent synthetic cannabinoid receptor agonist. The metabolism of WIN 55,212-2 in man has never been reported. Therefore, the aim of this study was to identify the human in vitro metabolites of WIN 55,212-2 using pooled human liver microsomes and liquid chromatography-high resolution-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-HR-MS/MS) to provide targets for toxicological, doping, and environmental screening procedures. Moreover, a metabolic stability study in pooled human liver microsomes (pHLM) was carried out. In total, 19 metabolites were identified and the following partly overlapping metabolic steps were deduced: degradation of the morpholine ring via hydroxylation, N- and O-dealkylation, and oxidative deamination, hydroxylations on either the naphthalene or morpholine ring or the alkyl spacer with subsequent oxidation, epoxide formation with subsequent hydrolysis, or combinations. In conclusion, WIN 55,212-2 was extensively metabolized in human liver microsomes incubations and the calculated hepatic clearance was comparably high, indicating a fast and nearly complete metabolism in vivo. This is in line with previous findings on other synthetic cannabinoids. Copyright © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marie Mardal
- Department of Experimental and Clinical Toxicology, Institute of Experimental and Clinical Pharmacology and Toxicology, Saarland University, D-66421, Homburg, Saar, Germany
| | - Emma Gracia-Lor
- IRCCS - Istituto di Ricerche Farmacologiche "Mario Negri", Department of Environmental Health Sciences, Via La Masa 19, 20156, Milan, Italy
| | - Svenja Leibnitz
- Department of Experimental and Clinical Toxicology, Institute of Experimental and Clinical Pharmacology and Toxicology, Saarland University, D-66421, Homburg, Saar, Germany
| | - Sara Castiglioni
- IRCCS - Istituto di Ricerche Farmacologiche "Mario Negri", Department of Environmental Health Sciences, Via La Masa 19, 20156, Milan, Italy
| | - Markus R Meyer
- Department of Experimental and Clinical Toxicology, Institute of Experimental and Clinical Pharmacology and Toxicology, Saarland University, D-66421, Homburg, Saar, Germany. .,Division of Clinical Pharmacology, Department of Laboratory Medicine, Karolinska Institute, Stockholm, Sweden.
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114
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Yuan SF, Liu ZH, Huang RP, Yin H, Dang Z. Levels of six antibiotics used in China estimated by means of wastewater-based epidemiology. WATER SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY : A JOURNAL OF THE INTERNATIONAL ASSOCIATION ON WATER POLLUTION RESEARCH 2016; 73:769-775. [PMID: 26901719 DOI: 10.2166/wst.2015.526] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/05/2023]
Abstract
Due to lack of proper regulation, information about antibiotics consumption in many countries such as China is difficult to obtain. In this study, a simple method based on wastewater-based epidemiology was adopted to estimate their usage in four megacities of China. Six antibiotics (norfloxacin, ofloxacin, sulfamethoxazole, trimethoprim, erythromycin and roxithromycin), which are the most frequently consumed antibiotics in China, were selected as the targets. Based on our results, Chongqing had the largest total annual consumption of the selected six antibiotics among the four megacities, followed by Guangzhou, then Hong Kong, with Beijing having the least, with values of 4.4 g/y/P, 4.0 g/y/P, 1.6 g/y/P, and 1.3 g/y/P, respectively. Compared with the daily consumption per capita in Italy, the estimated consumption levels of the selected six antibiotics in four cities of China were 12-41 times those of Italy. Our results suggested that the consumption of antibiotics in China was excessive.
