Elevated serum triglycerides are independently associated with persistent organ failure in acute pancreatitis

Hypertriglyceridemia-induced acute pancreatitis: A prospective, multicenter, international cohort analysis of 716 acute pancreatitis cases

BACKGROUND

Hypertriglyceridemia is the third most common cause of acute pancreatitis (AP). It has been shown that hypertriglyceridemia aggravates the severity and related complications of AP; however, detailed analyses of large cohorts are contradictory. Our aim was to investigate the dose-dependent effect of hypertriglyceridemia on AP.

METHODS

AP patients over 18 years old who underwent triglyceride measurement within the initial three days were included into our cohort analysis from a prospective international, multicenter AP registry operated by the Hungarian Pancreatic Study Group. Data on 716 AP cases were analyzed. Six groups were created based on the highest triglyceride level (<1.7 mmol/l, 1.7-2.19 mmol/l, 2.2-5.59 mmol/l, 5.6-11.29 mmol/l, 11.3-22.59 mmol/l, ≥22.6 mmol/l).

RESULTS

Hypertriglyceridemia (≥1.7 mmol/l) presented in 30.6% of the patients and was significantly and dose-dependently associated with younger age and male gender. In 7.7% of AP cases, hypertriglyceridemia was considered as a causative etiological factor (≥11.3 mmol/l); however, 43.6% of these cases were associated with other etiologies (alcohol and biliary). Hypertriglyceridemia was significantly and dose-dependently related to obesity and diabetes. The rates of local complications and organ failure and maximum CRP level were significantly and dose-dependently raised by hypertriglyceridemia. Triglyceride above 11.3 mmol/l was linked to a significantly higher incidence of moderately severe AP and longer hospital stay, whereas triglyceride over 22.6 mmol/l was significantly associated with severe AP as well.

CONCLUSION

Hypertriglyceridemia dose-dependently aggravates the severity and related complications of AP. Diagnostic workup for hypertriglyceridemia requires better awareness regardless of the etiology of AP.

Clinical features and outcomes of hypertriglyceridemia-induced acute pancreatitis: Propensity score matching analysis from a prospective acute pancreatitis registry

BACKGROUND

Hypertriglyceridemia (HTG) is a well-known cause of acute pancreatitis (AP) and elevation of serum triglycerides (TG) to ≥1000 mg/dl is strongly indicative of HTG-induced AP (HTG-AP). HTG-AP is potentially associated with persistent organ failure and poor prognosis. Here, we compared differences in clinical features and outcomes between patients with HTG-AP and patients with AP due to other causes.

METHODS

A prospective AP registry was constructed in Gil Medical Center between June 2014 and May 2018. In total, 499 patients with AP were included for whom serum TG data at admission were available.

RESULTS

HTG-AP was present in 52 patients (10.4%); these patients were younger than patients with AP due to other causes (39.62 ± 10.12 vs. 51.62 ± 17.41, p < 0.001). After propensity score matching adjusted by age, the factors associated with severity were more common in the HTG-AP group; these factors included the presence of systemic inflammatory response syndrome, Ranson's score ≥3, acute physiology, age, chronic health evaluation (APACHE) II score ≥8 at admission, and C-reactive protein level >10 mg/dl after 24 h of hospitalization. There were no significant differences in complications or severity based on the revised Atlanta classification 2012. In addition, recurrence was more frequent in the HTG-AP group (25.0% vs. 6.4%, p < 0.001).

CONCLUSION

HTG-AP occurred in younger patients and showed more frequent recurrences than AP with other causes. Although factors related to severe feature were more common in HTG-AP during early phase, overall severity and prognosis were not different between the two groups.

PROMIS® and Neuro-QoLTM measures are valid measures of health-related quality of life among patients with familial chylomicronemia syndrome

Background: FCS significantly affects health-related quality of life (HRQOL). Legacy patient-reported outcome measures are often not sensitive to FCS's impact. NIH PROMIS and Neuro-QoL measures may accurately capture HRQOL in FCS patients. This study assessed a broad range of PROMIS and Neuro-QoL measures covering physical, mental, and social HRQOL to determine their suitability for the FCS population.Methods: Adult FCS patients in the United States (N = 25) were recruited to an online survey study and completed several PROMIS short forms and Neuro-QoL computer adaptive tests.Results: Scores were more than 0.5 standard deviations (SD) worse than the normative mean on 10 of 16 normed measures, and more than 0.75 SDs worse than the normative mean on two measures. Responses at the floor and ceiling were occasionally observed, marginal reliabilities were strong, and significant differences across performance status (ps < 0.05) provided preliminary support for construct validity. The measures correlated with each other strongly and as expected.Conclusion: Results support the ability of PROMIS and Neuro-QoL measures to detect HRQOL impairment among patients with FCS. PROMIS and Neuro-QoL measures captured the functional impact and symptom burden associated with FCS, and the broad range of symptom severity experienced by patients with FCS.

