101
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Abstract
Within the materials science community, proteins with cage-like architectures are being developed as versatile nanoscale platforms for use in protein nanotechnology. Much effort has been focused on the functionalization of protein cages with biological and non-biological moieties to bring about new properties of not only individual protein cages, but collective bulk-scale assemblies of protein cages. In this review, we report on the current understanding of protein cage assembly, both of the cages themselves from individual subunits, and the assembly of the individual protein cages into higher order structures. We start by discussing the key properties of natural protein cages (for example: size, shape and structure) followed by a review of some of the mechanisms of protein cage assembly and the factors that influence it. We then explore the current approaches for functionalizing protein cages, on the interior or exterior surfaces of the capsids. Lastly, we explore the emerging area of higher order assemblies created from individual protein cages and their potential for new and exciting collective properties.
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Affiliation(s)
- William M Aumiller
- Department of Chemistry, Indiana University, Bloomington, Indiana 47405, USA.
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102
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Sigmund F, Massner C, Erdmann P, Stelzl A, Rolbieski H, Desai M, Bricault S, Wörner TP, Snijder J, Geerlof A, Fuchs H, Hrabĕ de Angelis M, Heck AJR, Jasanoff A, Ntziachristos V, Plitzko J, Westmeyer GG. Bacterial encapsulins as orthogonal compartments for mammalian cell engineering. Nat Commun 2018; 9:1990. [PMID: 29777103 PMCID: PMC5959871 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-018-04227-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 65] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/04/2017] [Accepted: 04/16/2018] [Indexed: 01/06/2023] Open
Abstract
We genetically controlled compartmentalization in eukaryotic cells by heterologous expression of bacterial encapsulin shell and cargo proteins to engineer enclosed enzymatic reactions and size-constrained metal biomineralization. The shell protein (EncA) from Myxococcus xanthus auto-assembles into nanocompartments inside mammalian cells to which sets of native (EncB,C,D) and engineered cargo proteins self-target enabling localized bimolecular fluorescence and enzyme complementation. Encapsulation of the enzyme tyrosinase leads to the confinement of toxic melanin production for robust detection via multispectral optoacoustic tomography (MSOT). Co-expression of ferritin-like native cargo (EncB,C) results in efficient iron sequestration producing substantial contrast by magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and allowing for magnetic cell sorting. The monodisperse, spherical, and iron-loading nanoshells are also excellent genetically encoded reporters for electron microscopy (EM). In general, eukaryotically expressed encapsulins enable cellular engineering of spatially confined multicomponent processes with versatile applications in multiscale molecular imaging, as well as intriguing implications for metabolic engineering and cellular therapy. Artificial compartments have been expressed in prokaryotes and yeast, but similar capabilities have been missing for mammalian cell engineering. Here the authors use bacterial encapsulins to engineer genetically controlled multifunctional orthogonal compartments in mammalian cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Felix Sigmund
- Institute of Biological and Medical Imaging, Helmholtz Zentrum München, Ingolstädter Landstraße 1, Neuherberg, 85764, Germany.,Institute of Developmental Genetics, Helmholtz Zentrum München, Ingolstädter Landstraße 1, Neuherberg, 85764, Germany.,Department of Nuclear Medicine, Technical University of Munich, Ismaninger Straße 22, Munich, 81675, Germany
| | - Christoph Massner
- Institute of Biological and Medical Imaging, Helmholtz Zentrum München, Ingolstädter Landstraße 1, Neuherberg, 85764, Germany.,Institute of Developmental Genetics, Helmholtz Zentrum München, Ingolstädter Landstraße 1, Neuherberg, 85764, Germany.,Department of Nuclear Medicine, Technical University of Munich, Ismaninger Straße 22, Munich, 81675, Germany
| | - Philipp Erdmann
- Department of Structural Biology, Max Planck Institute of Biochemistry, Am Klopferspitz 18, Martinsried, 82152, Germany
| | - Anja Stelzl
- Institute of Biological and Medical Imaging, Helmholtz Zentrum München, Ingolstädter Landstraße 1, Neuherberg, 85764, Germany.,Institute of Developmental Genetics, Helmholtz Zentrum München, Ingolstädter Landstraße 1, Neuherberg, 85764, Germany
| | - Hannes Rolbieski
- Institute of Biological and Medical Imaging, Helmholtz Zentrum München, Ingolstädter Landstraße 1, Neuherberg, 85764, Germany.,Institute of Developmental Genetics, Helmholtz Zentrum München, Ingolstädter Landstraße 1, Neuherberg, 85764, Germany
| | - Mitul Desai
- Department of Biological Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 77 Massachusetts Avenue, Cambridge, 02139, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Sarah Bricault
- Department of Biological Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 77 Massachusetts Avenue, Cambridge, 02139, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Tobias P Wörner
- Biomolecular Mass Spectrometry and Proteomics Group, Bijvoet Center for Biomolecular Research and Utrecht Institute for Pharmaceutical Sciences, Utrecht University, Padualaan 8, Utrecht, 3584CH, The Netherlands
| | - Joost Snijder
- Biomolecular Mass Spectrometry and Proteomics Group, Bijvoet Center for Biomolecular Research and Utrecht Institute for Pharmaceutical Sciences, Utrecht University, Padualaan 8, Utrecht, 3584CH, The Netherlands.,Snijder Bioscience, Spijkerstraat 114-4, Arnhem, 6828 DN, The Netherlands
| | - Arie Geerlof
- Institute of Structural Biology, Helmholtz Zentrum München, Ingolstädter Landstraße 1, Neuherberg, 85764, Germany
| | - Helmut Fuchs
- Institute of Experimental Genetics, Helmholtz Zentrum München, Ingolstädter Landstraße 1, Neuherberg, 85764, Germany
| | - Martin Hrabĕ de Angelis
- Institute of Experimental Genetics, Helmholtz Zentrum München, Ingolstädter Landstraße 1, Neuherberg, 85764, Germany
| | - Albert J R Heck
- Biomolecular Mass Spectrometry and Proteomics Group, Bijvoet Center for Biomolecular Research and Utrecht Institute for Pharmaceutical Sciences, Utrecht University, Padualaan 8, Utrecht, 3584CH, The Netherlands
| | - Alan Jasanoff
- Department of Biological Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 77 Massachusetts Avenue, Cambridge, 02139, Massachusetts, USA.,Department of Brain & Cognitive Sciences, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 77 Massachusetts Avenue, Cambridge, 02139, Massachusetts, USA.,Department of Nuclear Science & Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 77 Massachusetts Avenue, Cambridge, 02139, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Vasilis Ntziachristos
- Institute of Biological and Medical Imaging, Helmholtz Zentrum München, Ingolstädter Landstraße 1, Neuherberg, 85764, Germany.,Chair for Biological Imaging, Technical University of Munich, Ismaninger Straße 22, Munich, 81675, Germany
| | - Jürgen Plitzko
- Department of Structural Biology, Max Planck Institute of Biochemistry, Am Klopferspitz 18, Martinsried, 82152, Germany
| | - Gil G Westmeyer
- Institute of Biological and Medical Imaging, Helmholtz Zentrum München, Ingolstädter Landstraße 1, Neuherberg, 85764, Germany. .,Institute of Developmental Genetics, Helmholtz Zentrum München, Ingolstädter Landstraße 1, Neuherberg, 85764, Germany. .,Department of Nuclear Medicine, Technical University of Munich, Ismaninger Straße 22, Munich, 81675, Germany.
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103
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Abstract
Biotechnology has revolutionized therapeutics for the treatment of a wide range of diseases. Recent advances in protein engineering and material science have made the targeted delivery of enzyme therapeutics using nanocarriers (NCs) a new model of treatment. Several NCs have been approved for clinical use in drug delivery. Despite their advantages, few NCs have been approved to deliver enzyme cargo in a targeted manner. This review details the current arsenal of platforms developed to deliver enzyme therapeutics as well as the advantages and challenges of using enzymes as drugs, with examples from the literature, and discusses the benefits and liabilities of a given approach. We conclude by providing a perspective on how this field may evolve over the near and long-term.
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104
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105
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McCoy K, Uchida M, Lee B, Douglas T. Templated Assembly of a Functional Ordered Protein Macromolecular Framework from P22 Virus-like Particles. ACS NANO 2018; 12:3541-3550. [PMID: 29558117 DOI: 10.1021/acsnano.8b00528] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
Bottom-up construction of mesoscale materials using biologically derived nanoscale building blocks enables engineering of desired physical properties using green production methods. Virus-like particles (VLPs) are exceptional building blocks due to their monodispersed sizes, geometric shapes, production ease, proteinaceous composition, and our ability to independently functionalize the interior and exterior interfaces. Here a VLP, derived from bacteriophage P22, is used as a building block for the fabrication of a protein macromolecular framework (PMF), a tightly linked 3D network of functional protein cages that exhibit long-range order and catalytic activity. Assembly of PMFs was electrostatically templated, using amine-terminated dendrimers, then locked into place with a ditopic cementing protein that binds to P22. Long-range order is preserved on removal of the dendrimer, leaving a framework material composed completely of protein. Encapsulation of β-glucosidase enzymes inside of P22 VLPs results in formation of stable, condensed-phase materials with high local concentration of enzymes generating catalytically active PMFs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kimberly McCoy
- Department of Chemistry , Indiana University , 800 East Kirkwood Avenue , Bloomington , Indiana 47405 , United States
| | - Masaki Uchida
- Department of Chemistry , Indiana University , 800 East Kirkwood Avenue , Bloomington , Indiana 47405 , United States
| | - Byeongdu Lee
- X-ray Science Division, Advanced Photon Source , Argonne National Laboratory , 9700 South Cass Avenue , Argonne , Illinois 60439 , United States
| | - Trevor Douglas
- Department of Chemistry , Indiana University , 800 East Kirkwood Avenue , Bloomington , Indiana 47405 , United States
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106
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Liu A, Yang L, Traulsen CHH, Cornelissen JJLM. Immobilization of catalytic virus-like particles in a flow reactor. Chem Commun (Camb) 2018. [PMID: 28640305 DOI: 10.1039/c7cc03024j] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
A functional microfluidic reactor is constructed by the immobilization of gold containing virus-based protein cages that catalyze the reduction of nitro-arenes with high efficiency.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Liu
- Biomolecular Nanotechnology (BNT), MESA+ Institute for Nanotechnology, University of Twente, The Netherlands.