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Affiliation(s)
- Su-Fen Yuan
- School of Environment and Energy, South China University of Technology, Guangzhou 510006, Guangdong, China and Key Lab of Pollution Control and Ecosystem Restoration in Industry Cluster, Ministry of Education, Guangzhou 510006, Guangdong, China E-mail:
| | - Ze-Hua Liu
- School of Environment and Energy, South China University of Technology, Guangzhou 510006, Guangdong, China and Key Lab of Pollution Control and Ecosystem Restoration in Industry Cluster, Ministry of Education, Guangzhou 510006, Guangdong, China E-mail:
| | - Ri-Ping Huang
- School of Environment and Energy, South China University of Technology, Guangzhou 510006, Guangdong, China and Key Lab of Pollution Control and Ecosystem Restoration in Industry Cluster, Ministry of Education, Guangzhou 510006, Guangdong, China E-mail:
| | - Hua Yin
- School of Environment and Energy, South China University of Technology, Guangzhou 510006, Guangdong, China and Key Lab of Pollution Control and Ecosystem Restoration in Industry Cluster, Ministry of Education, Guangzhou 510006, Guangdong, China E-mail:
| | - Zhi Dang
- School of Environment and Energy, South China University of Technology, Guangzhou 510006, Guangdong, China and Key Lab of Pollution Control and Ecosystem Restoration in Industry Cluster, Ministry of Education, Guangzhou 510006, Guangdong, China E-mail:
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115
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McCall AK, Bade R, Kinyua J, Lai FY, Thai PK, Covaci A, Bijlsma L, van Nuijs ALN, Ort C. Critical review on the stability of illicit drugs in sewers and wastewater samples. WATER RESEARCH 2016; 88:933-947. [PMID: 26618807 DOI: 10.1016/j.watres.2015.10.040] [Citation(s) in RCA: 193] [Impact Index Per Article: 24.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/01/2015] [Revised: 10/09/2015] [Accepted: 10/18/2015] [Indexed: 05/17/2023]
Abstract
Wastewater-based epidemiology (WBE) applies advanced analytical methods to quantify drug residues in wastewater with the aim to estimate illicit drug use at the population level. Transformation processes during transport in sewers (chemical and biological reactors) and storage of wastewater samples before analysis are expected to change concentrations of different drugs to varying degrees. Ignoring transformation for drugs with low to medium stability will lead to an unknown degree of systematic under- or overestimation of drug use, which should be avoided. This review aims to summarize the current knowledge related to the stability of commonly investigated drugs and, furthermore, suggest a more effective approach to future experiments. From over 100 WBE studies, around 50 mentioned the importance of stability and 24 included tests in wastewater. Most focused on in-sample stability (i.e., sample preparation, preservation and storage) and some extrapolated to in-sewer stability (i.e., during transport in real sewers). While consistent results were reported for rather stable compounds (e.g., MDMA and methamphetamine), a varying range of stability under different or similar conditions was observed for other compounds (e.g., cocaine, amphetamine and morphine). Wastewater composition can vary considerably over time, and different conditions prevail in different sewer systems. In summary, this indicates that more systematic studies are needed to: i) cover the range of possible conditions in sewers and ii) compare results more objectively. To facilitate the latter, we propose a set of parameters that should be reported for in-sewer stability experiments. Finally, a best practice of sample collection, preservation, and preparation before analysis is suggested in order to minimize transformation during these steps.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ann-Kathrin McCall
- Eawag, Swiss Federal Institute of Aquatic Science and Technology, CH 8600 Dübendorf, Switzerland
| | - Richard Bade
- Research Institute for Pesticides and Water, University Jaume I, Avda. Sos Baynat, E-12071 Castellón, Spain
| | - Juliet Kinyua
- Toxicological Centre, Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Antwerp (UA), Universiteitsplein 1, 2610 Antwerp, Belgium
| | - Foon Yin Lai
- The University of Queensland, The National Research Centre for Environmental Toxicology (Entox), 39 Kessels Rd., Coopers Plains, Brisbane, QLD 4108, Australia
| | - Phong K Thai
- The University of Queensland, The National Research Centre for Environmental Toxicology (Entox), 39 Kessels Rd., Coopers Plains, Brisbane, QLD 4108, Australia; Queensland University of Technology, International Laboratory for Air Quality & Health, 2 George Street, Brisbane, QLD 4001, Australia
| | - Adrian Covaci
- Toxicological Centre, Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Antwerp (UA), Universiteitsplein 1, 2610 Antwerp, Belgium
| | - Lubertus Bijlsma
- Research Institute for Pesticides and Water, University Jaume I, Avda. Sos Baynat, E-12071 Castellón, Spain
| | - Alexander L N van Nuijs
- Toxicological Centre, Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Antwerp (UA), Universiteitsplein 1, 2610 Antwerp, Belgium
| | - Christoph Ort
- Eawag, Swiss Federal Institute of Aquatic Science and Technology, CH 8600 Dübendorf, Switzerland.