Acute Pancreatitis in Patients With a Medical History of Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus: Clinical Findings and Magnetic Resonance Imaging Characteristics

OBJECTIVE

To determine the characteristics of type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM)-related acute pancreatitis (AP) on magnetic resonance imaging (MRI).

METHODS

Retrospectively studied 262 patients with AP were admitted to our institution and underwent MRI. Diagnosis of T2DM-related AP was based on clinical manifestations, laboratory tests, and MRI. Pancreatic/peripancreatic changes were assessed on MRI.

RESULTS

Fifty-three (20.2%) patients with T2DM-related AP and 209 (79.8%) with nondiabetic AP were enrolled. On MRI, a higher prevalence of necrotizing pancreatitis (P < 0.001), pancreatic necrosis >30% (57.5% vs 29.2%; P = 0.006), hemorrhage (35.8% vs 19.1%; P = 0.009), abdominal wall edema (67.9% vs 46.8%; P = 0.006), walled-off necrosis (43.2% vs 14.6%; P < 0.001), and infected collections (P < 0.001) were registered in T2DM with AP. T2DM-related AP sustained greater magnetic resonance severity index (mean, 5.1 [range, 2-10] vs 3.4 [range, 1-10]; P < 0.001), higher incidence of moderate and severe pancreatitis (69.8% vs 40.2%; P < 0.001), higher organ failure (45.3% vs 22%; P = 0.001), and prolonged hospitalization (mean, 25.2 [range, 10-63] vs 16 [range, 5-48] days; P < 0.001).

CONCLUSIONS

Type 2 diabetes mellitus-related AP is more moderate-to-severe pancreatitis, and it correlates with MRI characteristics of the pancreas itself, hemorrhage, abdominal wall, and infected collections.

Clinical features of hypertriglyceridemia-induced acute pancreatitis in an international, multicenter, prospective cohort (APPRENTICE consortium)

BACKGROUND

The clinical features and outcomes of hypertriglyceridemia-induced acute pancreatitis (HTG-AP) are not well-established.

OBJECTIVE

To evaluate the clinical characteristics of HTG-AP in an international, multicenter prospective cohort.

METHODS

Data collection was conducted prospectively through APPRENTICE between 2015 and 2018. HTG-AP was defined as serum TG levels >500 mg/dl in the absence of other common etiologies of AP. Three multivariate logistic regression models were performed to assess whether HTG-AP is associated with SIRS positive status, ICU admission and/or moderately-severe/severe AP.

RESULTS

1,478 patients were included in the study; 69 subjects (4.7%) were diagnosed with HTG-AP. HTG-AP patients were more likely to be younger (mean 40 vs 50 years; p < 0.001), male (67% vs 52%; p = 0.018), and with a higher BMI (mean 30.4 vs 27.5 kg/m²; p = 0.0002). HTG-AP subjects reported more frequent active alcohol use (71% vs 49%; p < 0.001), and diabetes mellitus (59% vs 15%; p < 0.001). None of the above risk factors/variables was found to be independently associated with SIRS positive status, ICU admission, or severity in the multivariate logistic regression models. These results were similar when including only the 785 subjects with TG levels measured within 48 h from admission.

CONCLUSION

HTG-AP was found to be the 4th most common etiology of AP. HTG-AP patients had distinct baseline characteristics, but their clinical outcomes were similar compared to other etiologies of AP.

Hypertriglyceridemia Induced Pancreatitis: Inpatient Management at a Single Pediatric Institution

OBJECTIVES

Hypertriglyceridemia-induced pancreatitis is an important cause of acute pancreatitis (AP) in children, which lacks established guidelines. The aim of this study was to review management approaches at a single pediatric center.

