101
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Abstract
The BvgAS virulence control system regulates the expression of type III secretion genes in Bordetella subspecies that infect humans and other mammals. We have identified five open reading frames, btrS, btrU, btrX, btrW and btrV, that are activated by BvgAS and encode regulatory factors that control type III secretion at the levels of transcription, protein expression and secretion. The btrS gene product bears sequence similarity to ECF (extracytoplasmic function) sigma factors and is required for transcription of the bsc locus. btrU, btrW and btrV encode proteins predicted to contain PP2C-like Ser phosphatase, HPK (His protein kinase)-like Ser kinase and STAS anti-sigma factor antagonist domains, respectively, which are characteristic of Gram-positive partner switching proteins in Bacillus subtilis. BtrU and BtrW are required for secretion of proteins that are exported by the bsc type III secretion system, whereas BtrV is specifically required for protein synthesis and/or stability. Bordetella species have thus evolved a unique cascade to differentially regulate type III secretion that combines a canonical phosphorelay system with an ECF sigma factor and a set of proteins with domain signatures that define partner switchers, which were traditionally thought to function only in Gram-positive bacteria. The presence of multiple layers and mechanisms of regulation most likely reflects the need to integrate multiple signals in controlling type III secretion. The bsc and btr loci are nearly identical between broad-host-range and human-specific Bordetella. Comparative analysis of Bordetella subspecies revealed that, whereas bsc and btr loci were transcribed in all subspecies, only broad-host-range strains expressed a functional type III secretion system in vitro. The block in type III secretion is post-transcriptional in human-adapted strains, and signal recognition appears to be a point of divergence between subspecies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Seema Mattoo
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Molecular Genetics, David Geffen School of Medicine at UCLA, 10833 Le Conte Ave., Los Angeles, CA 90095-1747, USA
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102
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Anthony JR, Newman JD, Donohue TJ. Interactions between the Rhodobacter sphaeroides ECF sigma factor, sigma(E), and its anti-sigma factor, ChrR. J Mol Biol 2004; 341:345-60. [PMID: 15276828 PMCID: PMC2796631 DOI: 10.1016/j.jmb.2004.06.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/24/2004] [Revised: 06/09/2004] [Accepted: 06/10/2004] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
Rhodobacter sphaeroides sigma(E) is a member of the extra cytoplasmic function sigma factor (ECF) family, whose members have been shown to regulate gene expression in response to a variety of signals. The functions of ECF family members are commonly regulated by a specific, reversible interaction with a cognate anti-sigma factor. In R.sphaeroides, sigma(E) activity is inhibited by ChrR, a member of a newly discovered family of zinc containing anti-sigma factors. We used gel filtration chromatography to gain insight into the mechanism by which ChrR inhibits sigma(E) activity. We found that formation of the sigma(E):ChrR complex inhibits the ability of sigma(E) to form a stable complex with core RNA polymerase. Since the sigma(E):ChrR complex inhibits the ability of the sigma factor to bind RNA polymerase, we sought to identify amino acid substitutions in sigma(E) that altered the sensitivity of this sigma factor to inhibition by ChrR. This analysis identified single amino acid changes in conserved region 2.1 of sigma(E) that either increased or decreased the sensitivity of sigma(E) for inhibition by ChrR. Many of the amino acid residues that alter the sensitivity of sigma(E) to ChrR are located within regions known to be important for interacting with core RNA polymerase in other members of the sigma(70) superfamily. Our results suggest a model where solvent-exposed residues with region 2.1 of sigma(E) interact with ChrR to sterically occlude this sigma factor from binding core RNA polymerase and to inhibit target gene expression.
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103
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Espinasse S, Gohar M, Lereclus D, Sanchis V. An extracytoplasmic-function sigma factor is involved in a pathway controlling beta-exotoxin I production in Bacillus thuringiensis subsp. thuringiensis strain 407-1. J Bacteriol 2004; 186:3108-16. [PMID: 15126472 PMCID: PMC400614 DOI: 10.1128/jb.186.10.3108-3116.2004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Beta-exotoxin I is an insecticidal nucleotide analogue secreted by various Bacillus thuringiensis strains. In this report, we describe the characterization and transcriptional analysis of a gene cluster, designated sigW-ecfX-ecfY, that is essential for beta-exotoxin I production in B. thuringiensis subsp. thuringiensis strain 407-1. In this strain, the disruption of the sigW cluster resulted in nontoxic culture supernatants. sigW encodes a protein of 177 residues that is 97 and 94% identical to two putative RNA polymerase extracytoplasmic-function-type sigma factors from Bacillus anthracis strain Ames and Bacillus cereus strain ATCC 14579, respectively. It is also 50, 30, and 26% identical to SigW from Clostridium perfringens and SigW and SigX from Bacillus subtilis, respectively. EcfX, encoded by the gene following sigW, significantly repressed the expression of sigW when both genes were overtranscribed, suggesting that it could be the anti-sigma factor of SigW. Following the loss of its curable cry plasmid, strain 407 became unable to synthesize crystal toxins, in contrast to the mutant strain 407-1(Cry-)(Pig+), which overproduced this molecule in the absence of this plasmid. Transcriptional analysis of sigW indicated that this gene was expressed during the stationary phase and only in the 407-1(Cry-)(Pig+) mutant. This suggests that in the wild type-407(Cry+) strain, beta-exotoxin I was produced from determinants located on a cry gene-bearing plasmid and that sigW is able to induce beta-exotoxin I production in B. thuringiensis in the absence of cry gene-bearing plasmids. Although the signal responsible for this activation is unknown, these results indicate that beta-exotoxin I production in B. thuringiensis can be restored or induced via an alternative pathway that requires sigW expression.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sylvain Espinasse
- Unité Génétique Microbienne et Environnement, INRA La Minière, 78285 Guyancourt, France
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104
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Abstract
Bacteria use their genetic material with great effectiveness to make the right products in the correct amounts at the appropriate time. Studying bacterial transcription initiation in Escherichia coli has served as a model for understanding transcriptional control throughout all kingdoms of life. Every step in the pathway between gene and function is exploited to exercise this control, but for reasons of economy, it is plain that the key step to regulate is the initiation of RNA-transcript formation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Douglas F Browning
- School of Biosciences, University of Birmingham, Edgbaston, Birmingham B15 2TT, UK
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105
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Sorenson MK, Ray SS, Darst SA. Crystal Structure of the Flagellar σ/Anti-σ Complex σ28/FlgM Reveals an Intact σ Factor in an Inactive Conformation. Mol Cell 2004; 14:127-38. [PMID: 15068809 DOI: 10.1016/s1097-2765(04)00150-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 87] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/08/2004] [Revised: 02/23/2004] [Accepted: 02/26/2004] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Abstract
The key regulators of bacterial transcription initiation are the sigma factors, which direct promoter recognition and melting but only after binding to the core RNA polymerase to form the holoenzyme. X-ray crystal structures of the flagellar sigma, sigma(28), in complex with its anti-sigma, FlgM, explain the inhibition mechanism of FlgM, including its ability to attack and destabilize the sigma(28)-holoenzyme. The sigma domains (sigma(2), sigma(3), and sigma(4)) pack together in a compact unit with extensive interdomain interfaces that bury the promoter binding determinants, including the -35 element recognition helix of sigma(4), which fits in an acidic groove on the surface of sigma(3). The structure illustrates the large rearrangements that sigma(28) must undergo to form the holoenzyme and provides insights into the regulation of sigma(28) promoter binding activity that may extend, at least in principle, to other sigmas.