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Burns L. Commentary on Mounteney et al. (2016): What drug monitoring systems need in 2015. Addiction 2016; 111:49-50. [PMID: 26669527 DOI: 10.1111/add.13204] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/19/2015] [Accepted: 10/09/2015] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Lucinda Burns
- National Drug and Alcohol Research Centre, University of New South Wales, NSW, 2052, Australia.
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117
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Palardy A, Gagné JP, Tremblay L. Presence of Illicit Drugs and Pharmaceutical Residues in the Wastewaters of an Eastern Canadian City. J Xenobiot 2015; 5:5773. [PMID: 30701045 PMCID: PMC6324460 DOI: 10.4081/xeno.2015.5773] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Not available
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Affiliation(s)
- A. Palardy
- Institut des sciences de la mer de Rimouski, Université du Québec à Rimouski, Québec, Canada
| | - J.-P. Gagné
- Institut des sciences de la mer de Rimouski, Université du Québec à Rimouski, Québec, Canada
| | - L. Tremblay
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Université de Moncton, Moncton, New Brunswick, Canada
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118
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Rodríguez-Álvarez T, Racamonde I, González-Mariño I, Borsotti A, Rodil R, Rodríguez I, Zuccato E, Quintana JB, Castiglioni S. Alcohol and cocaine co-consumption in two European cities assessed by wastewater analysis. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2015. [PMID: 26196073 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2015.07.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/15/2023]
Abstract
The quantitative determination of urinary biomarkers in raw wastewater has emerged in recent years as a promising tool for estimating the consumption of illicit drugs, tobacco and alcohol in a population and for comparing local and temporal trends. In this study, a three-year monitoring campaign (2012-2014) was conducted to compare alcohol and cocaine use in two European cities (Santiago de Compostela, Spain, and Milan, Italy) by wastewater analysis. Ethyl sulphate and benzoylecgonine were used, respectively, as biomarkers of ethanol and cocaine consumption and cocaethylene as an indicator of co-consumption of both substances. Biomarkers were measured using liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry and concentrations were converted to rates of consumption using specific correction factors. Results were statistically compared in terms of geographic and temporal tendencies. Alcohol intake was significantly higher in Santiago than in Milan (13.6L versus 5.1L ethanol/1000 people day, averages). Cocaine use was higher in Milan than in Santiago de Compostela (800 versus 632 mg/1000 people day, averages). A significant higher consumption of both alcohol and cocaine was observed during the weekends (~23-75% more than on weekdays) in both cities. In terms of years, slight changes were observed, but no clear trends as representative of the whole year could be identified because of the limited number of days sampled. Co-consumption was evaluated using the cocaethylene/benzoylecgonine ratio, which was higher during the weekend in both cities (58% in Santiago and 47% in Milan over the non-weekend day means), indicating a greater co-consumption when cocaine is used as a recreational drug. Wastewater-based epidemiology gave estimates of alcohol and cocaine use in agreement with previous wastewater studies and with recent European surveillance and prevalence data, and weekly profiles of use and preferential patterns of consumption could be plot.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tania Rodríguez-Álvarez
- Department of Analytical Chemistry, Nutrition and Food Sciences, IIAA - Institute for Food Analysis and Research, University of Santiago de Compostela, Constantino Candeira S/N, 15782 Santiago de Compostela, Spain
| | - Inés Racamonde
- Department of Analytical Chemistry, Nutrition and Food Sciences, IIAA - Institute for Food Analysis and Research, University of Santiago de Compostela, Constantino Candeira S/N, 15782 Santiago de Compostela, Spain
| | - Iria González-Mariño
- Department of Analytical Chemistry, Nutrition and Food Sciences, IIAA - Institute for Food Analysis and Research, University of Santiago de Compostela, Constantino Candeira S/N, 15782 Santiago de Compostela, Spain; IRCCS - Istituto di Ricerche Farmacologiche "Mario Negri", Department of Environmental Health Sciences, Via La Masa 19, 20156 Milan, Italy.