METHODS

This retrospective study included all inpatients younger than 21 years with AP and triglycerides (TG) of 1000 mg/dL or greater. A linear mixed effect model was used to calculate drop in TGs. The patient's diet, intravenous fluid (IVF) rate, insulin, and plasmapheresis were included in the model.

RESULTS

Seventeen admissions were identified among 8 patients, average age 15 years (range, 6-19 years). Fifty percent had recurrent AP and 29% of admissions had complications including 1 death. The population was primarily female (75%), white (75%), and overweight, and 63% had diabetes. The median stay was 5.4 days. There were 14 approaches used with variations in IVF rates, insulin, plasmapheresis, and nill per os (NPO) versus feeds. Variables that reduced TG's were NPO, higher IVF rates, plasmapheresis, and insulin (P < 0.05). Importantly, NPO reduced TGs faster than those who started early nutrition.

CONCLUSIONS

Hypertriglyceridemia is an important cause of pancreatitis in children. This study shares a management algorithm from a single institution. Larger studies are needed for more evidence-based guidelines.

Elevated triglycerides on admission positively correlate with the severity of hypertriglyceridaemic pancreatitis

BACKGROUND

Hypertriglycaeridemia has been positively associated with the risk of acute pancreatitis, but whether increased triglyceride (TG) levels are related to the severity of pancreatitis remains unclear. The aim of this study was to assess the relationship between hyperlipidaemia and disease severity of hypertriglycaeridemic pancreatitis.

METHODS

From 2016 to 2018, patients with hypertriglyceridaemic pancreatitis presented within 24 hours from symptom onset were retrospectively enrolled. The severity was classified by the Atlanta classification 2012. The demographic and clinical characteristics of patients were compared with respect to severity stratification and different TG categories, respectively. The relationships of admission TG levels and disease severity were assessed with Spearman's rank correlation test and Linear-by-Linear Association test.

RESULTS

Among 256 patients included, 125 (48.8%) were diagnosed with mild (MAP), 76 (29.7%) with moderate (MSAP) and 55 (21.5%) with severe acute pancreatitis (SAP). The mean TGs (standard derivation) on admission in patients with MAP, MSAP and SAP were 21.6 (15.2) mmol/L (1913 [1346] mg/dL), 34.6 (22.6) mmol/L (3065 [2002] mg/dL) and 41.5 (32.5) mmol/L (3676 [2879] mg/dL), respectively (P < .001). Patients were then categorised based on their TG levels. TG categories had a strong positive correlation with the disease severity (Rho = 0.34, P < .001). Positive trend for the association across increasing TG categories and SAP was observed (P < .001).

CONCLUSIONS

Elevated serum TG levels at the time of admission seem to correlate positively with the severity of hypertriglyceridaemia-induced acute pancreatitis.

Effects of different triglyceride-lowering therapies in patients with hypertriglyceridemia-induced acute pancreatitis

The aim of the present study was to investigate the effects of various triglyceride (TG)-lowering therapies on hypertriglyceridemia-induced acute pancreatitis (HTGAP). A total of 132 patients with HTGAP were retrospectively divided into an insulin intensive therapy (IIT), a plasma exchange (PE) and a non-intensive insulin therapy (NIIT) group according to the TG-lowering therapies they had received. The clinical and biochemical data of the subjects were analyzed. The baseline data, including sex, age, TG, amylase, severe acute pancreatitis and systemic inflammatory response syndrome were not significantly different among the three groups (P>0.05). The 24-h TG clearance rate (χ²=7.74, P=0.021), onset to treatment time (χ²=14.50, P<0.001) and the time required to reach the target TG level (χ²=6.12, P=0.047) were different in these three groups, but no significant differences were observed between the IIT and NIIT groups (P>0.05). The incidence of therapy-associated complications in the PE group (30.23%) was higher than that in the IIT (2.17%) and NIIT (4.65%) groups. The difference in the incidence of therapy-associated complications was significant among the three groups (P<0.001), but no significant difference was present between the IIT and NIIT groups (P>0.05). In the PE group, the length of stay was increased compared with that in the IIT and NIIT groups (χ²=7.05, P<0.05), while there was no significant difference between the IIT and NIIT groups (P>0.05). The present study suggested that NIIT at presentation had a similar therapeutic efficacy to that of IIT to improve the prognosis of HTGAP, and NIIT and IIT were associated with fewer complications than PE treatment. NIIT may favorably perform in patients presenting early after symptom onset and may be considered for clinical application.