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106
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Abstract
Thiol-based regulatory switches play central roles in cellular responses to oxidative stress, nitrosative stress, and changes in the overall thiol-disulfide redox balance. Protein sulfhydryls offer a great deal of flexibility in the different types of modification they can undergo and the range of chemical signals they can perceive. For example, recent work on OhrR and OxyR has clearly established that disulfide bonds are not the only cysteine oxidation products that are likely to be relevant to redox sensing in vivo. Furthermore, different stresses can result in distinct modifications to the same protein; in OxyR it seems that distinct modifications can occur at the same cysteine, and in Yap1 a partner protein ensures that the disulfide bond induced by peroxide stress is different from the disulfide bond induced by other stresses. These kinds of discoveries have also led to the intriguing suggestion that different modifications to the same protein can create multiple activation states and thus deliver discrete regulatory outcomes. In this review, we highlight these issues, focusing on seven well-characterized microbial proteins controlled by thiol-based switches, each of which exhibits unique regulatory features.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mark S B Paget
- Department of Biochemistry, School of Life Sciences, University of Sussex, Brighton BN1 9QG, United Kingdom.
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107
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Mascher T, Margulis NG, Wang T, Ye RW, Helmann JD. Cell wall stress responses in Bacillus subtilis: the regulatory network of the bacitracin stimulon. Mol Microbiol 2003; 50:1591-604. [PMID: 14651641 DOI: 10.1046/j.1365-2958.2003.03786.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 245] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
In response to sublethal concentrations of antibiotics, bacteria often induce an adaptive response that can contribute to antibiotic resistance. We report the response of Bacillus subtilis to bacitracin, an inhibitor of cell wall biosynthesis found in its natural environment. Analysis of the global transcriptional profile of bacitracin-treated cells reveals a response orchestrated by two alternative sigma factors (sigmaB and sigmaM) and three two-component systems (YvqEC, YvcPQ and BceRS). All three two-component systems are located next to target genes that are strongly induced by bacitracin, and the corresponding histidine kinases share an unusual topology: they lack about 100 amino acids in their extracellular sensing domain, which is almost entirely buried in the cytoplasmic membrane. Sequence analysis indicates that this novel N-terminal sensing domain is a characteristic feature of a subfamily of histidine kinases, found almost entirely in Gram-positive bacteria and frequently linked to ABC transporters. A systematic mutational analysis of bacitracin-induced genes led to the identification of a new bacitracin-resistance determinant, bceAB, encoding a putative ABC transporter. The bcrC bacitracin resistance gene, which is under the dual control of sigmaX and sigmaM, was also induced by bacitracin. By comparing the bacitracin and the vancomycin stimulons, we can differentiate between loci induced specifically by bacitracin and those that are induced by multiple cell wall-active antibiotics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thorsten Mascher
- Department of Microbiology, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853-8101, USA
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108
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Cao M, Salzberg L, Tsai CS, Mascher T, Bonilla C, Wang T, Ye RW, Márquez-Magaña L, Helmann JD. Regulation of the Bacillus subtilis extracytoplasmic function protein sigma(Y) and its target promoters. J Bacteriol 2003; 185:4883-90. [PMID: 12897008 PMCID: PMC166484 DOI: 10.1128/jb.185.16.4883-4890.2003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
The Bacillus subtilis extracytoplasmic function sigma factor sigma(Y) is of unknown function. We demonstrate that the sigY operon is expressed from an autoregulatory promoter site, P(Y). We selected for transposon-induced mutations that upregulate P(Y) transcription in an attempt to identify genes involved in sigma(Y) regulation. The resulting insertions disrupted yxlC, the gene immediately downstream of sigY. However, the phenotype of the yxlC::Tn10 insertion was due to polarity on the downstream genes of the sigY operon; a nonpolar insertion in yxlC did not lead to derepression of P(Y). Further analyses revealed that both yxlD and yxlE encoded proteins important for the negative regulation of sigma(Y) activity. A comparison of the transcriptomes of wild-type and yxlC::Tn10 mutant strains revealed elevated expression of several operons. However, only one additional gene, ybgB, was unambiguously identified as a direct target for sigma(Y). This was supported by analysis of direct targets for sigma(Y) transcription with whole-genome runoff transcription followed by macroarray analysis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Min Cao
- Department of Microbiology, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York 14853-8101, USA
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109
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Weeks ME, James DC, Robinson GK, Smales CM. Global changes in gene expression observed at the transition from growth to stationary phase in
Listeria monocytogenes
ScottA batch culture. Proteomics 2003; 4:123-35. [PMID: 14730677 DOI: 10.1002/pmic.200300527] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Abstract
Listeria monocytogenes is a food-borne Gram-positive bacterium that is responsible for a variety of infections (worldwide) annually. The organism is able to survive a variety of environmental conditions and stresses, however, the mechanisms by which L. monocytogenes adapts to environmental change are yet to be fully elucidated. An understanding of the mechanism(s) by which L. monocytogenes survives unfavourable environmental conditions will aid in developing new food processing methods to control the organism in foodstuffs. We have utilized a proteomic approach to investigate the response of L. monocytogenes batch cultures to the transition from exponential to stationary growth phase. Proteomic analysis showed that batch cultures of L. monocytogenes perceived stress and began preparations for stationary phase much earlier (approximately A(600) = 0.75, mid-exponential) than predicted by growth characteristics alone. Global analysis of the proteome revealed that the expression levels of more than 50% of all proteins observed changed significantly over a 7-9 h period during this transition phase. We have highlighted ten proteins in particular whose expression levels appear to be important in the early onset of the stationary phase. The significance of these findings in terms of functionality and the mechanistic picture are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mark E Weeks
- Research School of Biosciences, University of Kent, Canterbury, Kent, UK
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110
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Abstract
Tuberculosis (TB), one of the oldest known human diseases. is still is one of the major causes of mortality, since two million people die each year from this malady. TB has many manifestations, affecting bone, the central nervous system, and many other organ systems, but it is primarily a pulmonary disease that is initiated by the deposition of Mycobacterium tuberculosis, contained in aerosol droplets, onto lung alveolar surfaces. From this point, the progression of the disease can have several outcomes, determined largely by the response of the host immune system. The efficacy of this response is affected by intrinsic factors such as the genetics of the immune system as well as extrinsic factors, e.g., insults to the immune system and the nutritional and physiological state of the host. In addition, the pathogen may play a role in disease progression since some M. tuberculosis strains are reportedly more virulent than others, as defined by increased transmissibility as well as being associated with higher morbidity and mortality in infected individuals. Despite the widespread use of an attenuated live vaccine and several antibiotics, there is more TB than ever before, requiring new vaccines and drugs and more specific and rapid diagnostics. Researchers are utilizing information obtained from the complete sequence of the M. tuberculosis genome and from new genetic and physiological methods to identify targets in M. tuberculosis that will aid in the development of these sorely needed antitubercular agents.