| | - Andrea Borsotti
- IRCCS - Istituto di Ricerche Farmacologiche "Mario Negri", Department of Environmental Health Sciences, Via La Masa 19, 20156 Milan, Italy
| | - Rosario Rodil
- Department of Analytical Chemistry, Nutrition and Food Sciences, IIAA - Institute for Food Analysis and Research, University of Santiago de Compostela, Constantino Candeira S/N, 15782 Santiago de Compostela, Spain
| | - Isaac Rodríguez
- Department of Analytical Chemistry, Nutrition and Food Sciences, IIAA - Institute for Food Analysis and Research, University of Santiago de Compostela, Constantino Candeira S/N, 15782 Santiago de Compostela, Spain
| | - Ettore Zuccato
- IRCCS - Istituto di Ricerche Farmacologiche "Mario Negri", Department of Environmental Health Sciences, Via La Masa 19, 20156 Milan, Italy
| | - José Benito Quintana
- Department of Analytical Chemistry, Nutrition and Food Sciences, IIAA - Institute for Food Analysis and Research, University of Santiago de Compostela, Constantino Candeira S/N, 15782 Santiago de Compostela, Spain.
| | - Sara Castiglioni
- IRCCS - Istituto di Ricerche Farmacologiche "Mario Negri", Department of Environmental Health Sciences, Via La Masa 19, 20156 Milan, Italy.
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119
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Prevalence and distribution patterns of amphetamine and methamphetamine consumption in a federal state in southwestern Germany using wastewater analysis. Drug Alcohol Depend 2015; 156:311-314. [PMID: 26416694 DOI: 10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2015.09.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/03/2015] [Revised: 09/01/2015] [Accepted: 09/03/2015] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Wastewater analysis is a new approach developed to estimate drug (of abuse) consumption in large communities, such as cities or even whole countries. AIMS This paper presents data on the loads of amphetamine and methamphetamine measured in ten wastewater treatment plants in different parts of a German federal state. It provides an estimation of the intensity of the consumption and a comparison to other regions in Germany and Europe. METHODS Consumption of amphetamine and methamphetamine was estimated by analysis of drug residues in composite 24h samples of wastewater after mechanical treatment over one week by liquid chromatography-high resolution tandem mass spectrometry. Samples were collected from the inlet of ten wastewater treatment plants (WWTP) in the federal state of Saarland, representing bigger cities (>200,000 inhabitants), medium sized cities (>50,000 inhabitants), small cities (>25,000 inhabitants), and villages (<25,000 inhabitants). In each WWTP, samples were taken daily for seven consecutive days in July 2014. RESULTS We observed differences of amphetamine versus methamphetamine loads (expressed as mg/day/1000 inhabitants): Amphetamine loads were much higher in all tested WWTPs indicating a low prevalence of methamphetamine abuse in the federal state of Saarland at the tested period. These findings are in line with previous reports about the distribution of amphetamine and methamphetamine in Germany and Europe. CONCLUSIONS The approach confirms that wastewater analysis can provide valuable data about the abuse pattern of drugs of abuse in cities and larger areas. It can be useful for planning interventions aimed at specific areas and substances.
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120
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Been F, Benaglia L, Lucia S, Gervasoni JP, Esseiva P, Delémont O. Data triangulation in the context of opioids monitoring via wastewater analyses. Drug Alcohol Depend 2015; 151:203-10. [PMID: 25869541 DOI: 10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2015.03.022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/15/2014] [Revised: 03/02/2015] [Accepted: 03/20/2015] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND The need to contextualise wastewater-based figures about illicit drug consumption by comparing them with other indicators has been stressed by numerous studies. The objective of the present study was to further investigate the possibility of combining wastewater data to conventional statistics to assess the reliability of the former method and obtain a more balanced picture of illicit drug consumption in the investigated area. METHODS Wastewater samples were collected between October 2013 and July 2014 in the metropolitan area of Lausanne (226,000 inhabitants), Switzerland. Methadone, its metabolite 2-ethylidene-1,5-dimethyl-3,3-diphenylpyrrolidine (EDDP), the exclusive metabolite of heroin, 6-monoacetylmorphine (6-MAM), and morphine loads were used to estimate the amounts of methadone and heroin consumed. RESULTS Methadone consumption estimated from EDDP was in agreement with the expectations. Heroin estimates based on 6-MAM loads were inconsistent. Estimates obtained from morphine loads, combined to prescription/sales data, were in agreement with figures derived from syringe distribution data and general population surveys. CONCLUSIONS The results obtained for methadone allowed assessing the reliability of the selected sampling strategy, supporting its ability to capture the consumption of a small cohort (i.e., 743 patients). Using morphine as marker, in combination with prescription/sales data, estimates in accordance with other indicators about heroin use were obtained. Combining different sources of data allowed strengthening the results and suggested that the different indicators (i.e., administration route, average dosage and number of consumers) contribute to depict a realistic representation of the phenomenon in the investigated area. Heroin consumption was estimated to approximately 13 gd ay(-1) (118 g day(-1) at street level).