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107
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Godoy-Gallardo M, York-Duran MJ, Hosta-Rigau L. Recent Progress in Micro/Nanoreactors toward the Creation of Artificial Organelles. Adv Healthc Mater 2018; 7. [PMID: 29205928 DOI: 10.1002/adhm.201700917] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/01/2017] [Revised: 10/11/2017] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
Artificial organelles created from a bottom up approach are a new type of engineered materials, which are not designed to be living but, instead, to mimic some specific functions inside cells. By doing so, artificial organelles are expected to become a powerful tool in biomedicine. They can act as nanoreactors to convert a prodrug into a drug inside the cells or as carriers encapsulating therapeutic enzymes to replace malfunctioning organelles in pathological conditions. For the design of artificial organelles, several requirements need to be fulfilled: a compartmentalized structure that can encapsulate the synthetic machinery to perform an enzymatic function, as well as a means to allow for communication between the interior of the artificial organelle and the external environment, so that substrates and products can diffuse in and out the carrier allowing for continuous enzymatic reactions. The most recent and exciting advances in architectures that fulfill the aforementioned requirements are featured in this review. Artificial organelles are classified depending on their constituting materials, being lipid and polymer-based systems the most prominent ones. Finally, special emphasis will be put on the intracellular response of these newly emerging systems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maria Godoy-Gallardo
- Department of Micro- and Nanotechnology; Center for Nanomedicine and Theranostics; DTU; Nanotech; Technical University of Denmark; Building 423 2800 Lyngby Denmark
| | - Maria J. York-Duran
- Department of Micro- and Nanotechnology; Center for Nanomedicine and Theranostics; DTU; Nanotech; Technical University of Denmark; Building 423 2800 Lyngby Denmark
| | - Leticia Hosta-Rigau
- Department of Micro- and Nanotechnology; Center for Nanomedicine and Theranostics; DTU; Nanotech; Technical University of Denmark; Building 423 2800 Lyngby Denmark
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108
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Galloway JM, Senior L, Fletcher JM, Beesley JL, Hodgson LR, Harniman RL, Mantell JM, Coombs J, Rhys GG, Xue WF, Mosayebi M, Linden N, Liverpool TB, Curnow P, Verkade P, Woolfson DN. Bioinspired Silicification Reveals Structural Detail in Self-Assembled Peptide Cages. ACS NANO 2018; 12:1420-1432. [PMID: 29275624 PMCID: PMC5967840 DOI: 10.1021/acsnano.7b07785] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/02/2017] [Accepted: 12/24/2017] [Indexed: 05/25/2023]
Abstract
Understanding how molecules in self-assembled soft-matter nanostructures are organized is essential for improving the design of next-generation nanomaterials. Imaging these assemblies can be challenging and usually requires processing, e.g., staining or embedding, which can damage or obscure features. An alternative is to use bioinspired mineralization, mimicking how certain organisms use biomolecules to template mineral formation. Previously, we have reported the design and characterization of Self-Assembled peptide caGEs (SAGEs) formed from de novo peptide building blocks. In SAGEs, two complementary, 3-fold symmetric, peptide hubs combine to form a hexagonal lattice, which curves and closes to form SAGE nanoparticles. As hexagons alone cannot tile onto spheres, the network must also incorporate nonhexagonal shapes. While the hexagonal ultrastructure of the SAGEs has been imaged, these defects have not been observed. Here, we show that positively charged SAGEs biotemplate a thin, protective silica coating. Electron microscopy shows that these SiO2-SAGEs do not collapse, but maintain their 3D shape when dried. Atomic force microscopy reveals a network of hexagonal and irregular features on the SiO2-SAGE surface. The dimensions of these (7.2 nm ± 1.4 nm across, internal angles 119.8° ± 26.1°) are in accord with the designed SAGE network and with coarse-grained modeling of the SAGE assembly. The SiO2-SAGEs are permeable to small molecules (<2 nm), but not to larger biomolecules (>6 nm). Thus, bioinspired silicification offers a mild technique that preserves soft-matter nanoparticles for imaging, revealing structural details <10 nm in size, while also maintaining desirable properties, such as permeability to small molecules.
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Affiliation(s)
- Johanna M. Galloway
- School
of Chemistry, University of Bristol, Cantock’s Close, Bristol, BS8 1TS, U.K.
| | - Laura Senior
- School
of Biochemistry, University of Bristol, Biomedical Sciences Building, University
Walk, Bristol, BS8 1TD, U.K.
| | - Jordan M. Fletcher
- School
of Chemistry, University of Bristol, Cantock’s Close, Bristol, BS8 1TS, U.K.
| | - Joseph L. Beesley
- School
of Chemistry, University of Bristol, Cantock’s Close, Bristol, BS8 1TS, U.K.
- School
of Biochemistry, University of Bristol, Biomedical Sciences Building, University
Walk, Bristol, BS8 1TD, U.K.
| | - Lorna R. Hodgson
- School
of Biochemistry, University of Bristol, Biomedical Sciences Building, University
Walk, Bristol, BS8 1TD, U.K.
| | - Robert L. Harniman
- School
of Chemistry, University of Bristol, Cantock’s Close, Bristol, BS8 1TS, U.K.
| | - Judith M. Mantell
- School
of Biochemistry, University of Bristol, Biomedical Sciences Building, University
Walk, Bristol, BS8 1TD, U.K.
- Wolfson
Bioimaging Facility, University of Bristol, Biomedical Sciences Building, University
Walk, Bristol, BS8 1TD, U.K.
| | - Jennifer Coombs
- School
of Biochemistry, University of Bristol, Biomedical Sciences Building, University
Walk, Bristol, BS8 1TD, U.K.
- Bristol
Centre for Functional Nanomaterials, NSQI, University of Bristol, Tyndall Avenue, Bristol, BS8 1FD, U.K.
| | - Guto G. Rhys
- School
of Chemistry, University of Bristol, Cantock’s Close, Bristol, BS8 1TS, U.K.
| | - Wei-Feng Xue
- School
of Biosciences, Stacy Building, University
of Kent, Canterbury, CT2 7NJ, U.K.
| | - Majid Mosayebi
- BrisSynBio, University of Bristol, Life Sciences Building, Tyndall Avenue, Bristol, BS8 1TQ, U.K.
- School of
Mathematics, University of Bristol, University Walk, Bristol, BS8 1TW, U.K.
| | - Noah Linden
- School of
Mathematics, University of Bristol, University Walk, Bristol, BS8 1TW, U.K.
| | - Tanniemola B. Liverpool
- BrisSynBio, University of Bristol, Life Sciences Building, Tyndall Avenue, Bristol, BS8 1TQ, U.K.
- School of
Mathematics, University of Bristol, University Walk, Bristol, BS8 1TW, U.K.
| | - Paul Curnow
- School
of Biochemistry, University of Bristol, Biomedical Sciences Building, University
Walk, Bristol, BS8 1TD, U.K.
- BrisSynBio, University of Bristol, Life Sciences Building, Tyndall Avenue, Bristol, BS8 1TQ, U.K.
| | - Paul Verkade
- School
of Biochemistry, University of Bristol, Biomedical Sciences Building, University
Walk, Bristol, BS8 1TD, U.K.
- Wolfson
Bioimaging Facility, University of Bristol, Biomedical Sciences Building, University
Walk, Bristol, BS8 1TD, U.K.
- BrisSynBio, University of Bristol, Life Sciences Building, Tyndall Avenue, Bristol, BS8 1TQ, U.K.
| | - Derek N. Woolfson
- School
of Chemistry, University of Bristol, Cantock’s Close, Bristol, BS8 1TS, U.K.
- School
of Biochemistry, University of Bristol, Biomedical Sciences Building, University
Walk, Bristol, BS8 1TD, U.K.
- BrisSynBio, University of Bristol, Life Sciences Building, Tyndall Avenue, Bristol, BS8 1TQ, U.K.
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109
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Uchida M, McCoy K, Fukuto M, Yang L, Yoshimura H, Miettinen HM, LaFrance B, Patterson DP, Schwarz B, Karty JA, Prevelige PE, Lee B, Douglas T. Modular Self-Assembly of Protein Cage Lattices for Multistep Catalysis. ACS NANO 2018; 12:942-953. [PMID: 29131580 PMCID: PMC5870838 DOI: 10.1021/acsnano.7b06049] [Citation(s) in RCA: 81] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/21/2023]
Abstract
The assembly of individual molecules into hierarchical structures is a promising strategy for developing three-dimensional materials with properties arising from interaction between the individual building blocks. Virus capsids are elegant examples of biomolecular nanostructures, which are themselves hierarchically assembled from a limited number of protein subunits. Here, we demonstrate the bio-inspired modular construction of materials with two levels of hierarchy: the formation of catalytically active individual virus-like particles (VLPs) through directed self-assembly of capsid subunits with enzyme encapsulation, and the assembly of these VLP building blocks into three-dimensional arrays. The structure of the assembled arrays was successfully altered from an amorphous aggregate to an ordered structure, with a face-centered cubic lattice, by modifying the exterior surface of the VLP without changing its overall morphology, to modulate interparticle interactions. The assembly behavior and resultant lattice structure was a consequence of interparticle interaction between exterior surfaces of individual particles and thus independent of the enzyme cargos encapsulated within the VLPs. These superlattice materials, composed of two populations of enzyme-packaged VLP modules, retained the coupled catalytic activity in a two-step reaction for isobutanol synthesis. This study demonstrates a significant step toward the bottom-up fabrication of functional superlattice materials using a self-assembly process across multiple length scales and exhibits properties and function that arise from the interaction between individual building blocks.
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Affiliation(s)
- Masaki Uchida
- Department of Chemistry, Indiana University, 800 East Kirkwood Ave., Bloomington, IN 47405, USA
| | - Kimberly McCoy
- Department of Chemistry, Indiana University, 800 East Kirkwood Ave., Bloomington, IN 47405, USA
| | - Masafumi Fukuto
- National Synchrotron Light Source II, Brookhaven National Laboratory, Upton, NY 11973, USA
- Condensed Matter Physics and Materials Science Department, Brookhaven National Laboratory, Upton, NY 11973, USA
| | - Lin Yang
- National Synchrotron Light Source II, Brookhaven National Laboratory, Upton, NY 11973, USA
| | - Hideyuki Yoshimura
- Department of Chemistry, Indiana University, 800 East Kirkwood Ave., Bloomington, IN 47405, USA
- Department of Physics, Meiji University, 1-1-1 Higashimita, Tama-ku, Kawasaki, 214-8571, Japan
| | - Heini M. Miettinen
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Montana State University, Bozeman, Montana 59717, USA
| | - Ben LaFrance
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Montana State University, Bozeman, Montana 59717, USA
| | - Dustin P. Patterson
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Texas at Tyler, Tyler, Texas 75799, USA
| | - Benjamin Schwarz
- Department of Chemistry, Indiana University, 800 East Kirkwood Ave., Bloomington, IN 47405, USA
| | - Jonathan A. Karty
- Department of Chemistry, Indiana University, 800 East Kirkwood Ave., Bloomington, IN 47405, USA
| | - Peter E. Prevelige
- Department of Microbiology, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, Alabama 35294, USA
| | - Byeongdu Lee
- X-ray science division, Advanced Photon Source, Argonne National Laboratory, 9700 South Cass Ave., Argonne, IL 60439, USA
| | - Trevor Douglas
- Department of Chemistry, Indiana University, 800 East Kirkwood Ave., Bloomington, IN 47405, USA
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110
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Balasubramanian V, Poillucci A, Correia A, Zhang H, Celia C, Santos HA. Cell Membrane-Based Nanoreactor To Mimic the Bio-Compartmentalization Strategy of a Cell. ACS Biomater Sci Eng 2018; 4:1471-1478. [PMID: 30159384 PMCID: PMC6108536 DOI: 10.1021/acsbiomaterials.7b00944] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/04/2017] [Accepted: 02/15/2018] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
![]()
Organelles
of eukaryotic cells are structures made up of membranes,
which carry out a majority of functions necessary for the surviving
of the cell itself. Organelles also differentiate the prokaryotic
and eukaryotic cells, and are arranged to form different compartments
guaranteeing the activities for which eukaryotic cells are programmed.