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Affiliation(s)
- Issar Smith
- TB Center, Public Health Research Institute, International Center for Public Health, Newark, New Jersey 07103-3535, USA.
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111
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Thackray PD, Moir A. SigM, an extracytoplasmic function sigma factor of Bacillus subtilis, is activated in response to cell wall antibiotics, ethanol, heat, acid, and superoxide stress. J Bacteriol 2003; 185:3491-8. [PMID: 12775685 PMCID: PMC156226 DOI: 10.1128/jb.185.12.3491-3498.2003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 97] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
The extracytoplasmic function sigma M of Bacillus subtilis is required for normal cell growth under salt stress. It is expressed maximally during exponential growth and is further induced by the addition of 0.7 M NaCl. The promoter region of the sigM operon contains two promoters; one (P(A)) is sigma A dependent, and the other (P(M)) is sigma M dependent. These have been placed separately at the amy locus, directing expression of a lacZ reporter gene. Only the P(M) fusion responded to salt induction. This promoter, which was responsive to the level of active sigma M in the cell, was also induced by 5% ethanol, by vancomycin, bacitracin, or phosphomycin (inhibitors of cell wall biosynthesis; 2 micro g per ml), and by heat shock of 50 degrees C for 10 min. It was very strongly induced by acid (pH 4.3) and 80 micro M paraquat, but after a 15- to 30-min delay. There was no induction by alkali (pH 9), 5 mM H(2)O(2), the detergents 0.1% Triton X-100 and 0.1% Tween 20, or 50 micro M monensin. In addition to their reduced tolerance to salt, null mutants of sigM were unable to grow at pH 4.3 and lysed after exposure to 5% ethanol. Genes regulated by SigM were also tested for their response to pH 4.3, 5% ethanol, and 2 micro g of vancomycin per ml. Expression of the genes may have been activated by increased levels of sigma M, but at least some were also subject to additional controls, as they responded to one type of stress but not another. Expression of yrhJ, which encodes a cytochrome P450/NADPH reductase, was induced in response to acid and vancomycin. yraA expression was acid, ethanol, and vancomycin induced, whereas yjbD showed only ethanol induction. YraA protein was extremely important to acid survival-a mutation in yraA, like a sigM mutation, resulted in the failure of B. subtilis to grow at pH 4.3. Sigma M is therefore involved in maintaining membrane and cell wall integrity in response to several different stresses in exponential growth phase and is activated by such stresses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Penny D Thackray
- Department of Molecular Biology and Biotechnology, University of Sheffield, Sheffield S10 2TN, United Kingdom
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112
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Abstract
Bacterial sigma factors play a key role in promoter recognition, making direct contact with conserved promoter elements. Most sigma factors belong to the sigma70 family, named for the primary sigma factor in Escherichia coli. Members of the sigma70 family typically share four conserved regions and, here, we focus on region 4, which is directly involved in promoter recognition and serves as a target for a variety of regulators of transcription initiation. We review recent advances in the understanding of the mechanism of action of regulators that target region 4 of sigma.
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Affiliation(s)
- Simon L Dove
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Children's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115, USA
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113
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Mahren S, Braun V. The FecI extracytoplasmic-function sigma factor of Escherichia coli interacts with the beta' subunit of RNA polymerase. J Bacteriol 2003; 185:1796-802. [PMID: 12618442 PMCID: PMC150148 DOI: 10.1128/jb.185.6.1796-1802.2003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Transcription of the ferric citrate transport system of Escherichia coli K-12 is mediated by the extracytoplasmic-function (ECF) sigma factor FecI, which is activated by ferric citrate in the growth medium. By using a bacterial two-hybrid system, it was shown in vivo that FecI binds to the beta' subunit of RNA polymerase. The inactive mutant protein FecI(K155E) displayed reduced binding to beta', and small deletions along the entire FecI protein led to total impairment of beta' binding. In vitro, FecI was retained on Ni(2+)-nitrilotriacetic acid agarose loaded with a His-tagged beta'(1-313) fragment and coeluted with beta'(1-313). Binding of FecI to beta' and beta'(1-313) was enhanced by FecR(1-85), which represents the cytoplasmic portion of the FecR protein that transmits the inducing signal across the cytoplasmic membrane. Interaction of FecR with FecI was demonstrated by showing that isolated FecR inhibited degradation of FecI by trypsin. This is the first demonstration of binding of an ECF sigma factor of the FecI type to the beta' subunit of RNA polymerase and of binding being enhanced by the protein that activates the ECF sigma factor.
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Affiliation(s)
- Susanne Mahren
- Mikrobiologie/Membranphysiologie, Universität Tübingen, D-72076 Tübingen, Germany
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114
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Abstract
Members of the sigma70 family of sigma factors are components of the RNA polymerase holoenzyme that direct bacterial or plastid core RNA polymerase to specific promoter elements that are situated 10 and 35 base-pairs upstream of transcription-initiation points. Members of the sigma70 family also function as contact points for some activator proteins, such as PhoB and lambda(cl), and play a role in the initiation process itself. The primary sigma factor, which is essential for general transcription in exponentially growing cells, is reversibly associated with RNA polymerase and can be replaced by alternative sigma factors that co-ordinately express genes involved in diverse functions, such as stress responses, morphological development and iron uptake. On the basis of gene structure and function, members of the sigma70 family can broadly be divided into four main groups. Sequence alignments of the sigma70 family members reveal that they have four conserved regions, although the highest conservation is found in regions 2 and 4, which are involved in binding to RNA polymerase, recognizing promoters and separating DNA strands (so-called 'DNA melting'). The division of the linear sequence of sigma70 factors into four regions is largely supported by recent structural data indicating that primary sigma factors have three stable domains that incorporate regions 2, 3 and 4. Furthermore, structures of the RNA polymerase holoenzyme have revealed that these domains of sigma70 are spread out across one face of RNA polymerase. These structural data are starting to illuminate the mechanistic role of sigma factors in transcription initiation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mark S B Paget
- School of Biological Sciences, University of Sussex, Brighton BN1 9QG, UK.
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115
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Abstract
Bacterial sigma (sigma) factors are an essential component of RNA polymerase and determine promoter selectivity. The substitution of one sigma factor for another can redirect some or all of the RNA polymerase in a cell to activate the transcription of genes that would otherwise be silent. As a class, alternative sigma factors play key roles in coordinating gene transcription during various stress responses and during morphological development. The extracytoplasmic function (ECF) sigma factors are small regulatory proteins that are quite divergent in sequence relative to most other sigma factors. Many bacteria, particularly those with more complex genomes, contain multiple ECF sigma factors and these regulators often outnumber all other types of sigma factor combined. Examples include Bacillus subtilis (7 ECF sigma factors), Mycobacterium tuberculosis (10), Caulobacter crescentus (13), Pseudomonas aeruginosa (approximately 19), and Streptomyces coelicolor (approximately 50). The roles and mechanisms of regulation for these various ECF sigma factors are largely unknown, but significant progress has been made in selected systems. As a general trend, most ECF sigma factors are cotranscribed with one or more negative regulators. Often, these include a transmembrane protein functioning as an anti-sigma factor that binds, and inhibits, the cognate sigma factor. Upon receiving a stimulus from the environment, the sigma factor is released and can bind to RNA polymerase to stimulate transcription. In many ways, these anti-sigma:sigma pairs are analogous to the more familiar two-component regulatory systems consisting of a transmembrane histidine protein kinase and a DNA-binding response regulator. Both are mechanisms of coordinating a cytoplasmic transcriptional response to signals perceived by protein domains external to the cell membrane. Here, I review current knowledge of some of the better characterized ECF sigma factors, discuss the variety of experimental approaches that have proven productive in defining the roles of ECF sigma factors, and present some unifying themes that are beginning to emerge as more systems are studied.