Hypertriglyceridemia triggered acute pancreatitis in pregnancy - diagnostic approach, management and follow-up care

Acute pancreatitis is a pregnancy complication potentially lethal for both the mother and fetus, occurring most frequently in the third trimester or early postpartum. Hypertriglyceridemia may be the cause of important disease in pregnant patients. Patients with triglyceride levels exceeding 1000 mg/dL are at increased risk of developing severe pancreatitis. Diagnostic criteria and management protocols are not specific for pancreatitis complicating pregnancy. Other causes of acute abdominal pain must be considered in the differential diagnosis. Decision-making in the obstetric context is challenging and bears potential legal implications. Pre-pregnancy preventive measures and prenatal antilipemic treatment are mandatory in high risk patients.

Timely Reduction of Triglyceride Levels Is Associated With Decreased Persistent Organ Failure in Hypertriglyceridemic Pancreatitis

OBJECTIVES

The aim of the study was to examine the relationship between the reduction of serum triglycerides (TGs) and the severity of disease in patients with hypertriglyceridemic pancreatitis (HTGP).

METHODS

A retrospective study was conducted among patients with HTGP. Serum TGs measured on admission (TG0), 24 hours after admission (TG24), and 48 hours after admission (TG48) were compared between patients with and without persistent organ failure (POF). Multivariable analysis determined whether elevated TG levels were independently associated with POF.

RESULTS

A total of 242 patients were included, of which 62 patients (25.6%) developed POF. Patients who developed POF had higher TG levels of TG0, TG24, and TG48 than those without POF (all P < 0.05). Patients with earlier TG levels of less than 5.65 mmol/L were proportionally less likely to develop POF (Ptrend = 0.002). On multivariate analysis, TG48 of 5.65 mmol/L or more was independently associated with POF (odds ratio, 3.316; 95% confidence interval, 1.256-8.755; P = 0.016).

CONCLUSIONS

Timely reduction of serum TGs during the early phase of HTGP is proportionally associated with decreased development of POF. Serum TG levels by 48 hours of admission correlate independently with POF.

Predictability and efficacy of therapeutic plasma exchange for hypertriglyceridemia induced acute pancreatitis

BACKGROUND

Hypertriglyceridemia induced acute pancreatitis is associated with more severe clinical course than acute pancreatitis caused by other etiologies. Therapeutic plasma exchange (TPE) is a potential treatment for patients with severe hypertriglyceridemia induced acute pancreatitis due to its rapid effect in lowering triglycerides (TG) levels and reducing inflammatory cytokines. However, clinical data regarding the effectiveness and safety of TPE is limited.

METHODS

We retrospectively reviewed eight cases of hypertriglyceridemia induced acute pancreatitis and treated with TPE. Patients' demographic data, personal history, clinical course, laboratory results, apheresis data and clinical outcome were collected and analyzed.

RESULTS

At initial presentation, the average TG levels for the eight patients was 3381.6 mg/dl (SD: 1491.6 mg/dl). Twelve procedures were performed on the eight patients in the study, and TG levels decreased by an average of 2673.2 mg/dl (SD: 2306.3 mg/dl) with a corresponding average reduction rate of 60.3 % (SD:21.1 %), ranging from 14.6%-84.9%. A 60 % or greater reduction was achieved in 66.7 % of all the procedures; however, the degree of reduction for each procedure was not predictable, even among repeat procedures on the same patient.

CONCLUSIONS

Our study indicates that TPE is an effective and safe treatment option for patients with hypertriglyceridemia induced acute pancreatitis. However, due to the unpredictability of TG removal, repeat procedures may be necessary for some patients.

Management of severe acute pancreatitis

The risks, measurements of severity, and management of severe acute pancreatitis and its complications have evolved rapidly over the past decade. Evidence suggests that initial goal directed therapy, nutritional support, and vigilance for pancreatic complications are best practice. Patients can develop pancreatic fluid collections including acute pancreatic fluid collections, pancreatic pseudocysts, acute necrotic collections, and walled-off necrosis. Several randomized controlled trials and cohort studies have recently highlighted the advantage of managing these conditions with a progressive approach, with initial draining for infection followed by less invasive techniques. Surgery is no longer an early intervention and may not be needed. Instead, interventional radiologic and endoscopic methods seem to be safer with at least as good survival outcomes. Newly developed evidence based quality indicators are available to assess and improve performance. Development and clinical testing of drugs to target the mechanisms of disease are necessary for further advancements.