Cell membranes, containing organelles, are isolated from cancer cells
and erythrocytes and used to form biocompatible and long-circulating
ghost nanoparticles delivering payloads or catalyzing enzymatic reactions
as nanoreactors. In this attempt, red blood cell membranes were isolated
from erythrocytes, and engineered to form nanoerythrosomes (NERs)
of 150 nm. The horseradish peroxidase, used as an enzyme model, was
loaded inside the aqueous compartment of NERs, and its catalytic reaction
with Resorufin was monitored. The resulting nanoreactor protected
the enzyme from proteolytic degradation, and potentiated the enzymatic
reaction in situ as demonstrated by maximal velocity (Vmax) and Michaelis constant (Km), thus suggesting the high catalytic activity of nanoreactors compared
to the pure enzymes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vimalkumar Balasubramanian
- Drug Research Program, Division of Pharmaceutical Chemistry and Technology, Faculty of Pharmacy, and Helsinki Institute of Life Science (HiLIFE), University of Helsinki, Viikinkaari 5E, Helsinki FI-00014, Finland
| | - Andrea Poillucci
- Drug Research Program, Division of Pharmaceutical Chemistry and Technology, Faculty of Pharmacy, and Helsinki Institute of Life Science (HiLIFE), University of Helsinki, Viikinkaari 5E, Helsinki FI-00014, Finland.,Department of Pharmacy, University of Chieti-Pescara "G. d'Annunzio", Via dei Vestini 31, Chieti I-66100, Italy
| | - Alexandra Correia
- Drug Research Program, Division of Pharmaceutical Chemistry and Technology, Faculty of Pharmacy, and Helsinki Institute of Life Science (HiLIFE), University of Helsinki, Viikinkaari 5E, Helsinki FI-00014, Finland
| | - Hongbo Zhang
- Department of Pharmaceutical Science, Åbo Akademy University, BioCity, Artillerigatan 6A, Turku FI-20520, Finland.,Turku Center of Biotechnology, Åbo Akademi University, Tykistokatu 6, Turku FI-20520, Finland
| | - Christian Celia
- Department of Pharmacy, University of Chieti-Pescara "G. d'Annunzio", Via dei Vestini 31, Chieti I-66100, Italy.,Department of Nanomedicine, Houston Methodist Research Institute, 6670 Bertner Avenue, Houston, Texas 77030, United States
| | - Hélder A Santos
- Drug Research Program, Division of Pharmaceutical Chemistry and Technology, Faculty of Pharmacy, and Helsinki Institute of Life Science (HiLIFE), University of Helsinki, Viikinkaari 5E, Helsinki FI-00014, Finland.,Drug Research Program, Division of Pharmaceutical Chemistry and Technology, Faculty of Pharmacy, and Helsinki Institute of Life Science (HiLIFE), University of Helsinki, Viikinkaari 5E, Helsinki FI-00014, Finland
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111
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Nussbaumer MG, Bisig C, Bruns N. Using the dendritic polymer PAMAM to form gold nanoparticles in the protein cage thermosome. Chem Commun (Camb) 2018; 52:10537-9. [PMID: 27491621 DOI: 10.1039/c6cc04739d] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/26/2023]
Abstract
The chaperonin thermosome (THS) is a protein cage that lacks binding sites for metal ions and inorganic nanoparticles. However, when poly(amidoamine) (PAMAM) is encapsulated into THS, gold nanoparticles (AuNP) can be prepared in the THS. The polymer binds HAuCl4. Subsequent reduction yields nanoparticles with narrow size distribution in the protein-polymer conjugate.
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Affiliation(s)
- Martin G Nussbaumer
- Department of Chemistry, University of Basel, Klingelbergstrasse 80, 4056 Basel, Switzerland and Wyss Institute for Biologically Inspired Engineering, Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02138, USA
| | - Christoph Bisig
- Department of Chemistry, University of Basel, Klingelbergstrasse 80, 4056 Basel, Switzerland and Adolphe Merkle Institute, University of Fribourg, Chemin des Verdiers 4, 1700 Fribourg, Switzerland.
| | - Nico Bruns
- Department of Chemistry, University of Basel, Klingelbergstrasse 80, 4056 Basel, Switzerland and Adolphe Merkle Institute, University of Fribourg, Chemin des Verdiers 4, 1700 Fribourg, Switzerland.
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112
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Nguyen TK, Ueno T. Engineering of protein assemblies within cells. Curr Opin Struct Biol 2018; 51:1-8. [PMID: 29316472 DOI: 10.1016/j.sbi.2017.12.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/20/2017] [Revised: 12/04/2017] [Accepted: 12/18/2017] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
Recent achievements in development of protein assembles within cells have extended biosupramolecular composites into a new era with versatile applications in the fields of biomaterial and biotechnology. Using methods with biological and physicochemical routes has made this era of research more interesting and challenging. Further advances in protein engineering have facilitated efficient fabrication of supramolecular complexes within living cells. Here, we provide a review of recent efforts to engineer protein assemblies within cells and describe the promising properties of these assemblies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tien K Nguyen
- Department of Life Science and Technology, School of Life Science and Technology, Tokyo Institute of Technology, Yokohama 226-8501, Japan
| | - Takafumi Ueno
- Department of Life Science and Technology, School of Life Science and Technology, Tokyo Institute of Technology, Yokohama 226-8501, Japan.
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113
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Matsuura K. Synthetic approaches to construct viral capsid-like spherical nanomaterials. Chem Commun (Camb) 2018; 54:8944-8959. [DOI: 10.1039/c8cc03844a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 65] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
This feature article describes recent progress in synthetic strategies to construct viral capsid-like spherical nanomaterials using the self-assembly of peptides and/or proteins.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kazunori Matsuura
- Department of Chemistry and Biotechnology
- Graduate School of Engineering
- Tottori University
- Tottori 680-8552
- Japan
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114
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Abstract
Virus-like particle (VLP) technologies are based on virus-inspired artificial structures and the intrinsic ability of viral proteins to self-assemble at controlled conditions. Therefore, the basic knowledge about the mechanisms of viral particle formation is highly important for designing of industrial applications. As an alternative to genetic and chemical processes, different physical methods are frequently used for VLP construction, including well characterized protein complexes for introduction of foreign molecules in VLP structures.This chapter shortly discusses the mechanisms how the viruses form their perfectly ordered structures as well as the principles and most interesting application examples, how to exploit the structural and assembly/disassembly properties of viral structures for creation of new nanomaterials.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andris Zeltins
- Latvian Biomedical Research and Study Centre, Riga, Latvia.
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115
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Abstract
Protein-based nanoreactors are generated by encapsulating an enzyme inside the capsid of the cowpea chlorotic mottle virus (CCMV). Here, three different noncovalent methods are described to efficiently incorporate enzymes inside the capsid of these viral protein cages. The methods are based on pH, leucine zippers, and electrostatic interactions respectively, as a driving force for encapsulation. The methods are exclusively described for the enzymes horseradish peroxidase, glucose oxidase, and Pseudozyma antarctica lipase B, but they are also applicable for other enzymes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mark V de Ruiter
- Laboratory of Biomolecular Nanotechnology, MESA+ Institute for Nanotechnology, University of Twente, Enschede, The Netherlands
| | - Rindia M Putri
- Laboratory of Biomolecular Nanotechnology, MESA+ Institute for Nanotechnology, University of Twente, Enschede, The Netherlands
| | - Jeroen J L M Cornelissen
- Laboratory of Biomolecular Nanotechnology, MESA+ Institute for Nanotechnology, University of Twente, Enschede, The Netherlands.
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116
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Aanei IL, Glasgow JE, Capehart SL, Francis MB. Encapsulation of Negatively Charged Cargo in MS2 Viral Capsids. Methods Mol Biol 2018; 1776:303-317. [PMID: 29869251 DOI: 10.1007/978-1-4939-7808-3_21] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
Encapsulation into virus-like particles is an efficient way of loading cargo of interest for delivery applications. Here, we describe the encapsulation of proteins with tags comprising anionic amino acids or DNA and gold nanoparticles with negative surface charges inside MS2 bacteriophage capsids to obtain homogeneous nanoparticles with a diameter of 27 nm.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ioana L Aanei
- Department of Chemistry, University of California, Berkeley, CA, USA
- Materials Sciences Division, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratories, Berkeley, CA, USA
| | - Jeff E Glasgow
- Department of Chemistry, University of California, Berkeley, CA, USA
| | - Stacy L Capehart
- Department of Chemistry, University of California, Berkeley, CA, USA
| | - Matthew B Francis
- Department of Chemistry, University of California, Berkeley, CA, USA.
- Materials Sciences Division, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratories, Berkeley, CA, USA.
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117
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Abstract
The packaging of active enzymes in protein cages is a powerful strategy to control catalytic activity. Using a positively supercharged variant of green fluorescent protein, GFP(+36), as a genetically programmable tag, enzymes can be rapidly and quantitatively loaded into an engineered variant of the Aquifex aeolicus cage-forming protein lumazine synthase (AaLS-13) that possesses a negatively charged lumen. The cargo is spontaneously localized within AaLS-13 cages by simply mixing the components in aqueous solution. This chapter describes a detailed protocol for the preparation of AaLS-13 cages and GFP(+36)-enzyme fusions, as well as characterization of the inclusion complexes. Suitable conditions for encapsulation and enzyme kinetic assays are also discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yusuke Azuma
- Laboratory of Organic Chemistry, ETH Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Donald Hilvert
- Laboratory of Organic Chemistry, ETH Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland.
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118
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Abstract
Virus-like particles (VLPs) are nonpathogenic protein cage structures derived from viral coat proteins that have found utility in the area of biomaterials and nanotechnology. VLPs have been exploited as containers for the sequestration and encapsulation of a wide range of guest molecules in their hollow interiors. The robust nature of VLPs lend them as versatile scaffolds that can be exploited to provide protection to encapsulated guest molecules, such as enzymes which are often susceptible to inactivation and degradation, and for organization and construction of new nanomaterials incorporating the chemical properties of the guest molecules. In this chapter a background and methodology for the encapsulation of enzymes on the interior of the bacteriophage P22 derived VLP is described.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dustin P Patterson
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, The University of Texas at Tyler, Tyler, TX, USA.