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Affiliation(s)
- John D Helmann
- Department of Microbiology, Wing Hall, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853-8101, USA
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116
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Li W, Stevenson CEM, Burton N, Jakimowicz P, Paget MSB, Buttner MJ, Lawson DM, Kleanthous C. Identification and structure of the anti-sigma factor-binding domain of the disulphide-stress regulated sigma factor sigma(R) from Streptomyces coelicolor. J Mol Biol 2002; 323:225-36. [PMID: 12381317 DOI: 10.1016/s0022-2836(02)00948-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
Abstract
The extracytoplasmic function (ECF) sigma factor sigma(R) is a global regulator of redox homeostasis in the antibiotic-producing bacterium Streptomyces coelicolor, with a similar role in other actinomycetes such as Mycobacterium tuberculosis. Normally maintained in an inactive state by its bound anti-sigma factor RsrA, sigma(R) dissociates in response to intracellular disulphide-stress to direct core RNA polymerase to transcribe genes, such as trxBA and trxC that encode the enzymes of the thioredoxin disulphide reductase pathway, that re-establish redox homeostasis. Little is known about where RsrA binds on sigma(R) or how it suppresses sigma(R)-dependent transcriptional activity. Using a combination of proteolysis, surface-enhanced laser desorption ionisation mass spectrometry and pull-down assays we identify an N-terminal, approximately 10kDa domain (sigma(RN)) that encompasses region 2 of sigma(R) that represents the major RsrA binding site. We show that sigma(RN) inhibits transcription by an unrelated sigma factor and that this inhibition is relieved by RsrA binding, reaffirming that region 2 is involved in binding to core RNA polymerase but also demonstrating that the likely mechanism by which RsrA inhibits sigma(R) activity is by blocking this association. We also report the 2.4A resolution crystal structure of sigma(RN) that reveals extensive structural conservation with the equivalent region of sigma(70) from Escherichia coli as well as with the cyclin-box, a domain-fold found in the eukaryotic proteins TFIIB and cyclin A. sigma(RN) has a propensity to aggregate, due to steric complementarity of oppositely charged surfaces on the domain, but this is inhibited by RsrA, an observation that suggests a possible mode of action for RsrA which we compare to other well-studied sigma factor-anti-sigma factor systems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wei Li
- School of Biological Sciences, University of East Anglia, NR4 7TJ, Norwich, UK
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117
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Stewart GR, Wernisch L, Stabler R, Mangan JA, Hinds J, Laing KG, Young DB, Butcher PD. Dissection of the heat-shock response in Mycobacterium tuberculosis using mutants and microarrays. MICROBIOLOGY (READING, ENGLAND) 2002; 148:3129-3138. [PMID: 12368446 DOI: 10.1099/00221287-148-10-3129] [Citation(s) in RCA: 274] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/17/2023]
Abstract
Regulation of the expression of heat-shock proteins plays an important role in the pathogenesis of Mycobacterium tuberculosis. The heat-shock response of bacteria involves genome-wide changes in gene expression. A combination of targeted mutagenesis and whole-genome expression profiling was used to characterize transcription factors responsible for control of genes encoding the major heat-shock proteins of M. tuberculosis. Two heat-shock regulons were identified. HspR acts as a transcriptional repressor for the members of the Hsp70 (DnaK) regulon, and HrcA similarly regulates the Hsp60 (GroE) response. These two specific repressor circuits overlap with broader transcriptional changes mediated by alternative sigma factors during exposure to high temperatures. Several previously undescribed heat-shock genes were identified as members of the HspR and HrcA regulons. A novel HspR-controlled operon encodes a member of the low-molecular-mass alpha-crystallin family. This protein is one of the most prominent features of the M. tuberculosis heat-shock response and is related to a major antigen induced in response to anaerobic stress.
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Affiliation(s)
- Graham R Stewart
- Department of Infectious Diseases and Microbiology, Centre for Molecular Microbiology and Infection, Imperial College of Science Technology and Medicine, London SW7 2AZ, UK1
| | - Lorenz Wernisch
- School of Crystallography, Birkbeck College, University of London, Malet Street, London WC1E 7HX, UK2
| | - Richard Stabler
- Department of Medical Microbiology, St George's Hospital Medical School, Cranmer Terrace, London SW17 0RE, UK3
| | - Joseph A Mangan
- Department of Medical Microbiology, St George's Hospital Medical School, Cranmer Terrace, London SW17 0RE, UK3
| | - Jason Hinds
- Department of Medical Microbiology, St George's Hospital Medical School, Cranmer Terrace, London SW17 0RE, UK3
| | - Ken G Laing
- Department of Medical Microbiology, St George's Hospital Medical School, Cranmer Terrace, London SW17 0RE, UK3
| | - Douglas B Young
- Department of Infectious Diseases and Microbiology, Centre for Molecular Microbiology and Infection, Imperial College of Science Technology and Medicine, London SW7 2AZ, UK1
| | - Philip D Butcher
- Department of Medical Microbiology, St George's Hospital Medical School, Cranmer Terrace, London SW17 0RE, UK3
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118
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Beaucher J, Rodrigue S, Jacques PE, Smith I, Brzezinski R, Gaudreau L. Novel Mycobacterium tuberculosis anti-sigma factor antagonists control sigmaF activity by distinct mechanisms. Mol Microbiol 2002; 45:1527-40. [PMID: 12354223 DOI: 10.1046/j.1365-2958.2002.03135.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 76] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
The aetiological agent of tuberculosis, Mycobacterium tuberculosis, encodes 13 sigma factors, as well as several putative anti-, and anti-anti- sigma factors. Here we show that a sigma factor that has been previously shown to be involved in virulence and persistence processes, sigmaF, can be specifically inhibited by the anti-sigma factor UsfX. Importantly, the inhibitory activity of UsfX, in turn, can be negatively regulated by two novel anti-anti-sigma factors. The first anti-anti-sigma factor seems to be regulated by redox potential, and the second may be regulated by phosphorylation as it is rendered non-functional by the introduction of a mutation that is believed to mimic phosphorylation of the anti-anti-sigma factor. These results suggest that sigmaF activity might be post-translationally modulated by at least two distinct pathways in response to different possible physiological cues, the outcome being consistent with the bacteria's ability to adapt to diverse host environments during disease progression, latency and reactivation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jocelyn Beaucher
- Département de Biologie, Faculté des Sciences, Université de Sherbrooke, Québec, Canada
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119
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Mahren S, Enz S, Braun V. Functional interaction of region 4 of the extracytoplasmic function sigma factor FecI with the cytoplasmic portion of the FecR transmembrane protein of the Escherichia coli ferric citrate transport system. J Bacteriol 2002; 184:3704-11. [PMID: 12057967 PMCID: PMC135117 DOI: 10.1128/jb.184.13.3704-3711.2002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Transcriptional regulation of the ferric citrate transport genes of Escherichia coli is initiated by the binding of ferric citrate to the outer membrane protein FecA. This binding elicits a signal that is transmitted by FecR across the cytoplasmic membrane into the cytoplasm, where the sigma factor FecI directs the RNA polymerase to the promoter upstream of the fecABCDE genes. An in vivo deletion analysis using a bacterial two-hybrid system assigned the interaction of the FecR and FecI proteins to the cytoplasmic portion of the FecR transmembrane protein and region 4 of FecI. Missense mutations randomly generated by PCR were localized to region 4 of FecI, and the mutants were impaired with regard to the interaction of FecR with FecI and fecB-lacZ transcription. The cloned region 4 of FecI interfered with fecB-lacZ transcription. Interaction of N-proximal regions of predicted FecR homologs with region 4 of predicted FecI homologs of Pseudomonas aeruginosa was demonstrated. The interaction was specific in that only cognate protein pairs interacted with each other; no interactions occurred between heterologous combinations of the P. aeruginosa proteins and between a P. aeruginosa FecI homolog and E. coli FecR. The results demonstrate that region 4 of FecI specifically binds FecR and that this binding is necessary for FecI to function as a sigma factor.