Practical definitions of severe versus familial hypercholesterolaemia and hypertriglyceridaemia for adult clinical practice

Diagnostic scoring systems for familial hypercholesterolaemia and familial chylomicronaemia syndrome often cannot differentiate between adults who have extreme dyslipidaemia based on a simple monogenic cause versus people with a more complex cause involving polygenic factors and an environmental component. This more complex group of patients carries a substantial risk of atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease in the case of marked hypercholesterolaemia and pancreatitis in the case of marked hypertriglyceridaemia. Complications are mainly a function of the degree of disturbance in lipid metabolism resulting in elevated lipid levels, so the added value of knowing the precise genetic cause in clinical decision making is unclear and does not lead to clinically meaningful benefit. We propose that for severe elevations of plasma low density lipoprotein cholesterol or triglyceride, the primary factor driving intervention should be the biochemical perturbation rather than the clinical risk score. This underscores the importance of expanding the definition of severe dyslipidaemias and to not rely solely on clinical scoring systems to identify individuals who would benefit from appropriate treatment approaches. We advocate for the use of simple, practical, clinical, and largely biochemically based definitions for severe hypercholesterolaemia (eg, LDL cholesterol >5 mmol/L) and severe hypertriglyceridaemia (triglyceride >10 mmol/L), which complement current definitions of familial hypercholesterolaemia and familial chylomicronaemia syndrome. Irrespective of the precise genetic cause, individuals diagnosed with severe hypercholesterolaemia and severe hypertriglyceridaemia require intensive therapy, including special consideration for new effective but more expensive therapies.

A lipoprotein lipase-GPI-anchored high-density lipoprotein-binding protein 1 fusion lowers triglycerides in mice: Implications for managing familial chylomicronemia syndrome

Lipoprotein lipase (LPL) is central to triglyceride metabolism. Severely compromised LPL activity causes familial chylomicronemia syndrome (FCS), which is associated with very high plasma triglyceride levels and increased risk of life-threatening pancreatitis. Currently, no approved pharmacological intervention can acutely lower plasma triglycerides in FCS. Low yield, high aggregation, and poor stability of recombinant LPL have thus far prevented development of enzyme replacement therapy. Recently, we showed that LPL monomers form 1:1 complexes with the LPL transporter glycosylphosphatidylinositol-anchored high-density lipoprotein–binding protein 1 (GPIHBP1) and solved the structure of the complex. In the present work, we further characterized the monomeric LPL/GPIHBP1 complex and its derivative, the LPL–GPIHBP1 fusion protein, with the goal of contributing to the development of an LPL enzyme replacement therapy. Fusion of LPL to GPIHBP1 increased yields of recombinant LPL, prevented LPL aggregation, stabilized LPL against spontaneous inactivation, and made it resistant to inactivation by the LPL antagonists angiopoietin-like protein 3 (ANGPTL3) or ANGPTL4. The high stability of the fusion protein enabled us to identify LPL amino acids that interact with ANGPTL4. Additionally, the LPL–GPIHBP1 fusion protein exhibited high enzyme activity in in vitro assays. Importantly, both intravenous and subcutaneous administrations of the fusion protein lowered triglycerides in several mouse strains without causing adverse effects. These results indicate that the LPL–GPIHBP1 fusion protein has potential for use as a therapeutic for managing FCS.

HOMA-estimated insulin resistance as an independent prognostic factor in patients with acute pancreatitis

This prospective study investigated the relationship between insulin resistance assessed using the homeostatic model assessment of insulin resistance (HOMA-IR) and the prognosis of acute pancreatitis (AP). A total of 269 patients with AP were recruited in this study. HOMA-IR scores were calculated using fasting insulin and plasma glucose levels. Patients were then categorized into the non-insulin-resistant group (HOMA-IR <2.5) and the insulin-resistant group (HOMA-IR ≥2.5). We performed multivariable logistic regression analysis to investigate the independent association between IR assessed using HOMA-IR and the severity of AP. We also conducted receiver operating characteristic analysis to investigate the predictive ability of HOMA-IR for severe AP. The proportion of patients with severe AP (according to the Atlanta classification) and the percentage of ICU admissions and mortality were higher in patients with insulin resistance than in those without insulin resistance. The area under the curve (AUC) of HOMA-IR for predicting severe AP was 0.719 (95% CI 0.59–0.85, P = 0.003). This value was not significantly different from the AUCs of other AP scoring systems such as CTSI, Ranson, and BISAP. Insulin resistance was the only independent factor for either ICU admission (OR 5.95, 95% CI 1.95–18.15, P = 0.002) or severe AP (OR 6.72, 95% CI 1.34–33.62, P = 0.020). Our findings suggest that the HOMA-IR score is an independent prognostic factor in patients with acute pancreatitis. This finding indicates that insulin resistance is potentially involved in the mechanism for severe AP.