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119
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Choi B, Kim H, Choi H, Kang S. Protein Cage Nanoparticles as Delivery Nanoplatforms. ADVANCES IN EXPERIMENTAL MEDICINE AND BIOLOGY 2018; 1064:27-43. [DOI: 10.1007/978-981-13-0445-3_2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
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120
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Wang J, Fang T, Li M, Zhang W, Zhang ZP, Zhang XE, Li F. Intracellular delivery of peptide drugs using viral nanoparticles of bacteriophage P22: covalent loading and cleavable release. J Mater Chem B 2018; 6:3716-3726. [DOI: 10.1039/c8tb00186c] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/28/2023]
Abstract
Viral nanoparticles of bacteriophage P22 are utilized for the intracellular delivery of peptides through covalent loading and cleavable release.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jigang Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Virology
- Wuhan Institute of Virology
- Chinese Academy of Sciences
- Wuhan
- China
| | - Ti Fang
- State Key Laboratory of Virology
- Wuhan Institute of Virology
- Chinese Academy of Sciences
- Wuhan
- China
| | - Ming Li
- State Key Laboratory of Virology
- Wuhan Institute of Virology
- Chinese Academy of Sciences
- Wuhan
- China
| | - Wenjing Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Virology
- Wuhan Institute of Virology
- Chinese Academy of Sciences
- Wuhan
- China
| | - Zhi-Ping Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Virology
- Wuhan Institute of Virology
- Chinese Academy of Sciences
- Wuhan
- China
| | - Xian-En Zhang
- National Laboratory of Biomacromolecules
- CAS Center for Excellence in Biomacromolecules
- Institute of Biophysics
- Chinese Academy of Sciences
- Beijing
| | - Feng Li
- State Key Laboratory of Virology
- Wuhan Institute of Virology
- Chinese Academy of Sciences
- Wuhan
- China
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121
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Affiliation(s)
- Stephan Tetter
- Laboratory of Organic Chemistry; ETH Zürich; 8093 Zurich Switzerland
| | - Donald Hilvert
- Laboratory of Organic Chemistry; ETH Zürich; 8093 Zurich Switzerland
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122
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Han X, Woycechowsky KJ. Encapsulation and Controlled Release of Protein Guests by the Bacillus subtilis Lumazine Synthase Capsid. Biochemistry 2017; 56:6211-6220. [PMID: 29087189 DOI: 10.1021/acs.biochem.7b00669] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Abstract
In Bacillus subtilis, the 60-subunit dodecahedral capsid formed by lumazine synthase (BsLS) acts as a container for trimeric riboflavin synthase (BsRS). To test whether the C-terminal sequence of BsRS is responsible for its encapsulation by BsLS, the green fluorescent protein (GFP) was fused to either the last 11 or the last 32 amino acids of BsRS, yielding variant GFP11 or GFP32, respectively. After purification, BsLS capsids that had been co-produced in bacteria with GFP11 and GFP32 are 15- and 6-fold more fluorescent, respectively, than BsLS co-produced with GFP lacking any BsRS fragment, indicating complex formation. Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay experiments confirm that GFP11 is localized within the BsLS capsid. In addition, fusing the last 11 amino acids of BsRS to the C-terminus of the Abrin A chain also led to its encapsulation by BsLS at a level similar to that of GFP11. Together, these results demonstrate that the C-terminal tail of BsRS can act as an encapsulation tag capable of targeting other proteins to the BsLS capsid interior. As with the natural BsLS-BsRS complex, mild changes in pH and buffer identity trigger dissociation of the GFP11 guest, accompanied by a substantial expansion of the BsLS capsid. This system for protein encapsulation and release provides a novel tool for bionanotechnology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xue Han
- School of Pharmaceutical Science and Technology, Tianjin University , Tianjin 300072, China
| | - Kenneth J Woycechowsky
- School of Pharmaceutical Science and Technology, Tianjin University , Tianjin 300072, China
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123
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Tetter S, Hilvert D. Enzyme Encapsulation by a Ferritin Cage. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2017; 56:14933-14936. [PMID: 28902449 DOI: 10.1002/anie.201708530] [Citation(s) in RCA: 70] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/21/2017] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Ferritins, conserved across all kingdoms of life, are protein nanocages that evolved to mineralize iron. The last several decades have shown that these cages have considerable technological and medical potential owing to their stability and tolerance to modification, as well as their ability to template nanoparticle synthesis and incorporate small molecules. Here we show that it is possible to encapsulate proteins in a ferritin cage by exploiting electrostatic interactions with its negatively charged interior. Positively supercharged green fluorescent protein is efficiently taken up by Archaeoglobus fulgidus ferritin in a tunable fashion. Moreover, several enzymes were readily incorporated when genetically tethered to this fluorescent protein. These fusion proteins retained high catalytic activity and showed increased tolerance to proteolysis and heat. Equipping ferritins with enzymatic activity paves the way for many new nanotechnological and pharmacological applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stephan Tetter
- Laboratory of Organic Chemistry, ETH Zürich, 8093, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Donald Hilvert
- Laboratory of Organic Chemistry, ETH Zürich, 8093, Zurich, Switzerland
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124
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Rochal SB, Konevtsova OV, Lorman VL. Static and dynamic hidden symmetries of icosahedral viral capsids. NANOSCALE 2017; 9:12449-12460. [PMID: 28809986 DOI: 10.1039/c7nr04020b] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
Viral shells self-assemble from identical proteins, which tend to form equivalent environments in the resulting assembly. However, in icosahedral capsids containing more than 60 proteins, they are enforced to occupy not only the symmetrically equivalent locations but also the quasi-equivalent ones. Due to this important fact, static and dynamic symmetries of viral shells can include additional hidden components. Here, developing the Caspar and Klug ideas concerning the quasi-equivalence of protein environments, we derive the simplest hexagonal tilings, that in principle could correspond to the local protein order in viral shells, and apply the resulting theory to nucleocytoplasmic large dsDNA viruses. In addition, analyzing the dynamic symmetry of the P22 viral shell, we demonstrate that the collective critical modes responsible for the protein reorganization during the procapsid maturation are approximately equivalent to the normal modes of the isotropic spherical membrane with O(3) symmetry. Furthermore, we establish the relationship between the dynamic symmetry of the P22 procapsid and the protein arrangement regularities that appear only in the mature capsid.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sergey B Rochal
- Faculty of Physics, Southern Federal University, 5 Zorge str., 344090 Rostov-on-Don, Russia.
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125
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Ross JF, Bridges A, Fletcher JM, Shoemark D, Alibhai D, Bray HEV, Beesley JL, Dawson WM, Hodgson LR, Mantell J, Verkade P, Edge CM, Sessions RB, Tew D, Woolfson DN. Decorating Self-Assembled Peptide Cages with Proteins. ACS NANO 2017; 11:7901-7914. [PMID: 28686416 DOI: 10.1021/acsnano.7b02368] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/12/2023]
Abstract
An ability to organize and encapsulate multiple active proteins into defined objects and spaces at the nanoscale has potential applications in biotechnology, nanotechnology, and synthetic biology. Previously, we have described the design, assembly, and characterization of peptide-based self-assembled cages (SAGEs). These ≈100 nm particles comprise thousands of copies of de novo designed peptide-based hubs that array into a hexagonal network and close to give caged structures. Here, we show that, when fused to the designed peptides, various natural proteins can be co-assembled into SAGE particles. We call these constructs pSAGE for protein-SAGE. These particles tolerate the incorporation of multiple copies of folded proteins fused to either the N or the C termini of the hubs, which modeling indicates form the external and internal surfaces of the particles, respectively. Up to 15% of the hubs can be functionalized without compromising the integrity of the pSAGEs. This corresponds to hundreds of copies giving mM local concentrations of protein in the particles. Moreover, and illustrating the modularity of the SAGE system, we show that multiple different proteins can be assembled simultaneously into the same particle. As the peptide-protein fusions are made via recombinant expression of synthetic genes, we envisage that pSAGE systems could be developed modularly to actively encapsulate or to present a wide variety of functional proteins, allowing them to be developed as nanoreactors through the immobilization of enzyme cascades or as vehicles for presenting whole antigenic proteins as synthetic vaccine platforms.
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Affiliation(s)
- James F Ross
- School of Chemistry, University of Bristol , Cantock's Close, Bristol BS8 1TS, United Kingdom
| | - Angela Bridges
- GlaxoSmithKline (GSK) , Gunnels Wood Rd, Stevenage SG21 2NY, United Kingdom
| | - Jordan M Fletcher
- School of Chemistry, University of Bristol , Cantock's Close, Bristol BS8 1TS, United Kingdom
| | - Deborah Shoemark
- BrisSynBio, Life Sciences Building, University of Bristol , Tyndall Avenue, Bristol BS8 1TQ, United Kingdom
| | | | - Harriet E V Bray
- School of Chemistry, University of Bristol , Cantock's Close, Bristol BS8 1TS, United Kingdom
| | - Joseph L Beesley
- School of Chemistry, University of Bristol , Cantock's Close, Bristol BS8 1TS, United Kingdom
| | - William M Dawson
- School of Chemistry, University of Bristol , Cantock's Close, Bristol BS8 1TS, United Kingdom
| | | | | | | | - Colin M Edge
- GlaxoSmithKline (GSK) , Gunnels Wood Rd, Stevenage SG21 2NY, United Kingdom
| | - Richard B Sessions
- BrisSynBio, Life Sciences Building, University of Bristol , Tyndall Avenue, Bristol BS8 1TQ, United Kingdom
| | - David Tew
- GlaxoSmithKline (GSK) , Gunnels Wood Rd, Stevenage SG21 2NY, United Kingdom
| | - Derek N Woolfson
- School of Chemistry, University of Bristol , Cantock's Close, Bristol BS8 1TS, United Kingdom
- BrisSynBio, Life Sciences Building, University of Bristol , Tyndall Avenue, Bristol BS8 1TQ, United Kingdom
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126
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Patterson D, Schwarz B, Avera J, Western B, Hicks M, Krugler P, Terra M, Uchida M, McCoy K, Douglas T. Sortase-Mediated Ligation as a Modular Approach for the Covalent Attachment of Proteins to the Exterior of the Bacteriophage P22 Virus-like Particle. Bioconjug Chem 2017; 28:2114-2124. [PMID: 28612603 PMCID: PMC6708598 DOI: 10.1021/acs.bioconjchem.7b00296] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Virus-like particles are unique platforms well suited for the construction of nanomaterials with broad-range applications. The research presented here describes the development of a modular approach for the covalent attachment of protein domains to the exterior of the versatile bacteriophage P22 virus-like particle (VLP) via a sortase-mediated ligation strategy. The bacteriophage P22 coat protein was genetically engineered to incorporate an LPETG amino acid sequence on the C-terminus, providing the peptide recognition sequence utilized by the sortase enzyme to catalyze peptide bond formation between the LPETG-tagged protein and a protein containing a polyglycine sequence on the N-terminus. Here we evaluate attachment of green fluorescent protein (GFP) and the head domain of the influenza hemagglutinin (HA) protein by genetically producing polyglycine tagged proteins. Attachment of both proteins to the exterior of the P22 VLP was found to be highly efficient as judged by SDS-PAGE densitometry. These results enlarge the tool kit for modifying the P22 VLP system and provide new insights for other VLPs that have an externally displayed C-terminus that can use the described strategy for the modular modification of their external surface for various applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dustin Patterson
- Department of Chemistry & Biochemistry, University of Texas at Tyler, Tyler, Texas 75799, United States
| | - Benjamin Schwarz
- Department of Chemistry, Indiana University, Bloomington, Indiana 47407, United States
| | - John Avera
- Department of Chemistry, Indiana University, Bloomington, Indiana 47407, United States
| | - Brian Western
- Department of Chemistry & Biochemistry, University of Texas at Tyler, Tyler, Texas 75799, United States
| | - Matthew Hicks
- Department of Chemistry & Biochemistry, University of Texas at Tyler, Tyler, Texas 75799, United States
| | - Paul Krugler
- Department of Chemistry & Biochemistry, University of Texas at Tyler, Tyler, Texas 75799, United States
| | - Matthew Terra
- Department of Chemistry & Biochemistry, University of Texas at Tyler, Tyler, Texas 75799, United States
| | - Masaki Uchida
- Department of Chemistry, Indiana University, Bloomington, Indiana 47407, United States
| | - Kimberly McCoy
- Department of Chemistry, Indiana University, Bloomington, Indiana 47407, United States
| | - Trevor Douglas
- Department of Chemistry, Indiana University, Bloomington, Indiana 47407, United States
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127
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Sharma J, Uchida M, Miettinen HM, Douglas T. Modular interior loading and exterior decoration of a virus-like particle. NANOSCALE 2017; 9:10420-10430. [PMID: 28702648 PMCID: PMC6482854 DOI: 10.1039/c7nr03018e] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/22/2023]
Abstract
Virus-like particles (VLPs) derived from the bacteriophage P22 offer an interesting and malleable platform for encapsulation and multivalent presentation of cargo molecules. The packaging of cargo in P22 VLP is typically achieved through genetically enabled directed in vivo encapsulation. However, this approach does not allow control over the packing density and composition of the encapsulated cargos. Here, we have adopted an in vitro assembly approach to gain control over cargo packaging in P22. The packaging was controlled by closely regulating the stoichiometric ratio of cargo-fused-scaffold protein and wild-type scaffold protein during the in vitro assembly. In a "one-pot assembly reaction" coat protein subunits were incubated with varied ratios of wild-type scaffold protein and cargo-fused-scaffold protein, which resulted in the encapsulation of both components in a co-assembled capsid. These experiments demonstrate that an input stoichiometry can be used to achieve controlled packaging of multiple cargos within the VLP. The porous nature of P22 allows the escape and re-entry of wild-type scaffold protein from the assembled capsid but scaffold protein fused to a protein-cargo cannot traverse the capsid shell due to the size of the cargo. This has allowed us to control and alter the packing density by selectively releasing wild-type scaffold protein from the co-assembled capsids. We have demonstrated these concepts in the P22 system using an encapsulated streptavidin protein and have shown its highly selective interaction with biotin or biotin derivatives. Additionally, this system can be used to encapsulate small molecules coupled to biotin, or display large proteins, that cannot enter the capsid and thus remain available for the multivalent display on the exterior of the capsid when attached to a flexible biotinylated linker. Thus, we have developed a P22 system with controlled protein cargo composition and packing density, to which both small and large molecules can be attached at high copy number on the interior or exterior of the capsid.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jhanvi Sharma
- Department of Chemistry, Indiana University, 800 E. Kirkwood Avenue, Bloomington, Indiana 47405, USA.