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Affiliation(s)
- Susanne Mahren
- Mikrobiologie/Membranphysiologie, Universität Tübingen, D-72076 Tübingen, Germany
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120
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Rosen R, Ron EZ. Proteome analysis in the study of the bacterial heat-shock response. MASS SPECTROMETRY REVIEWS 2002; 21:244-265. [PMID: 12533799 DOI: 10.1002/mas.10031] [Citation(s) in RCA: 91] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/24/2023]
Abstract
In recent years, it has become clear that, in addition to the regulation of the expression of specific genes, there are global regulatory systems that control the simultaneous expression of a large number of genes in response to a variety of environmental stresses. The first of these global control systems, and of substantial importance, is the heat-shock response. The heat-shock response is characterized by the induction of a large set of proteins (heat-shock proteins-HSPs) upon shifts to higher temperature and upon exposure to conditions in which proteins are denatured (i.e., alcohols, heavy metals). The heat-shock response is universal and many of the heat-shock proteins are highly conserved among species. In bacteria, the heat-shock response has been studied extensively in several Gram-positive bacteria (Bacillus subtilis) and in the Gram-negative bacteria (i.e., Escherichia coli, Agrobacterium tumefaciens). The first recognition of the molecular abundance of the bacterial heat-shock proteins took place with the introduction of high-resolution two-dimensional polyacrylamide gels (2D gels) to analyze complex mixtures of cellular proteins. Two-dimensional gels, followed by mass spectrometry, were used to define the heat-shock stimulons in several bacteria, and to study the regulatory elements that control the heat-shock response. Here, we review the heat-shock response and its regulation in bacteria. The review will emphasize the use of proteome analysis in the study of this response, and will point out those open questions that can be investigated with proteomics, including mass spectrometry techniques.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ran Rosen
- Department of Molecular Microbiology and Biotechnology, George S. Wise Faculty of Life Sciences, Tel Aviv University, Ramat Aviv, Israel
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121
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Morikawa K, Shiina T, Murakami S, Toyoshima Y. Novel nuclear-encoded proteins interacting with a plastid sigma factor, Sig1, in Arabidopsis thaliana. FEBS Lett 2002; 514:300-4. [PMID: 11943170 DOI: 10.1016/s0014-5793(02)02388-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
Sigma factor binding proteins are involved in modifying the promoter preferences of the RNA polymerase in bacteria. We found the nuclear encoded protein (SibI) that is transported into chloroplasts and interacts specifically with the region 4 of Sig1 in Arabidopsis. SibI and its homologue, T3K9.5 are novel proteins, which are not homologous to any protein of known function. The expression of sibI was tissue specific, light dependent, and developmentally timed. We suggest the transcriptional regulation by sigma factor binding proteins to function in the plastids of higher plant.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kazuya Morikawa
- Graduate School of Human and Environmental Studies, Kyoto University, Yoshida-nihonmatu-cho, Sakyo-ku, Kyoto 606-8501, Japan
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122
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Urbauer JL, Simeonov MF, Urbauer RJB, Adelman K, Gilmore JM, Brody EN. Solution structure and stability of the anti-sigma factor AsiA: implications for novel functions. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2002; 99:1831-5. [PMID: 11830637 PMCID: PMC122279 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.032464699] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/01/2001] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Anti-sigma factors regulate prokaryotic gene expression through interactions with specific sigma factors. The bacteriophage T4 anti-sigma factor AsiA is a molecular switch that both inhibits transcription from bacterial promoters and phage early promoters and promotes transcription at phage middle promoters through its interaction with the primary sigma factor of Escherichia coli, sigma(70). AsiA is an all-helical, symmetric dimer in solution. The solution structure of the AsiA dimer reveals a novel helical fold for the protomer. Furthermore, the AsiA protomer, surprisingly, contains a helix-turn-helix DNA binding motif, predicting a potential new role for AsiA. The AsiA dimer interface includes a substantial hydrophobic component, and results of hydrogen/deuterium exchange studies suggest that the dimer interface is the most stable region of the AsiA dimer. In addition, the residues that form the dimer interface are those that are involved in binding to sigma(70). The results promote a model whereby the AsiA dimer maintains the active hydrophobic surfaces and delivers them to sigma(70), where an AsiA protomer is displaced from the dimer via the interaction of sigma(70) with the same residues in AsiA that constitute the dimer interface.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jeffrey L Urbauer
- Department of Molecular Biosciences, University of Kansas, Lawrence, KS 66045, USA.
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123
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Abstract
Envelope stress responses play important physiological roles in a variety of processes, including protein folding, cell wall biosynthesis, and pathogenesis. Many of these responses are controlled by extracytoplasmic function (ECF) sigma factors that respond to external signals by means of a membrane-localized anti-sigma factor. One of the best-characterized, ECF-regulated responses is the sigma(E) envelope stress response of Escherichia coli. The sigma(E) pathway ensures proper assembly of outer-membrane proteins (OMP) by controlling expression of genes involved in OMP folding and degradation in response to envelope stresses that disrupt these processes. Prevailing evidence suggests that, in E. coli, a second envelope stress response controlled by the Cpx two-component system ensures proper pilus assembly. The sensor kinase CpxA recognizes misfolded periplasmic proteins, such as those generated during pilus assembly, and transduces this signal to the response regulator CpxR through conserved phosphotransfer reactions. Phosphorylated CpxR activates transcription of periplasmic factors necessary for pilus assembly.
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Affiliation(s)
- T L Raivio
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta, T6G 2E9; Canada.