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Affiliation(s)
- Frederic Been
- Ecole des Sciences Criminelles, University of Lausanne, Switzerland.
| | - Lisa Benaglia
- Ecole des Sciences Criminelles, University of Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Sonia Lucia
- Institut Universitaire de Médecine Sociale et Préventive, Lausanne, Switzerland
| | | | - Pierre Esseiva
- Ecole des Sciences Criminelles, University of Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Olivier Delémont
- Ecole des Sciences Criminelles, University of Lausanne, Switzerland
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van Nuijs ALN, Covaci A, Beyers H, Bervoets L, Blust R, Verpooten G, Neels H, Jorens PG. Do concentrations of pharmaceuticals in sewage reflect prescription figures? ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND POLLUTION RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2015; 22:9110-8. [PMID: 25874419 DOI: 10.1007/s11356-014-4066-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/08/2014] [Accepted: 12/30/2014] [Indexed: 05/15/2023]
Abstract
In recent years, it has been demonstrated that sewage-based epidemiology can deliver interesting information on trends in illicit drug consumption. However, until now, no real evidence exists that the measured concentrations of drugs in sewage can be exactly correlated with the amounts of drugs used by a specific population. This study aimed therefore at correlating detailed monthly prescription figures of 11 pharmaceuticals (atenolol, bisoprolol, citalopram, fluoxetine, venlafaxine, losartan, telmisartan, valsartan, carbamazepine, metformin, and tramadol) with measured concentrations of these compounds in influent sewage from five sewage treatment plants in Belgium. For 7 out of the 11 substances, a ratio between loads calculated from the prescription figures and loads calculated from measured concentrations in the range of 0.30-3.00 was observed. For four pharmaceuticals (atenolol, bisoprolol, telmisartan, and venlafaxine), the observed relationship was less pronounced. The manuscript gives an overview of the possible uncertainties that are related with the calculated correlations. This study highlights the need for gathering all the necessary information regarding sewage sampling, stability of substances in sewage, pharmacokinetics, and analytical method performance when sewage-based epidemiology studies are performed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexander L N van Nuijs
- Toxicological Centre, Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Antwerp (UA), Universiteitsplein 1, Wilrijk, 2610, Antwerp, Belgium,
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122
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Castiglioni S, Borsotti A, Senta I, Zuccato E. Wastewater analysis to monitor spatial and temporal patterns of use of two synthetic recreational drugs, ketamine and mephedrone, in Italy. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2015; 49:5563-5570. [PMID: 25844536 DOI: 10.1021/es5060429] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
Wastewater analysis was applied in a four-year monitoring study to assess temporal and spatial patterns of ketamine and mephedrone use in the general population in Italy. Composite raw wastewater samples were collected from sewage treatment plants (STPs) in 17 cities. Target analytes were measured using a validated method based on solid phase extraction and liquid chromatography coupled to tandem mass spectrometry analysis. Mass loads were use to assess ketamine and mephedrone use and were normalized to the population served by the plants. Ketamine was detected in wastewater in all except one (Palermo) of the cities investigated, while mephedrone was detected only in Bologna and Florence. Ketamine mass loads progressively increased from 2010 to 2013, and in Milan rose from 1 to 1.5 g/day in 2008-2010 to 3.4-3.6 g/day in 2013-2014. Mass loads were higher in north and central Italy than in the south, and in larger rather than small cities. Wastewater analysis was suitable to provide objective and up-to-date information on the use of ketamine in Italy, to identify ketamine spatial and temporal changes, and to confirm the low use of mephedrone. These results can complement information from population surveys which often provide only scant and incomplete figures for these substances.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sara Castiglioni
- †IRCCS - Istituto di Ricerche Farmacologiche "Mario Negri", Department of Environmental Health Sciences, Via La Masa 19, 20156, Milan, Italy
| | - Andrea Borsotti
- †IRCCS - Istituto di Ricerche Farmacologiche "Mario Negri", Department of Environmental Health Sciences, Via La Masa 19, 20156, Milan, Italy