| | - Masaki Uchida
- Department of Chemistry, Indiana University, 800 E. Kirkwood Avenue, Bloomington, Indiana 47405, USA.
| | - Heini M Miettinen
- Department of Microbiology & Immunology, Montana State University, PO Box 173520, Bozeman, Montana 59717, USA
| | - Trevor Douglas
- Department of Chemistry, Indiana University, 800 E. Kirkwood Avenue, Bloomington, Indiana 47405, USA.
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128
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Zhou Z, Bedwell GJ, Li R, Palchoudhury S, Prevelige PE, Gupta A. Pathways for Gold Nucleation and Growth over Protein Cages. LANGMUIR : THE ACS JOURNAL OF SURFACES AND COLLOIDS 2017; 33:5925-5931. [PMID: 28514857 DOI: 10.1021/acs.langmuir.7b01298] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
Proteins are widely utilized as templates in biomimetic synthesis of gold nanocrystals. However, the role of proteins in mediating the pathways for gold nucleation and growth is not well understood, in part because of the lack of spatial resolution in probing the complicated biomimetic mineralization process. Self-assembled protein cages, with larger size and symmetry, can facilitate in the visualization of both biological and inorganic components. We have utilized bacteriophage P22 protein cages of ∼60 nm diameter for investigating the nucleation and growth of gold nanocrystals. By adding a gold precursor into the solution with preexisting protein cages and a reducing agent, gold nuclei/prenucleation clusters form in solution, which then locate and attach to specific binding sites on protein cages and further grow to form gold nanocrystals. By contrast, addition of the reducing agent into the solution with incubated gold precursor and protein cages leads to the formation of gold nuclei/prenucleation clusters both in solution and on the surface of protein cages that then grow into gold nanocrystals. Because of the presence of cysteine (Cys) with strong gold-binding affinity, gold nanocrystals tend to bind at specific sites of Cys, irrespective of the binding sites of gold ions. Analyzing the results obtained using these alternate routes provide important insights into the pathways of protein-mediated biomimetic nucleation of gold that challenge the importance of incubation, which is widely utilized in the biotemplated synthesis of inorganic nanocrystals.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Gregory J Bedwell
- Department of Microbiology, University of Alabama at Birmingham , Birmingham, Alabama 35294, United States
| | - Rui Li
- Department of Microbiology, University of Alabama at Birmingham , Birmingham, Alabama 35294, United States
| | - Soubantika Palchoudhury
- Department of Civil and Chemical Engineering, University of Tennessee at Chattanooga , Chattanooga, Tennessee 37403, United States
| | - Peter E Prevelige
- Department of Microbiology, University of Alabama at Birmingham , Birmingham, Alabama 35294, United States
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129
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Tapia-Moreno A, Juarez-Moreno K, Gonzalez-Davis O, Cadena-Nava RD, Vazquez-Duhalt R. Biocatalytic virus capsid as nanovehicle for enzymatic activation of Tamoxifen in tumor cells. Biotechnol J 2017; 12. [DOI: 10.1002/biot.201600706] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/29/2016] [Revised: 03/28/2017] [Accepted: 03/31/2017] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Alejandro Tapia-Moreno
- Centro de Nanociencias y Nanotecnología; Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México; Ensenada Baja California Mexico
| | - Karla Juarez-Moreno
- Centro de Nanociencias y Nanotecnología; Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México; Ensenada Baja California Mexico
| | - Oscar Gonzalez-Davis
- Centro de Nanociencias y Nanotecnología; Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México; Ensenada Baja California Mexico
| | - Ruben D. Cadena-Nava
- Centro de Nanociencias y Nanotecnología; Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México; Ensenada Baja California Mexico
| | - Rafael Vazquez-Duhalt
- Centro de Nanociencias y Nanotecnología; Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México; Ensenada Baja California Mexico
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130
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Brillault L, Jutras PV, Dashti N, Thuenemann EC, Morgan G, Lomonossoff GP, Landsberg MJ, Sainsbury F. Engineering Recombinant Virus-like Nanoparticles from Plants for Cellular Delivery. ACS NANO 2017; 11:3476-3484. [PMID: 28198180 DOI: 10.1021/acsnano.6b07747] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/22/2023]
Abstract
Understanding capsid assembly following recombinant expression of viral structural proteins is critical to the design and modification of virus-like nanoparticles for biomedical and nanotechnology applications. Here, we use plant-based transient expression of the Bluetongue virus (BTV) structural proteins, VP3 and VP7, to obtain high yields of empty and green fluorescent protein (GFP)-encapsidating core-like particles (CLPs) from leaves. Single-particle cryo-electron microscopy of both types of particles revealed considerable differences in CLP structure compared to the crystal structure of infection-derived CLPs; in contrast, the two recombinant CLPs have an identical external structure. Using this insight, we exploited the unencumbered pore at the 5-fold axis of symmetry and the absence of encapsidated RNA to label the interior of empty CLPs with a fluorescent bioconjugate. CLPs containing 120 GFP molecules and those containing approximately 150 dye molecules were both shown to bind human integrin via a naturally occurring Arg-Gly-Asp motif found on an exposed loop of the VP7 trimeric spike. Furthermore, fluorescently labeled CLPs were shown to interact with a cell line overexpressing the surface receptor. Thus, BTV CLPs present themselves as a useful tool in targeted cargo delivery. These results highlight the importance of detailed structural analysis of VNPs in validating their molecular organization and the value of such analyses in aiding their design and further modification.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - Eva C Thuenemann
- Department of Biological Chemistry, John Innes Centre , Norwich Research Park, Colney, Norfolk NR4 7UH, United Kingdom
| | | | - George P Lomonossoff
- Department of Biological Chemistry, John Innes Centre , Norwich Research Park, Colney, Norfolk NR4 7UH, United Kingdom
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131
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Patel AN, Anne A, Chovin A, Demaille C, Grelet E, Michon T, Taofifenua C. Scaffolding of Enzymes on Virus Nanoarrays: Effects of Confinement and Virus Organization on Biocatalysis. SMALL (WEINHEIM AN DER BERGSTRASSE, GERMANY) 2017; 13:1603163. [PMID: 28098963 DOI: 10.1002/smll.201603163] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/21/2016] [Revised: 11/18/2016] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
Organizing active enzyme molecules on nanometer-sized scaffolds is a promising strategy for designing highly efficient supported catalytic systems for biosynthetic and sensing applications. This is achieved by designing model nanoscale enzymatic platforms followed by thorough analysis of the catalytic activity. Herein, the virus fd bacteriophage is considered as an enzyme nanocarrier to study the scaffolding effects on enzymatic activity. Nanoarrays of randomly oriented, or directionally patterned, fd bacteriophage virus are functionalized with the enzyme glucose oxidase (GOx), using an immunological assembly strategy, directly on a gold electrode support. The scaffolding process on the virus capsid is monitored in situ by AFM (atomic force microscopy) imaging, while cyclic voltammetry is used to interrogate the catalytic activity of the resulting functional GOx-fd nanoarrays. Kinetic analysis reveals the ability to modulate the activity of GOx via nanocarrier patterning. The results evidence, for the first time, enhancement of the enzymatic activity due to scaffolding on a filamentous viral particle.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anisha N Patel
- Laboratoire d'Electrochimie Moléculaire, UMR 7591 CNRS, Université Paris Diderot, Sorbonne Paris Cité, 15 rue Jean-Antoine de Baïf, F-75205, Paris Cedex 13, France
| | - Agnès Anne
- Laboratoire d'Electrochimie Moléculaire, UMR 7591 CNRS, Université Paris Diderot, Sorbonne Paris Cité, 15 rue Jean-Antoine de Baïf, F-75205, Paris Cedex 13, France
| | - Arnaud Chovin
- Laboratoire d'Electrochimie Moléculaire, UMR 7591 CNRS, Université Paris Diderot, Sorbonne Paris Cité, 15 rue Jean-Antoine de Baïf, F-75205, Paris Cedex 13, France
| | - Christophe Demaille
- Laboratoire d'Electrochimie Moléculaire, UMR 7591 CNRS, Université Paris Diderot, Sorbonne Paris Cité, 15 rue Jean-Antoine de Baïf, F-75205, Paris Cedex 13, France
| | - Eric Grelet
- Centre de Recherche Paul-Pascal, UPR 8641 CNRS, Université de Bordeaux, 115 avenue Schweitzer, 33600, Pessac, France
| | - Thierry Michon
- Biologie du Fruit et Pathologie, UMR 1332 INRA, Université de Bordeaux, 71 avenue Edouard Bourlaux, CS20032, 33882, Villenave d'Ornon Cedex, France
| | - Cécilia Taofifenua
- Laboratoire d'Electrochimie Moléculaire, UMR 7591 CNRS, Université Paris Diderot, Sorbonne Paris Cité, 15 rue Jean-Antoine de Baïf, F-75205, Paris Cedex 13, France
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132
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Balasubramanian V, Correia A, Zhang H, Fontana F, Mäkilä E, Salonen J, Hirvonen J, Santos HA. Biomimetic Engineering Using Cancer Cell Membranes for Designing Compartmentalized Nanoreactors with Organelle-Like Functions. ADVANCED MATERIALS (DEERFIELD BEACH, FLA.) 2017; 29:1605375. [PMID: 28112838 DOI: 10.1002/adma.201605375] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/05/2016] [Revised: 12/08/2016] [Indexed: 05/18/2023]
Abstract
A new biomimetic nanoreactor design is presented based on cancer cell membrane material in combination with porous silicon nanoparticles. This cellular nanoreactor features a biocompartment enclosed by a cell membrane and readily integrated with cells and supplementing the cellular functions under oxidative stress. The study demonstrates the impact of the nanoreactors on improving cellular functions with a potential to serve as artificial organelles.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vimalkumar Balasubramanian
- Division of Pharmaceutical Chemistry and Technology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Helsinki, FI, 00014, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Alexandra Correia
- Division of Pharmaceutical Chemistry and Technology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Helsinki, FI, 00014, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Hongbo Zhang
- Division of Pharmaceutical Chemistry and Technology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Helsinki, FI, 00014, Helsinki, Finland
- Harvard John A. Paulson School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA, 02138, USA
| | - Flavia Fontana
- Division of Pharmaceutical Chemistry and Technology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Helsinki, FI, 00014, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Ermei Mäkilä