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124
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Wray LV, Zalieckas JM, Fisher SH. Bacillus subtilis glutamine synthetase controls gene expression through a protein-protein interaction with transcription factor TnrA. Cell 2001; 107:427-35. [PMID: 11719184 DOI: 10.1016/s0092-8674(01)00572-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 109] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Abstract
Bacillus subtilis TnrA, a global regulator of transcription, responds to nitrogen availability, but the specific signal to which it responds has been elusive. Genetic studies indicate that glutamine synthetase is required for the regulation of TnrA activity in vivo. We report here that the feedback-inhibited form of glutamine synthetase directly interacts with TnrA and blocks the DNA binding activity of TnrA. Mutations in the tnrA gene (tnrA(C)) that allow constitutive high level expression of tnrA-activated genes were isolated and characterized. Feedback-inhibited glutamine synthetase had a significantly reduced ability to block the in vitro DNA binding by three of the TnrA(C) proteins. Thus, glutamine synthetase, an enzyme of central metabolism, directly interacts with and regulates the DNA binding activity of TnrA.
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Affiliation(s)
- L V Wray
- Department of Microbiology, Boston University School of Medicine, 715 Albany Street, Boston, MA 02118, USA
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125
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Urbauer JL, Adelman K, Urbauer RJ, Simeonov MF, Gilmore JM, Zolkiewski M, Brody EN. Conserved regions 4.1 and 4.2 of sigma(70) constitute the recognition sites for the anti-sigma factor AsiA, and AsiA is a dimer free in solution. J Biol Chem 2001; 276:41128-32. [PMID: 11518715 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m106400200] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
The association of the bacteriophage T4-encoded AsiA protein with the final sigma(70) subunit of the Escherichia coli RNA polymerase is one of the principal events governing transcription of the T4 genome. Analytical ultracentrifugation and NMR studies indicate that free AsiA is a symmetric dimer and the dimers can exchange subunits. Using NMR, the mutual recognition sites on AsiA and final sigma(70) have been elucidated. Residues throughout the N-terminal half of AsiA are involved either directly or indirectly in binding to final sigma(70) whereas the two highly conserved C-terminal regions of final sigma(70), denoted 4.1 and 4.2, constitute the entire AsiA binding domain. Peptides corresponding to these regions bind tightly to AsiA individually and simultaneously. Simultaneous binding promotes structural changes in AsiA that mimic interaction with the complete AsiA binding determinant of final sigma(70). Moreover, the results suggest that a significant rearrangement of the dimer accompanies peptide binding. Thus, both conserved regions 4.1 and 4.2 are intimately involved in recognition of AsiA by final sigma(70). The interaction of AsiA with 4.1 provides a potential explanation of the differential abilities of DNA and AsiA to bind to free final sigma(70) and a mechanistic alternative to models of AsiA function that rely on binding to a single site on final sigma(70).
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Affiliation(s)
- J L Urbauer
- Department of Molecular Biosciences, University of Kansas, Lawrence, Kansas 66045, USA.
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126
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Dove SL, Hochschild A. Bacterial two-hybrid analysis of interactions between region 4 of the sigma(70) subunit of RNA polymerase and the transcriptional regulators Rsd from Escherichia coli and AlgQ from Pseudomonas aeruginosa. J Bacteriol 2001; 183:6413-21. [PMID: 11591686 PMCID: PMC100137 DOI: 10.1128/jb.183.21.6413-6421.2001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
A number of transcriptional regulators mediate their effects through direct contact with the sigma(70) subunit of Escherichia coli RNA polymerase (RNAP). In particular, several regulators have been shown to contact a C-terminal portion of sigma(70) that harbors conserved region 4. This region of sigma contains a putative helix-turn-helix DNA-binding motif that contacts the -35 element of sigma(70)-dependent promoters directly. Here we report the use of a recently developed bacterial two-hybrid system to study the interaction between the putative anti-sigma factor Rsd and the sigma(70) subunit of E. coli RNAP. Using this system, we found that Rsd can interact with an 86-amino-acid C-terminal fragment of sigma(70) and also that amino acid substitution R596H, within region 4 of sigma(70), weakens this interaction. We demonstrated the specificity of this effect by showing that substitution R596H does not weaken the interaction between sigma and two other regulators shown previously to contact region 4 of sigma(70). We also demonstrated that AlgQ, a homolog of Rsd that positively regulates virulence gene expression in Pseudomonas aeruginosa, can contact the C-terminal region of the sigma(70) subunit of RNAP from this organism. We found that amino acid substitution R600H in sigma(70) from P. aeruginosa, corresponding to the R596H substitution in E. coli sigma(70), specifically weakens the interaction between AlgQ and sigma(70). Taken together, our findings suggest that Rsd and AlgQ contact similar surfaces of RNAP present in region 4 of sigma(70) and probably regulate gene expression through this contact.
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Affiliation(s)
- S L Dove
- Department of Microbiology and Molecular Genetics, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts 02115, USA
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127
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Newman JD, Anthony JR, Donohue TJ. The importance of zinc-binding to the function of Rhodobacter sphaeroides ChrR as an anti-sigma factor. J Mol Biol 2001; 313:485-99. [PMID: 11676534 DOI: 10.1006/jmbi.2001.5069] [Citation(s) in RCA: 60] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
The Rhodobacter sphaeroides extra cytoplasmic function sigma factor, sigma(E), directs transcription of promoters for the cycA gene (cycA P3) and the rpoEchrR operon (rpoE P1). These genes encode the periplasmic electron carrier cytochrome c(2) and sigma(E)/ChrR, respectively. Using in vitro transcription assays with purified R. sphaeroides core RNA polymerase and sigma(E), we show that ChrR is sufficient to inhibit sigma(E)-dependent transcription. Inhibition is proposed to proceed through a binding interaction, since sigma(E) and ChrR form a 1:1 complex that can be purified when expressed at high levels in Escherichia coli. Active preparations of ChrR and the sigma(E)/ChrR complex each contain stoichiometric zinc. Removal of zinc from ChrR or a single amino acid substitution that abolishes zinc binding, results in a protein that is incapable of inhibiting sigma(E) activity or forming a complex with the sigma factor, indicating that metal binding is important to ChrR activity. Treatment of ChrR with the thiol-modifying reagent p-hydroxymecuriphenylsulfonic acid results in the release of about one mole of zinc per mole of protein. Furthermore, two N-terminal cysteine residues are protected from reaction with the thiol-specific reagent dithionitrobenzoic acid until zinc is removed, suggesting that these residues may be involved in zinc binding. These data indicate that ChrR is a specific anti-sigma factor of sigma(E) that requires zinc for function. Based on amino acid sequence similarity, we propose that ChrR is part of a family of similar anti-sigma factors that are found in alpha and gamma proteobacteria.
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Affiliation(s)
- J D Newman
- Department of Bacteriology, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI 53706, USA
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128
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Abstract
Transcriptional repressors are usually viewed as proteins that bind to promoters in a way that impedes subsequent binding of RNA polymerase. Although this repression mechanism is found at several promoters, there is a growing list of repressors that inhibit transcription initiation in other ways. For example, several repressors allow the simultaneous binding of RNA polymerase to the promoter, but interfere with subsequent events of the initiation process, eventually inhibiting transcription initiation. The recent increase in the number of repressors for which the repression mechanism has been characterized in detail has shown an amazing variety of strategies to repress transcription initiation. It is not surprising to find that the repression mechanism used is usually exquisitely adapted to the characteristics of the promoter and of the repressor involved.
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Affiliation(s)
- F Rojo
- Departamento de Biotecnología Microbiana, Centro Nacional de Biotecnología, CSIC, Campus de la Universidad Autónoma de Madrid, Cantoblanco, 28049-, Madrid, Spain.