Differentiating Familial Chylomicronemia Syndrome From Multifactorial Severe Hypertriglyceridemia by Clinical Profiles

Context

Differentiation between familial chylomicronemia syndrome (FCS, type 1 hyperlipoproteinemia), a rare metabolic disorder, and the more common multifactorial severe hypertriglyceridemia (sHTG, type 5 hyperlipoproteinemia) is challenging because of their overlapping symptoms but important in patient management.

Objective

To assess whether readily obtainable clinical information beyond triglycerides can effectively diagnose and differentiate patients with FCS from those with sHTG, based on well-curated data from two intervention studies of these conditions.

Methods

The analysis included 154 patients from two phase 3 clinical trials of patients with sHTG, one cohort with genetically confirmed FCS (n = 49) and one with multifactorial sHTG (n = 105). Logistic regression analyses were performed to determine the ability of variables (patient demographics, medical history, and baseline lipids, individually or in sets) to differentiate the patient populations. Receiver operating characteristics were used to determine the variable sets with the highest accuracy (percentage of times actual values matched predicted) and optimal sensitivity and specificity.

Results

The primary model diagnosed 45 of 49 patients with FCS and 99 of 105 patients with sHTG correctly. Optimal sensitivity for all available parameters (n = 17) was 91.8%, optimal specificity was 94.3%, and accuracy was 93.5%. Fasting low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-C) provided the highest individual predictability. However, a three-variable set of ultracentrifugally measured LDL-C, body mass index, and pancreatitis history differentiated the diseases with a near similar accuracy of 91.0%, and adding high-density lipoprotein cholesterol and very low-density lipoprotein cholesterol for a five-variable set provided a small incremental increase in accuracy (92.2%).

Conclusions

In the absence of genetic testing, hypertriglyceridemic patients with FCS and sHTG can be differentiated with a high degree of accuracy by analyzing readily obtainable clinical information.

Hypertriglyceridemia-Related Pancreatitis In Patients With Type 2 Diabetes: Links And Risks

Disturbances in glucose and lipid homeostasis are cardinal features of the metabolic syndrome that affect millions of people worldwide. These conditions have multi-organ impact, and while cardiovascular effects are usually the core for studies and preventive measures, other systems may also be affected, including the pancreas. Acute pancreatitis related to severe hypertriglyceridemia is an under-recognized condition that could lead to significant morbidity and mortality. Therefore, when suspected, prompt diagnosis and treatment should be initiated to cover the various aspects of this disorder. Though commonly known to be associated with excess of alcohol use, hypertriglyceridemia-related pancreatitis is particularly observed in diabetics, especially when uncontrolled. Here, we portray the possible mechanisms and clinical features that link type 2 diabetes, hypertriglyceridemia and pancreatitis, and discuss their health-related outcomes and the current and novel treatment options for this unique disease.

Large triglyceride-rich lipoproteins in hypertriglyceridemia are associated with the severity of acute pancreatitis in experimental mice