- Laboratory of Industrial Physics, University of Turku, FI, 20014, Turku, Finland
| | - Jarno Salonen
- Laboratory of Industrial Physics, University of Turku, FI, 20014, Turku, Finland
| | - Jouni Hirvonen
- Division of Pharmaceutical Chemistry and Technology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Helsinki, FI, 00014, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Hélder A Santos
- Division of Pharmaceutical Chemistry and Technology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Helsinki, FI, 00014, Helsinki, Finland
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133
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Brasch M, Putri RM, de Ruiter MV, Luque D, Koay MST, Castón JR, Cornelissen JJLM. Assembling Enzymatic Cascade Pathways inside Virus-Based Nanocages Using Dual-Tasking Nucleic Acid Tags. J Am Chem Soc 2017; 139:1512-1519. [PMID: 28055188 PMCID: PMC5330652 DOI: 10.1021/jacs.6b10948] [Citation(s) in RCA: 79] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/19/2016] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
The packaging of proteins into discrete compartments is an essential feature for cellular efficiency. Inspired by Nature, we harness virus-like assemblies as artificial nanocompartments for enzyme-catalyzed cascade reactions. Using the negative charges of nucleic acid tags, we develop a versatile strategy to promote an efficient noncovalent co-encapsulation of enzymes within a single protein cage of cowpea chlorotic mottle virus (CCMV) at neutral pH. The encapsulation results in stable 21-22 nm sized CCMV-like particles, which is characteristic of an icosahedral T = 1 symmetry. Cryo-EM reconstruction was used to demonstrate the structure of T = 1 assemblies templated by biological soft materials as well as the extra-swelling capacity of these T = 1 capsids. Furthermore, the specific sequence of the DNA tag is capable of operating as a secondary biocatalyst as well as bridging two enzymes for co-encapsulation in a single capsid while maintaining their enzymatic activity. Using CCMV-like particles to mimic nanocompartments can provide valuable insight on the role of biological compartments in enhancing metabolic efficiency.
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Affiliation(s)
- Melanie Brasch
- Department
of Biomolecular Nanotechnology, MESA+ Institute for Nanotechnology, University of Twente, 7500 AE Enschede, The Netherlands
| | - Rindia M. Putri
- Department
of Biomolecular Nanotechnology, MESA+ Institute for Nanotechnology, University of Twente, 7500 AE Enschede, The Netherlands
| | - Mark V. de Ruiter
- Department
of Biomolecular Nanotechnology, MESA+ Institute for Nanotechnology, University of Twente, 7500 AE Enschede, The Netherlands
| | - Daniel Luque
- Department
of Structure of Macromolecules, Centro Nacional
de Biotecnología/CSIC, Cantoblanco, 28049 Madrid, Spain
- Centro
Nacional de Microbiología/Instituto de Salud Carlos III, Majadahonda, 28220 Madrid, Spain
| | - Melissa. S. T. Koay
- Department
of Biomolecular Nanotechnology, MESA+ Institute for Nanotechnology, University of Twente, 7500 AE Enschede, The Netherlands
| | - José R. Castón
- Department
of Structure of Macromolecules, Centro Nacional
de Biotecnología/CSIC, Cantoblanco, 28049 Madrid, Spain
| | - Jeroen J. L. M. Cornelissen
- Department
of Biomolecular Nanotechnology, MESA+ Institute for Nanotechnology, University of Twente, 7500 AE Enschede, The Netherlands
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134
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Nakamura Y, Yamada S, Nishikawa S, Matsuura K. DNA-modified artificial viral capsids self-assembled from DNA-conjugated β-annulus peptide. J Pept Sci 2017; 23:636-643. [PMID: 28133866 DOI: 10.1002/psc.2967] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/28/2016] [Revised: 12/15/2016] [Accepted: 12/18/2016] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
β-Annulus peptides from tomato bushy stunt virus conjugated with DNAs (dA20 and dT20 ) at the C-terminal were synthesized. The DNA-modified β-annulus peptides self-assembled into artificial viral capsids with sizes of 45-160 nm. ζ-Potential measurements revealed that the DNAs were coated on the surface of artificial viral capsids. Fluorescence assays indicated that the DNAs on the artificial viral capsids were partially hybridized with the complementary DNAs. Moreover, the DNA-modified artificial viral capsids formed aggregates by adding complementary polynucleotides. Copyright © 2017 European Peptide Society and John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yoko Nakamura
- Department of Chemistry and Biotechnology, Graduate School of Engineering, Tottori University, Tottori, 680-8552, Japan
| | - Saki Yamada
- Department of Chemistry and Biotechnology, Graduate School of Engineering, Tottori University, Tottori, 680-8552, Japan
| | - Shoko Nishikawa
- Department of Chemistry and Biotechnology, Graduate School of Engineering, Tottori University, Tottori, 680-8552, Japan
| | - Kazunori Matsuura
- Department of Chemistry and Biotechnology, Graduate School of Engineering, Tottori University, Tottori, 680-8552, Japan
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135
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Rohovie MJ, Nagasawa M, Swartz JR. Virus-like particles: Next-generation nanoparticles for targeted therapeutic delivery. Bioeng Transl Med 2017; 2:43-57. [PMID: 29313023 PMCID: PMC5689521 DOI: 10.1002/btm2.10049] [Citation(s) in RCA: 218] [Impact Index Per Article: 31.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/08/2016] [Revised: 11/23/2016] [Accepted: 11/30/2016] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Most drug therapies distribute the agents throughout the entire body, even though the drugs are typically only needed at specific tissues. This often limits dosage and causes discomfort and harmful side‐effects. Significant research has examined nanoparticles (NPs) for use as targeted delivery vehicles for therapeutic cargo, however, major clinical success has been limited. Current work focuses mainly on liposomal and polymer‐based NPs, but emerging research is exploring the engineering of viral capsids as noninfectious protein‐based NPs—termed virus‐like particles (VLPs). This review covers the research that has been performed thus far and outlines the potential for these VLPs to become highly effective delivery vehicles that overcome the many challenges encountered for targeted delivery of therapeutic cargo.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marcus J Rohovie
- Dept. of Chemical Engineering Stanford University Stanford CA 94305
| | - Maya Nagasawa
- Dept. of Bioengineering Stanford University Stanford CA 94305
| | - James R Swartz
- Dept. of Chemical Engineering Stanford University Stanford CA 94305.,Dept. of Bioengineering Stanford University Stanford CA 94305
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136
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Dergunov SA, Khabiyev AT, Shmakov SN, Kim MD, Ehterami N, Weiss MC, Birman VB, Pinkhassik E. Encapsulation of Homogeneous Catalysts in Porous Polymer Nanocapsules Produces Fast-Acting Selective Nanoreactors. ACS NANO 2016; 10:11397-11406. [PMID: 28024370 DOI: 10.1021/acsnano.6b06735] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
Nanoreactors were created by entrapping homogeneous catalysts in hollow nanocapsules with 200 nm diameter and semipermeable nanometer-thin shells. The capsules were produced by the polymerization of hydrophobic monomers in the hydrophobic interior of the bilayers of self-assembled surfactant vesicles. Controlled nanopores in the shells of nanocapsules ensured long-term retention of the catalysts coupled with the rapid flow of substrates and products in and out of nanocapsules. The study evaluated the effect of encapsulation on the catalytic activity and stability of five different catalysts. Comparison of kinetics of five diverse reactions performed in five different solvents revealed the same reaction rates for free and encapsulated catalysts. Identical reaction kinetics confirmed that placement of catalysts in the homogeneous interior of polymer nanocapsules did not compromise catalytic efficiency. Encapsulated organometallic catalysts showed no loss of metal ions from nanocapsules suggesting stabilization of the complexes was provided by nanocapsules. Controlled permeability of the shells of nanocapsules enabled size-selective catalytic reactions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sergey A Dergunov
- Department of Chemistry, University of Connecticut , 55 North Eagleville Rd, Storrs, Connecticut 06269-3060, United States
| | - Alibek T Khabiyev
- Kazakh National Research Technical University , 22 Satpayev St., Almaty 050013, Kazakhstan
| | - Sergey N Shmakov
- Department of Chemistry, University of Connecticut , 55 North Eagleville Rd, Storrs, Connecticut 06269-3060, United States
| | - Mariya D Kim
- Department of Chemistry, University of Connecticut , 55 North Eagleville Rd, Storrs, Connecticut 06269-3060, United States
| | - Nasim Ehterami
- Department of Chemistry, Saint Louis University , 3501 Laclede Avenue, St. Louis, Missouri 63103, United States
| | - Mary Clare Weiss
- Department of Chemistry, Saint Louis University , 3501 Laclede Avenue, St. Louis, Missouri 63103, United States
| | - Vladimir B Birman
- Department of Chemistry, Washington University in St. Louis , One Brookings Drive, St. Louis, Missouri 63130, United States
| | - Eugene Pinkhassik
- Department of Chemistry, University of Connecticut , 55 North Eagleville Rd, Storrs, Connecticut 06269-3060, United States
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137
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Bioengineered protein-based nanocage for drug delivery. Adv Drug Deliv Rev 2016; 106:157-171. [PMID: 26994591 DOI: 10.1016/j.addr.2016.03.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 163] [Impact Index Per Article: 20.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/30/2015] [Revised: 03/01/2016] [Accepted: 03/08/2016] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
Nature, in its wonders, presents and assembles the most intricate and delicate protein structures and this remarkable phenomenon occurs in all kingdom and phyla of life. Of these proteins, cage-like multimeric proteins provide spatial control to biological processes and also compartmentalizes compounds that may be toxic or unstable and avoids their contact with the environment. Protein-based nanocages are of particular interest because of their potential applicability as drug delivery carriers and their perfect and complex symmetry and ideal physical properties, which have stimulated researchers to engineer, modify or mimic these qualities. This article reviews various existing types of protein-based nanocages that are used for therapeutic purposes, and outlines their drug-loading mechanisms and bioengineering strategies via genetic and chemical functionalization. Through a critical evaluation of recent advances in protein nanocage-based drug delivery in vitro and in vivo, an outlook for de novo and in silico nanocage design, and also protein-based nanocage preclinical and future clinical applications will be presented.