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129
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Abstract
It is clear that multiple sites of interaction exist between sigmas and core subunits, likely reflecting the changing pattern of interactions that occur sequentially during the complex process of holoenzyme formation, open promoter formation, and initiation of transcription. Recent studies have revealed that a major site of interaction of Escherichia coli sigma factors is the amino acid 260-309 coiled-coil region of the beta' subunit of core RNA polymerase. This region of beta' interacts with region 2.1-2.2 of sigma(70). Binding of this region of beta' to sigma(70) triggers a conformational change in sigma that allows it to bind to a -10 nontemplate promoter DNA strand oligonucleotide.
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Affiliation(s)
- R R Burgess
- McArdle Laboratory for Cancer Research, University of Wisconsin-Madison, 1400 University Avenue, Madison, WI 53706, USA.
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130
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Chadsey MS, Hughes KT. A multipartite interaction between Salmonella transcription factor sigma28 and its anti-sigma factor FlgM: implications for sigma28 holoenzyme destabilization through stepwise binding. J Mol Biol 2001; 306:915-29. [PMID: 11237608 DOI: 10.1006/jmbi.2001.4438] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Transcription of the late (Class 3) flagellar promoters in Salmonella typhimurium is dependent upon the flagellar specific sigma factor, sigma28, encoded by the fliA gene. sigma28-dependent transcription is inhibited by an anti-sigma factor, FlgM, through a direct interaction. FlgM can bind both to free sigma28 to prevent it from forming a complex with core RNA polymerase, and to sigma28 holoenzyme to destabilize the complex. A collection of fliA mutants defective for negative regulation by FlgM (fliA* mutants) were isolated. This collection included 27 substitution mutations that conferred insensitivity to FlgM in vivo. The distribution of mutations defined three potential FlgM binding domains in conserved sigma factor regions 2.1, 3.1 and 4 of sigma28. A subset of mutants from each region was assayed for FlgM binding and transcriptional activity in vitro. The results strongly support a multipartite interaction between sigma28 and FlgM. Region 4 mutations, but not region 2.1 or 3.1 mutations, interfered with the ability of FlgM to destabilize sigma28 from core RNA polymerase. We present refined models for FlgM inhibition of sigma28, and for FlgM destabilization of sigma28 holoenzyme.
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Affiliation(s)
- M S Chadsey
- Hughes Laboratory Department of Microbiology, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98195, USA
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131
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Minakhin L, Camarero JA, Holford M, Parker C, Muir TW, Severinov K. Mapping the molecular interface between the sigma(70) subunit of E. coli RNA polymerase and T4 AsiA. J Mol Biol 2001; 306:631-42. [PMID: 11243776 DOI: 10.1006/jmbi.2001.4445] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Bacteriophage T4 antisigma protein AsiA (10 kDa) orchestrates a switch from the host and early viral transcription to middle viral transcription by binding to the sigma(70) subunit of E. coli RNA polymerase. The molecular determinants of sigma(70)-AsiA complex formation are not known. Here, we used combinatorial peptide chemistry, protein-protein crosslinking, and mutational analysis to study the interaction between AsiA and its target, the 33 amino acid residues-long sigma(70) peptide containing conserved region 4.2. Many region 4.2 amino acid residues contact AsiA, which likely completely occludes the DNA-binding surface of region 4.2. Though none of region 4.2 amino acid residues is singularly responsible for the very tight interaction with AsiA, sigma(70) Lys593 and Arg596 which lie outside the putative DNA recognition element of region 4.2, contribute the most. In AsiA, the first 20 amino acid residues are both necessary and sufficient for interactions with sigma(70). Our results clarify details of sigma(70)-AsiA interaction and open the way for engineering AsiA derivatives with altered specificities.
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Affiliation(s)
- L Minakhin
- Waksman Institute of Microbiology, Department of Genetics, Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey, USA
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132
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Nam TW, Cho SH, Shin D, Kim JH, Jeong JY, Lee JH, Roe JH, Peterkofsky A, Kang SO, Ryu S, Seok YJ. The Escherichia coli glucose transporter enzyme IICB(Glc) recruits the global repressor Mlc. EMBO J 2001; 20:491-8. [PMID: 11157755 PMCID: PMC133465 DOI: 10.1093/emboj/20.3.491] [Citation(s) in RCA: 99] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
In addition to effecting the catalysis of sugar uptake, the bacterial phosphoenolpyruvate:sugar phosphotransferase system regulates a variety of physiological processes. Exposure of cells to glucose can result in repression or induction of gene expression. While the mechanism for carbon catabolite repression by glucose was well documented, that for glucose induction was not clearly understood in Escherichia coli. Recently, glucose induction of several E.coli genes has been shown to be mediated by the global repressor Mlc. Here, we elucidate a general mechanism for glucose induction of gene expression in E.coli, revealing a novel type of regulatory circuit for gene expression mediated by the phosphorylation state-dependent interaction of a membrane-bound protein with a repressor. The dephospho-form of enzyme IICB(Glc), but not its phospho-form, interacts directly with Mlc and induces transcription of Mlc-regulated genes by displacing Mlc from its target sequences. Therefore, the glucose induction of Mlc-regulated genes is caused by dephosphorylation of the membrane-bound transporter enzyme IICB(Glc), which directly recruits Mlc to derepress its regulon.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Dongwoo Shin
- School of Biological Sciences and Institute of Microbiology, Seoul National University, Seoul 151-742,
School of Agricultural Biotechnology, Seoul National University, Suwon 441-744, Korea and Laboratory of Biochemical Genetics, National Heart, Lung and Blood Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA Corresponding author e-mail: T.-W.Nam, S.-H.Cho and D.Shin contributed equally to this work
| | | | | | | | | | - Alan Peterkofsky
- School of Biological Sciences and Institute of Microbiology, Seoul National University, Seoul 151-742,
School of Agricultural Biotechnology, Seoul National University, Suwon 441-744, Korea and Laboratory of Biochemical Genetics, National Heart, Lung and Blood Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA Corresponding author e-mail: T.-W.Nam, S.-H.Cho and D.Shin contributed equally to this work
| | | | - Sangryeol Ryu
- School of Biological Sciences and Institute of Microbiology, Seoul National University, Seoul 151-742,
School of Agricultural Biotechnology, Seoul National University, Suwon 441-744, Korea and Laboratory of Biochemical Genetics, National Heart, Lung and Blood Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA Corresponding author e-mail: T.-W.Nam, S.-H.Cho and D.Shin contributed equally to this work
| | - Yeong-Jae Seok
- School of Biological Sciences and Institute of Microbiology, Seoul National University, Seoul 151-742,
School of Agricultural Biotechnology, Seoul National University, Suwon 441-744, Korea and Laboratory of Biochemical Genetics, National Heart, Lung and Blood Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA Corresponding author e-mail: T.-W.Nam, S.-H.Cho and D.Shin contributed equally to this work
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133
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Abstract
Progression of Bacillus subtilis through a series of morphological changes is driven by a cascade of sigma (sigma) factors and results in formation of a spore. Recent work has provided new insights into the location and function of proteins that control sigma factor activity, and has suggested that multiple mechanisms allow one sigma factor to replace another in the cascade.