| | - Ivan Senta
- ‡Rudjer Boskovic Institute, Division for Marine and Environmental Research, Bijenicka cesta 54, 10000 Zagreb, Croatia
| | - Ettore Zuccato
- †IRCCS - Istituto di Ricerche Farmacologiche "Mario Negri", Department of Environmental Health Sciences, Via La Masa 19, 20156, Milan, Italy
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Yang Z, Anglès d'Auriac M, Goggins S, Kasprzyk-Hordern B, Thomas KV, Frost CG, Estrela P. A novel DNA biosensor using a ferrocenyl intercalator applied to the potential detection of human population biomarkers in wastewater. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2015; 49:5609-5617. [PMID: 25853680 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.5b00637] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
A new label-free electrochemical DNA (E-DNA) biosensor using a custom synthesized ferrocenyl (Fc) double-stranded DNA intercalator as a redox marker is presented. Single-stranded DNA (ssDNA) was co-immobilized on gold electrodes with 6-mecarpto-hexanol to control the surface density of the ssDNA probe, and hybridized with complementary DNA. The binding of the Fc intercalator to dsDNA was measured by differential pulse voltammetry. This new biosensor was optimized to allow the detection of single base pair mismatched sequences, able to detect as low as 10 pM target ssDNA with a dynamic range from 10 pM to 100 nM. DNA extracted from wastewater was analyzed by quantitative polymerase chain reaction targeting human-specific mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA). The aim of this approach is to enable the analysis of population biomarkers in wastewater for the evaluation of public health using wastewater-based epidemiology (WBE). The E-DNA biosensor was employed to detect human-specific mtDNA from wastewater before and after PCR amplification. The results demonstrate the feasibility of detecting human DNA biomarkers in wastewater using the developed biosensor, which may allow the further development of DNA population biomarkers for public health using WBE.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhugen Yang
- †Department of Chemistry, University of Bath, Claverton Down, BA2 7AY, Bath, United Kingdom
- ‡Department of Electronic and Electrical Engineering, University of Bath, Claverton Down, BA2 7AY, Bath, United Kingdom
| | - Marc Anglès d'Auriac
- §Norwegian Institute for Water Research (NIVA), Gaustadalléen 21, 0349 Oslo, Norway
| | - Sean Goggins
- †Department of Chemistry, University of Bath, Claverton Down, BA2 7AY, Bath, United Kingdom
| | | | - Kevin V Thomas
- §Norwegian Institute for Water Research (NIVA), Gaustadalléen 21, 0349 Oslo, Norway
| | - Christopher G Frost
- †Department of Chemistry, University of Bath, Claverton Down, BA2 7AY, Bath, United Kingdom
| | - Pedro Estrela
- ‡Department of Electronic and Electrical Engineering, University of Bath, Claverton Down, BA2 7AY, Bath, United Kingdom
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Senta I, Gracia-Lor E, Borsotti A, Zuccato E, Castiglioni S. Wastewater analysis to monitor use of caffeine and nicotine and evaluation of their metabolites as biomarkers for population size assessment. WATER RESEARCH 2015; 74:23-33. [PMID: 25706221 DOI: 10.1016/j.watres.2015.02.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 117] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/10/2014] [Revised: 12/19/2014] [Accepted: 02/01/2015] [Indexed: 05/23/2023]
Abstract
The use of caffeine, nicotine and some major metabolites was investigated by wastewater analysis in 13 sewage treatment plants (STPs) across Italy, and their suitability was tested as qualitative and quantitative biomarkers for assessing population size and dynamics. A specific analytical method based on mass spectrometry was developed and validated in raw urban wastewater, and included two caffeine metabolites, 1-methylxanthine and 7-methylxanthine, never reported in wastewater before. All these compounds were found widely at the μg/L level. Mass loads, calculated by multiplying concentrations by the wastewater daily flow rate and normalized to the population served by each plant, were used to compare the profiles from different cities. Some regional differences were observed in the mass loads, especially for nicotine metabolites, which were significantly higher in the south than in the center and north of Italy, reflecting smoking prevalences from population surveys. There were no significant weekly trends, although the mean mass loads of caffeine and its metabolites were slightly lower during the weekend. Most caffeine and nicotine metabolites fulfilled the requirements for an ideal biomarker for the assessment of population size, i.e. being easily detectable in wastewater, stable in sewage and during sampling, and reflecting human metabolism. Nicotine metabolites were tested as quantitative biomarkers to estimate population size and the results agreed well with census data. Caffeine and its metabolites were confirmed as good qualitative biomarkers, but additional information is needed on the caffeine metabolism in relation to the multiple sources of its main metabolites. This exploratory study opens the way to the routine use of nicotine metabolites for estimating population size and dynamics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ivan Senta