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138
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Schwarz B, Uchida M, Douglas T. Biomedical and Catalytic Opportunities of Virus-Like Particles in Nanotechnology. Adv Virus Res 2016; 97:1-60. [PMID: 28057256 DOI: 10.1016/bs.aivir.2016.09.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 56] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Abstract
Within biology, molecules are arranged in hierarchical structures that coordinate and control the many processes that allow for complex organisms to exist. Proteins and other functional macromolecules are often studied outside their natural nanostructural context because it remains difficult to create controlled arrangements of proteins at this size scale. Viruses are elegantly simple nanosystems that exist at the interface of living organisms and nonliving biological machines. Studied and viewed primarily as pathogens to be combatted, viruses have emerged as models of structural efficiency at the nanoscale and have spurred the development of biomimetic nanoparticle systems. Virus-like particles (VLPs) are noninfectious protein cages derived from viruses or other cage-forming systems. VLPs provide incredibly regular scaffolds for building at the nanoscale. Composed of self-assembling protein subunits, VLPs provide both a model for studying materials' assembly at the nanoscale and useful building blocks for materials design. The robustness and degree of understanding of many VLP structures allow for the ready use of these systems as versatile nanoparticle platforms for the conjugation of active molecules or as scaffolds for the structural organization of chemical processes. Lastly the prevalence of viruses in all domains of life has led to unique activities of VLPs in biological systems most notably the immune system. Here we discuss recent efforts to apply VLPs in a wide variety of applications with the aim of highlighting how the common structural elements of VLPs have led to their emergence as paradigms for the understanding and design of biological nanomaterials.
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Affiliation(s)
- B Schwarz
- Indiana University, Bloomington, IN, United States
| | - M Uchida
- Indiana University, Bloomington, IN, United States
| | - T Douglas
- Indiana University, Bloomington, IN, United States.
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139
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Giessen TW, Silver PA. A Catalytic Nanoreactor Based on in Vivo Encapsulation of Multiple Enzymes in an Engineered Protein Nanocompartment. Chembiochem 2016; 17:1931-1935. [DOI: 10.1002/cbic.201600431] [Citation(s) in RCA: 78] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/05/2016] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Tobias W. Giessen
- Department of Systems Biology; Harvard Medical School; 200 Longwood Avenue WAB 536 Boston MA 02115 USA
- Wyss Institute for Biologically Inspired Engineering; Harvard University; 3 Blackfan Circle Boston MA 02115 USA
| | - Pamela A. Silver
- Department of Systems Biology; Harvard Medical School; 200 Longwood Avenue WAB 536 Boston MA 02115 USA
- Wyss Institute for Biologically Inspired Engineering; Harvard University; 3 Blackfan Circle Boston MA 02115 USA
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140
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Protein Nanoparticles as Multifunctional Biocatalysts and Health Assessment Sensors. Curr Opin Chem Eng 2016; 13:109-118. [PMID: 30370212 DOI: 10.1016/j.coche.2016.08.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
The use of protein nanoparticles for biosensing, biocatalysis and drug delivery has exploded in the last few years. The ability of protein nanoparticles to self-assemble into predictable, monodisperse structures is of tremendous value. The unique properties of protein nanoparticles such as high stability, and biocompatibility, along with the potential to modify them led to development of novel bioengineering tools. Together, the ability to control the interior loading and external functionalities of protein nanoparticles makes them intriguing nanodevices. This review will focus on a number of recent examples of protein nanoparticles that have been engineered towards imparting the particles with biocatalytic or biosensing functionality.
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141
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Zhang Y, Ardejani MS, Orner BP. Design and Applications of Protein-Cage-Based Nanomaterials. Chem Asian J 2016; 11:2814-2828. [DOI: 10.1002/asia.201600769] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/31/2016] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Yu Zhang
- Jiangsu Key Lab of Biomass-Based Green Fuels and Chemicals; College of Chemical Engineering; Nanjing Forestry University; Nanjing 210037 P.R. China
| | - Maziar S. Ardejani
- Department of Chemistry; The Scripps Research Institute; La Jolla CA 92037 United States
| | - Brendan P. Orner
- Department of Chemistry; King's College London; London SE1 1DB United Kingdom
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142
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Yan Y, Zhang M, Moon CH, Su HC, Myung NV, Haberer ED. Viral-templated gold/polypyrrole nanopeapods for an ammonia gas sensor. NANOTECHNOLOGY 2016; 27:325502. [PMID: 27354441 DOI: 10.1088/0957-4484/27/32/325502] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
One-dimensional gold/polypyrrole (Au/PPy) nanopeapods were fabricated using a viral template: M13 bacteriophage. The genetically modified filamentous virus displayed gold-binding peptides along its length, allowing selective attachment of gold nanoparticles (Au NPs) under ambient conditions. A PPy shell was electropolymerized on the viral-templated Au NP chains forming nanopeapod structures. The PPy shell morphology and thickness were controlled through electrodeposition potential and time, resulting in an ultra-thin conductive polymer shell of 17.4 ± 3.3 nm. A post-electrodeposition acid treatment was used to modify the electrical properties of these hybrid materials. The electrical resistance of the nanopeapods was monitored at each assembly step. Chemiresistive ammonia (NH3) gas sensors were developed from networks of the hybrid Au/PPy nanostructures. Room temperature sensing performance was evaluated from 5 to 50 ppmv and a mixture of reversible and irreversible chemiresistive behavior was observed. A sensitivity of 0.30%/ppmv was found for NH3 concentrations of 10 ppmv or less, and a lowest detection limit (LDL) of 0.007 ppmv was calculated. Furthermore, acid-treated devices exhibited an enhanced sensitivity of 1.26%/ppmv within the same concentration range and a calculated LDL of 0.005 ppmv.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yiran Yan
- Materials Science and Engineering Program, University of California, Riverside, CA 92521, USA
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143
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Frey R, Mantri S, Rocca M, Hilvert D. Bottom-up Construction of a Primordial Carboxysome Mimic. J Am Chem Soc 2016; 138:10072-5. [DOI: 10.1021/jacs.6b04744] [Citation(s) in RCA: 65] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Raphael Frey
- Laboratory of Organic Chemistry, ETH Zurich, 8093 Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Shiksha Mantri
- Laboratory of Organic Chemistry, ETH Zurich, 8093 Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Marco Rocca
- Laboratory of Organic Chemistry, ETH Zurich, 8093 Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Donald Hilvert
- Laboratory of Organic Chemistry, ETH Zurich, 8093 Zurich, Switzerland
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144
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Edwards E, Roychoudhury R, Schwarz B, Jordan P, Lisher J, Uchida M, Douglas T. Co-localization of catalysts within a protein cage leads to efficient photochemical NADH and/or hydrogen production. J Mater Chem B 2016; 4:5375-5384. [PMID: 32263461 DOI: 10.1039/c6tb01175f] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Abstract
Using the interior of the P22 virus-like particle (VLP) we have co-localized and constrained multiple copies of a photosensitizer (Eosin-Y) and a NADH/hydrogen catalyst (cobaloxime). These small molecules were conjugated to an amine bearing polymer framework synthesized within the confines of the P22 capsid by atom transfer radical polymerization (ATRP). Using aminoethyl methacrylate (AEMA) and bis-acrylamide as the monomers we introduced a crosslinked polymer framework with addressable amines and conjugated each of the small molecules through an isothiocyanate moiety. With precise control over the average labeling stoichiometry, we conjugated the Eosin-Y and cobaloxime catalysts to the polymer such that they were co-localized on the interior of the P22 VLP. This co-localization facilitated the photochemical production of NADH from NAD+ under aqueous conditions with a maximum turnover of 11.40 × 10-3 s-1. The reaction products could be switched from NADH to H2 production by increasing the relative stoichiometry of the cobaloxime labeling. The co-confinement of this coupled catalytic system within the VLP P22 creates a nano-material whose turnover activity is independent of the bulk concentration. These constructs are an example of a biomimetic materials design and synthesis approach in which efficient photochemical production of both NADH and hydrogen can be controlled by co-localizing catalysts within a virus-like particle.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ethan Edwards
- Department of Chemistry, Indiana University, 800 East Kirkwood Ave., Bloomington, IN 47405, USA.
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145
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Linko V, Nummelin S, Aarnos L, Tapio K, Toppari JJ, Kostiainen MA. DNA-Based Enzyme Reactors and Systems. NANOMATERIALS 2016; 6:nano6080139. [PMID: 28335267 PMCID: PMC5224616 DOI: 10.3390/nano6080139] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/08/2016] [Revised: 07/11/2016] [Accepted: 07/19/2016] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
During recent years, the possibility to create custom biocompatible nanoshapes using DNA as a building material has rapidly emerged. Further, these rationally designed DNA structures could be exploited in positioning pivotal molecules, such as enzymes, with nanometer-level precision. This feature could be used in the fabrication of artificial biochemical machinery that is able to mimic the complex reactions found in living cells. Currently, DNA-enzyme hybrids can be used to control (multi-enzyme) cascade reactions and to regulate the enzyme functions and the reaction pathways. Moreover, sophisticated DNA structures can be utilized in encapsulating active enzymes and delivering the molecular cargo into cells. In this review, we focus on the latest enzyme systems based on novel DNA nanostructures: enzyme reactors, regulatory devices and carriers that can find uses in various biotechnological and nanomedical applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Veikko Linko
- Biohybrid Materials, Department of Biotechnology and Chemical Technology, Aalto University, P.O. Box 16100, Aalto 00076, Finland.
| | - Sami Nummelin
- Biohybrid Materials, Department of Biotechnology and Chemical Technology, Aalto University, P.O. Box 16100, Aalto 00076, Finland.
| | - Laura Aarnos
- Biohybrid Materials, Department of Biotechnology and Chemical Technology, Aalto University, P.O. Box 16100, Aalto 00076, Finland.
| | - Kosti Tapio
- Department of Physics, University of Jyvaskyla, Nanoscience Center, P.O. Box 35, Jyväskylä 40014, Finland.
| | - J Jussi Toppari
- Department of Physics, University of Jyvaskyla, Nanoscience Center, P.O. Box 35, Jyväskylä 40014, Finland.
| | - Mauri A Kostiainen
- Biohybrid Materials, Department of Biotechnology and Chemical Technology, Aalto University, P.O. Box 16100, Aalto 00076, Finland.