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Affiliation(s)
- L Kroos
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI 48824, USA.
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134
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Anthony LC, Artsimovitch I, Svetlov V, Landick R, Burgess RR. Rapid purification of His(6)-tagged Bacillus subtilis core RNA polymerase. Protein Expr Purif 2000; 19:350-4. [PMID: 10910724 DOI: 10.1006/prep.2000.1272] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Bacillus subtilis core RNA polymerase, containing a His(6)-fusion to the C-terminus of the beta' subunit, was isolated by Ni-NTA, Superdex 200 gel filtration, and Mono Q anion-exchange chromatography. The purified core enzyme was shown to be free of the major sigma factor(A) and the transcription factors NusA and GreA. The purification procedure can be completed within 1 working day, is scalable, and yields highly purified and active core RNA polymerase.
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Affiliation(s)
- L C Anthony
- McArdle Laboratory for Cancer Research, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, Wisconsin 53706, USA
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135
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Abstract
The E. coli 6S RNA was discovered more than three decades ago, yet its function has remained elusive. Here, we demonstrate that 6S RNA associates with RNA polymerase in a highly specific and efficient manner. UV crosslinking experiments revealed that 6S RNA directly contacts the sigma70 and beta/beta' subunits of RNA polymerase. 6S RNA accumulates as cells reach the stationary phase of growth and mediates growth phase-specific changes in RNA polymerase. Stable association between sigma70 and core RNA polymerase in extracts is only observed in the presence of 6S RNA. We show 6S RNA represses expression from a sigma70-dependent promoter during stationary phase. Our results suggest that the interaction of 6S RNA with RNA polymerase modulates sigma70-holoenzyme activity.
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Affiliation(s)
- K M Wassarman
- Cell Biology and Metabolism Branch, National Institute of Child Health and Human Development, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland 20892, USA.
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136
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Tibazarwa C, Wuertz S, Mergeay M, Wyns L, van Der Lelie D. Regulation of the cnr cobalt and nickel resistance determinant of Ralstonia eutropha (Alcaligenes eutrophus) CH34. J Bacteriol 2000; 182:1399-409. [PMID: 10671464 PMCID: PMC94429 DOI: 10.1128/jb.182.5.1399-1409.2000] [Citation(s) in RCA: 93] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
The linked resistance to nickel and cobalt of Ralstonia eutropha-like strain CH34 (Alcaligenes eutrophus CH34) is encoded by the cnr operon, which is localized on the megaplasmid pMOL28. The regulatory genes cnrYXH have been cloned, overexpressed, and purified in Escherichia coli. CnrY fractionated as a 10.7-kDa protein in in vitro translation assays. CnrX, a periplasmic protein of 16.5 kDa, was overproduced and purified as a histidine-tagged fusion protein in E. coli. His-CnrX was found to possess a secondary structure content rich in alpha-helical and beta-sheet structures. CnrH, a sigma factor of the extracytoplasmic function family, was purified as an N-terminally histidine-tagged fusion. In gel shift mobility assays, His-CnrH, in the presence of E. coli core RNA polymerase enzyme, could retard at least two different promoter DNA targets, cnrYp and cnrHp, localized within the cnrYXH locus. These promoters and their transcription start sites were confirmed by primer extension. Purified His-CnrX did not inhibit the DNA-binding activity of His-CnrH and is therefore unlikely to be an anti-sigma factor, as previously hypothesized (EMBL M91650 description entry). To study the transcriptional response of the regulatory locus to metals and to probe promoter regions, transcriptional fusions were constructed between fragments of cnrYXH and the luxCDABE, luciferase reporter genes. Nickel and cobalt specifically induced the cnrYXH-luxCDABE fusion at optimal concentrations of 0.3 mM Ni(2+) and 2.0 mM Co(2+) in a noncomplexing medium for metals. The two promoter regions P(Y) (upstream cnrY) and P(H) (upstream cnrH) were probed and characterized using this vector and were found to control the nickel-inducible regulatory response of the cnr operon. The cnrHp promoter was responsible for full transcription of the cnrCBA structural resistance genes, while the cnrYp promoter was necessary to obtain metal-inducible transcription from the cnrHp promoter. The zinc resistance phenotype (ZinB) of a spontaneous cnr mutant strain, AE963, was investigated and could be attributed to an insertion of IS1087, a member of the IS2 family of insertion elements, within the cnrY gene.
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Affiliation(s)
- C Tibazarwa
- Environmental Technology Expertise Centre, Flemish Institute for Technological Research, B-2400 Mol, Belgium
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137
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Becker G, Klauck E, Hengge-Aronis R. The response regulator RssB, a recognition factor for sigmaS proteolysis in Escherichia coli, can act like an anti-sigmaS factor. Mol Microbiol 2000; 35:657-66. [PMID: 10672187 DOI: 10.1046/j.1365-2958.2000.01736.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
sigmaS (RpoS) is the master regulator of the general stress response in Escherichia coli. Several stresses increase cellular sigmaS levels by inhibiting proteolysis of sigmaS, which under non-stress conditions is a highly unstable protein. For this ClpXP-dependent degradation, the response regulator RssB acts as a recognition factor, with RssB affinity for sigmaS being modulated by phosphorylation. Here, we demonstrate that RssB can also act like an anti-sigma factor for sigmaS in vivo, i.e. RssB can inhibit the expression of sigmaS-dependent genes in the presence of high sigmaS levels. This becomes apparent when (i) the cellular RssB/sigmaS ratio is at least somewhat elevated and (ii) proteolysis is reduced (for example in stationary phase) or eliminated (for example in a clpP mutant). Two modes of inhibition of sigmaS by RssB can be distinguished. The 'catalytic' mode is observed in stationary phase cells with a substoichiometric RssB/sigmaS ratio, requires ClpP and therefore probably corresponds to sequestering of sigmaS to Clp protease (even though sigmaS is not degraded). The 'stoichiometric' mode occurs in clpP mutant cells upon overproduction of RssB to levels that are equal to those of sigmaS, and therefore probably involves binary complex formation between RssB and sigmaS. We also show that, under standard laboratory conditions, the cellular level of RssB is more than 20-fold lower than that of sigmaS and is not significantly controlled by stresses that upregulate sigmaS. We therefore propose that antisigma factor activity of RssB may play a role under not yet identified growth conditions (which may result in RssB induction), or that RssB is a former antisigma factor that during evolution was recruited to serve as a recognition factor for proteolysis.
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Affiliation(s)
- G Becker
- Department of Biology - Microbiology, Freie Universität Berlin, Königin-Luise-Str. 12-16, 14195 Berlin, Germany
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138
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Affiliation(s)
- E Maldonado
- Instituto de Ciencias Biomedicas, Programa de Biologia Celular y Molecular, Facultad de Medicina, Universidad de Chile, Santiago
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Abstract
Staphylococcus aureus is a major human pathogen of increasing importance as a result of the spread of antibiotic resistance. It causes a wide range of diseases and survives outside the host by virtue of its adaptability and resistance to environmental stress. Several cellular components involved in Staphylococcus aureus stress resistance have begun to be characterized.
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Affiliation(s)
- M O Clements
- Microbiology and Tumour Biology Centre, Karolinska Institute, Box 280, 171 77 Stockholm, Sweden
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