- Rudjer Boskovic Institute, Division for Marine and Environmental Research, Bijenicka c. 54, 10000 Zagreb, Croatia
| | - Emma Gracia-Lor
- IRCCS - Istituto di Ricerche Farmacologiche "Mario Negri", Department of Environmental Health Sciences, Via La Masa 19, 20156 Milan, Italy
| | - Andrea Borsotti
- IRCCS - Istituto di Ricerche Farmacologiche "Mario Negri", Department of Environmental Health Sciences, Via La Masa 19, 20156 Milan, Italy
| | - Ettore Zuccato
- IRCCS - Istituto di Ricerche Farmacologiche "Mario Negri", Department of Environmental Health Sciences, Via La Masa 19, 20156 Milan, Italy
| | - Sara Castiglioni
- IRCCS - Istituto di Ricerche Farmacologiche "Mario Negri", Department of Environmental Health Sciences, Via La Masa 19, 20156 Milan, Italy.
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Lai FY, Anuj S, Bruno R, Carter S, Gartner C, Hall W, Kirkbride KP, Mueller JF, O'Brien JW, Prichard J, Thai PK, Ort C. Systematic and day-to-day effects of chemical-derived population estimates on wastewater-based drug epidemiology. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2015; 49:999-1008. [PMID: 25443427 DOI: 10.1021/es503474d] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/24/2023]
Abstract
Population size is crucial when estimating population-normalized drug consumption (PNDC) from wastewater-based drug epidemiology (WBDE). Three conceptually different population estimates can be used: de jure (common census, residence), de facto (all persons within a sewer catchment), and chemical loads (contributors to the sampled wastewater). De facto and chemical loads will be the same where all households contribute to a central sewer system without wastewater loss. This study explored the feasibility of determining a de facto population and its effect on estimating PNDC in an urban community over an extended period. Drugs and other chemicals were analyzed in 311 daily composite wastewater samples. The daily estimated de facto population (using chemical loads) was on average 32% higher than the de jure population. Consequently, using the latter would systemically overestimate PNDC by 22%. However, the relative day-to-day pattern of drug consumption was similar regardless of the type of normalization as daily illicit drug loads appeared to vary substantially more than the population. Using chemical loads population, we objectively quantified the total methodological uncertainty of PNDC and reduced it by a factor of 2. Our study illustrated the potential benefits of using chemical loads population for obtaining more robust PNDC data in WBDE.
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126
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Castiglioni S, Borsotti A, Riva F, Zuccato E. Illicit drug consumption estimated by wastewater analysis in different districts of Milan: A case study. Drug Alcohol Rev 2014; 35:128-32. [DOI: 10.1111/dar.12233] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/31/2014] [Accepted: 10/23/2014] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Sara Castiglioni
- Department of Environmental Health Sciences; IRCCS Istituto di Ricerche Farmacologiche ‘Mario Negri’; Milan Italy
| | - Andrea Borsotti
- Department of Environmental Health Sciences; IRCCS Istituto di Ricerche Farmacologiche ‘Mario Negri’; Milan Italy
| | - Francesco Riva
- Department of Environmental Health Sciences; IRCCS Istituto di Ricerche Farmacologiche ‘Mario Negri’; Milan Italy
| | - Ettore Zuccato
- Department of Environmental Health Sciences; IRCCS Istituto di Ricerche Farmacologiche ‘Mario Negri’; Milan Italy
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127
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Hernández F, Ibáñez M, Bade R, Bijlsma L, Sancho J. Investigation of pharmaceuticals and illicit drugs in waters by liquid chromatography-high-resolution mass spectrometry. Trends Analyt Chem 2014. [DOI: 10.1016/j.trac.2014.08.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 81] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/30/2023]
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