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146
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Wen AM, Steinmetz NF. Design of virus-based nanomaterials for medicine, biotechnology, and energy. Chem Soc Rev 2016; 45:4074-126. [PMID: 27152673 PMCID: PMC5068136 DOI: 10.1039/c5cs00287g] [Citation(s) in RCA: 246] [Impact Index Per Article: 30.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
This review provides an overview of recent developments in "chemical virology." Viruses, as materials, provide unique nanoscale scaffolds that have relevance in chemical biology and nanotechnology, with diverse areas of applications. Some fundamental advantages of viruses, compared to synthetically programmed materials, include the highly precise spatial arrangement of their subunits into a diverse array of shapes and sizes and many available avenues for easy and reproducible modification. Here, we will first survey the broad distribution of viruses and various methods for producing virus-based nanoparticles, as well as engineering principles used to impart new functionalities. We will then examine the broad range of applications and implications of virus-based materials, focusing on the medical, biotechnology, and energy sectors. We anticipate that this field will continue to evolve and grow, with exciting new possibilities stemming from advancements in the rational design of virus-based nanomaterials.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amy M Wen
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, OH 44106, USA.
| | - Nicole F Steinmetz
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, OH 44106, USA. and Department of Radiology, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, OH 44106, USA and Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, OH 44106, USA and Department of Macromolecular Science and Engineering, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, OH 44106, USA and Case Comprehensive Cancer Center, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, OH 44106, USA
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147
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Snijder J, Kononova O, Barbu IM, Uetrecht C, Rurup WF, Burnley RJ, Koay MST, Cornelissen JJLM, Roos WH, Barsegov V, Wuite GJL, Heck AJR. Assembly and Mechanical Properties of the Cargo-Free and Cargo-Loaded Bacterial Nanocompartment Encapsulin. Biomacromolecules 2016; 17:2522-9. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.biomac.6b00469] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Joost Snijder
- Biomolecular
Mass Spectrometry and Proteomics, Bijvoet Center for Biomolecular
Research and Utrecht Institute for Pharmaceutical Sciences, Utrecht University, Padualaan 8, 3584 CH, Utrecht, The Netherlands
- Netherlands Proteomics
Centre, Padualaan 8, 3584 CH, Utrecht, The Netherlands
- Natuur-
en Sterrenkunde and LaserLab, Vrije Universiteit, De Boelelaan 1081, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Olga Kononova
- Department
of Chemistry, University of Massachusetts, Lowell, Massachusetts 01854, United States
- Moscow Institute
of Physics
and Technology, Moscow Region, Russia 141700
| | - Ioana M. Barbu
- Biomolecular
Mass Spectrometry and Proteomics, Bijvoet Center for Biomolecular
Research and Utrecht Institute for Pharmaceutical Sciences, Utrecht University, Padualaan 8, 3584 CH, Utrecht, The Netherlands
- Netherlands Proteomics
Centre, Padualaan 8, 3584 CH, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Charlotte Uetrecht
- Biomolecular
Mass Spectrometry and Proteomics, Bijvoet Center for Biomolecular
Research and Utrecht Institute for Pharmaceutical Sciences, Utrecht University, Padualaan 8, 3584 CH, Utrecht, The Netherlands
- Netherlands Proteomics
Centre, Padualaan 8, 3584 CH, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - W. Frederik Rurup
- Department
of Biomolecular Nanotechnology, MESA+ Institute, University of Twente, P.O. Box 217, 7500 AE Enschede, The Netherlands
| | - Rebecca J. Burnley
- Biomolecular
Mass Spectrometry and Proteomics, Bijvoet Center for Biomolecular
Research and Utrecht Institute for Pharmaceutical Sciences, Utrecht University, Padualaan 8, 3584 CH, Utrecht, The Netherlands
- Netherlands Proteomics
Centre, Padualaan 8, 3584 CH, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Melissa S. T. Koay
- Department
of Biomolecular Nanotechnology, MESA+ Institute, University of Twente, P.O. Box 217, 7500 AE Enschede, The Netherlands
| | - Jeroen J. L. M. Cornelissen
- Department
of Biomolecular Nanotechnology, MESA+ Institute, University of Twente, P.O. Box 217, 7500 AE Enschede, The Netherlands
| | - Wouter H. Roos
- Natuur-
en Sterrenkunde and LaserLab, Vrije Universiteit, De Boelelaan 1081, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
- Moleculaire
Biofysica, Zernike instituut, Rijksuniversiteit Groningen, Nijenborgh
4, 9747 AG Groningen, The Netherlands
| | - Valeri Barsegov
- Department
of Chemistry, University of Massachusetts, Lowell, Massachusetts 01854, United States
- Moscow Institute
of Physics
and Technology, Moscow Region, Russia 141700
| | - Gijs J. L. Wuite
- Natuur-
en Sterrenkunde and LaserLab, Vrije Universiteit, De Boelelaan 1081, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Albert J. R. Heck
- Biomolecular
Mass Spectrometry and Proteomics, Bijvoet Center for Biomolecular
Research and Utrecht Institute for Pharmaceutical Sciences, Utrecht University, Padualaan 8, 3584 CH, Utrecht, The Netherlands
- Netherlands Proteomics
Centre, Padualaan 8, 3584 CH, Utrecht, The Netherlands
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148
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Gao Y, Roberts CC, Toop A, Chang CEA, Wheeldon I. Mechanisms of Enhanced Catalysis in Enzyme-DNA Nanostructures Revealed through Molecular Simulations and Experimental Analysis. Chembiochem 2016; 17:1430-6. [PMID: 27173175 DOI: 10.1002/cbic.201600224] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/14/2016] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Understanding and controlling the molecular interactions between enzyme substrates and DNA nanostructures has important implications in the advancement of enzyme-DNA technologies as solutions in biocatalysis. Such hybrid nanostructures can be used to create enzyme systems with enhanced catalysis by controlling the local chemical and physical environments and the spatial organization of enzymes. Here we have used molecular simulations with corresponding experiments to describe a mechanism of enhanced catalysis due to locally increased substrate concentrations. With a series of DNA nanostructures conjugated to horseradish peroxidase, we show that binding interactions between substrates and the DNA structures can increase local substrate concentrations. Increased local substrate concentrations in HRP(DNA) nanostructures resulted in 2.9- and 2.4-fold decreases in the apparent Michaelis constants of tetramethylbenzidine and 4-aminophenol, substrates of HRP with tunable binding interactions to DNA nanostructures with dissociation constants in the micromolar range. Molecular simulations and kinetic analysis also revealed that increased local substrate concentrations enhanced the rates of substrate association. Identification of the mechanism of increased local concentration of substrates in close proximity to enzymes and their active sites adds to our understanding of nanostructured biocatalysis from which we can develop guidelines for enhancing catalysis in rationally designed systems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yingning Gao
- The Department of Chemical and Environmental Engineering, University of California-Riverside, 900 University Avenue, Riverside, CA, 92521, USA
| | - Christopher C Roberts
- The Department of Chemistry, University of Californi-Riverside, 501 Big Springs Road, Riverside, CA, 92521, USA
| | - Aaron Toop
- The Department of Chemical and Environmental Engineering, University of California-Riverside, 900 University Avenue, Riverside, CA, 92521, USA
| | - Chia-En A Chang
- The Department of Chemistry, University of Californi-Riverside, 501 Big Springs Road, Riverside, CA, 92521, USA
| | - Ian Wheeldon
- The Department of Chemical and Environmental Engineering, University of California-Riverside, 900 University Avenue, Riverside, CA, 92521, USA.
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149
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Cassidy-Amstutz C, Oltrogge L, Going CC, Lee A, Teng P, Quintanilla D, East-Seletsky A, Williams ER, Savage DF. Identification of a Minimal Peptide Tag for in Vivo and in Vitro Loading of Encapsulin. Biochemistry 2016; 55:3461-8. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.biochem.6b00294] [Citation(s) in RCA: 68] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Caleb Cassidy-Amstutz
- Department
of Molecular and Cell Biology, University of California at Berkeley, Berkeley, California 94720, United States
| | - Luke Oltrogge
- Department
of Molecular and Cell Biology, University of California at Berkeley, Berkeley, California 94720, United States
| | - Catherine C. Going
- Department
of Chemistry, University of California at Berkeley, Berkeley, California 94720, United States
| | - Antony Lee
- Department
of Physics, University of California at Berkeley, Berkeley, California 94720, United States
| | - Poh Teng
- Department
of Molecular and Cell Biology, University of California at Berkeley, Berkeley, California 94720, United States
| | - David Quintanilla
- Department
of Molecular and Cell Biology, University of California at Berkeley, Berkeley, California 94720, United States
| | - Alexandra East-Seletsky
- Department
of Molecular and Cell Biology, University of California at Berkeley, Berkeley, California 94720, United States
| | - Evan R. Williams
- Department
of Chemistry, University of California at Berkeley, Berkeley, California 94720, United States
| | - David F. Savage
- Department
of Molecular and Cell Biology, University of California at Berkeley, Berkeley, California 94720, United States
- Department
of Chemistry, University of California at Berkeley, Berkeley, California 94720, United States
- Energy
Biosciences Institute, University of California at Berkeley, Berkeley, California 94720, United States
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150
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Yoshimura H, Edwards E, Uchida M, McCoy K, Roychoudhury R, Schwarz B, Patterson D, Douglas T. Two-Dimensional Crystallization of P22 Virus-Like Particles. J Phys Chem B 2016; 120:5938-44. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.jpcb.6b01425] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Hideyuki Yoshimura
- Department
of Physics, Meiji University, 1-1-1 Higashimita, Tama-ku, Kawasaki, 214-8571, Japan
- Department
of Chemistry, Indiana University, 800 East Kirkwood Avenue, Bloomington, Indiana 47405, United States
| | - Ethan Edwards
- Department
of Chemistry, Indiana University, 800 East Kirkwood Avenue, Bloomington, Indiana 47405, United States
| | - Masaki Uchida
- Department
of Chemistry, Indiana University, 800 East Kirkwood Avenue, Bloomington, Indiana 47405, United States
| | - Kimberly McCoy
- Department
of Chemistry, Indiana University, 800 East Kirkwood Avenue, Bloomington, Indiana 47405, United States
| | - Raj Roychoudhury
- Department
of Chemistry, Indiana University, 800 East Kirkwood Avenue, Bloomington, Indiana 47405, United States
| | - Benjamin Schwarz
- Department
of Chemistry, Indiana University, 800 East Kirkwood Avenue, Bloomington, Indiana 47405, United States
| | - Dustin Patterson
- Department of Chemistry & Biochemistry, University of Texas at Tyler, 3900 University Boulevard, Tyler, Texas 75799, United States
| | - Trevor Douglas
- Department
of Chemistry, Indiana University, 800 East Kirkwood Avenue, Bloomington, Indiana 47405, United States
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