Hypertriglyceridemia severity is linked to acute pancreatitis prognosis, but it remains unknown why a portion of severe hypertriglyceridemia patients do not develop severe acute pancreatitis. To investigate whether hypertriglyceridemia subtypes affect acute pancreatitis progression, we analyzed two genetically modified hypertriglyceridemia mouse models—namely, glycosylphosphatidylinositol high-density lipoprotein binding protein 1 knockout (Gpihbp1−/−) and apolipoprotein C3 transgenic (ApoC3-tg) mice. Acute pancreatitis was induced by 10 intraperitoneal caerulein injections. Biochemical assays and pathological analysis were performed for the severity evaluation of acute pancreatitis. Plasma triglyceride-rich lipoproteins (TRLs), including chylomicrons and very low-density lipoprotein (VLDL), were collected via ultracentrifugation to evaluate their cytotoxic effects on primary pancreatic acinar cells (PACs). We found that the particle sizes of Gpihbp1−/− TRLs were larger than ApoC3-tg TRLs. Severe pancreatic injury with large areas of pancreatic necrosis in the entire lobule was induced in Gpihbp1−/− mice when plasma triglyceride levels were greater than 2000 mg/dL. However, ApoC3-tg mice with the same triglyceride levels did not develop large areas of pancreatic necrosis, even upon the administration of poloxamer 407 to further increase triglyceride levels. Meanwhile, in the acute pancreatitis model, free fatty acids (FFAs) in the pancreas of Gpihbp1−/− mice were greater than in ApoC3-tg mice. TRLs from Gpihbp1−/− mice released more FFAs and were more toxic to PACs than those from ApoC3-tg mice. Chylomicrons from patients showed the same effects on PACs as TRLs from Gpihbp1−/− mice. Gpihbp1−/− mice with triglyceride levels below 2000 mg/dL had milder pancreatic injury and less incidence of pancreatic necrosis than those with triglyceride levels above 2000 mg/dL, similar to Gpihbp1−/−mice with triglyceride levels above 2000 mg/dL but with fenofibrate administration. These findings demonstrated that hypertriglyceridemia subtypes with large TRL particles could affect acute pancreatitis progression and that chylomicrons showed more cytotoxicity than VLDL by releasing more FFAs.

Hypertriglyceridaemia-associated acute pancreatitis: diagnosis and impact on severity

BACKGROUND

The level of hypertriglyceridaemia (HTG) at which the risk of acute pancreatitis (AP) increases and the impact of HTG on AP attributable to other aetiologies remains unclear.

METHODS

We compared clinical outcomes of patients admitted within 48 h of the onset of abdominal pain from a first episode of AP and admission serum triglyceride levels of either <5.65 mmol/l (<500 mg/dl) or ≥5.65 to <11.3 mmol/l (moderate HTG) or ≥11.3 mmol/l (≥1000 mg/dl, severe HTG).

RESULTS

Among a cohort of 1,233 patients with AP there were significant progressive increases in all major deleterious clinical outcomes including mortality (all P_trend < 0.05) that were directly dependent on admission triglyceride levels. Outcomes were improved by earlier presentation (<24 h compared to 24-48 h from abdominal pain onset). Patients with severe HTG and a concomitant aetiology (n = 68) had significantly more persistent organ failure, pancreatic necrosis and longer hospital stays (P < 0.05) than those with severe HTG alone (n = 206).

CONCLUSIONS

There appears to be an association between HTG grade and the severity of AP. Severe HTG significantly increased the severity of AP, over AP attributable to other aetiologies. Moderate as well as severe HTG can be used as a criterion for the diagnosis of HTG-associated AP.

Low Serum Ionized Calcium, Elevated High-Sensitivity C-Reactive Protein, Neutrophil-Lymphocyte Ratio, and Body Mass Index (BMI) Are Risk Factors for Severe Acute Pancreatitis in Patients with Hypertriglyceridemia Pancreatitis

Background

To investigate the clinical characteristics of hypertriglyceridemia pancreatitis (HTGP) and evaluate the correlative risk factors for severe acute pancreatitis (SAP) in HTGP patients.

Material/Methods

A total of 1005 patients with acute pancreatitis (AP) admitted to Peking Union Medical College Hospital (PUMCH) from 1 Jan 2013 to 1 Aug 2018 were retrospectively reviewed. After screening, we enrolled 159 patients with HTGP and 172 with non-hypertriglyceridemia pancreatitis (NHTGP). We gathered and assessed demographic and blood biochemical information and analyzed the risk factors for SAP.

Results

Age, serum amylase (AMY), lipase (LIP), and serum ionized calcium (Ca²⁺) in the HTGP group were lower than in the NHTGP group (P<0.05), while high-sensitivity C-reactive protein (hsCRP), neutrophil–lymphocyte ratio (NLR), and body mass index (BMI) in the HTGP group were higher than in the NHTGP group (P<0.05). Among the HTGP patients, the results indicated that Ca²⁺ (OR=0.018, P<0.001, 95%CI: 0.002–0.129) was an independent protective factor for SAP, while higher CRP (OR=1.008, P=0.004, 95%CI: 1.003–1.013), NLR (OR=1.314, P<0.001, 95%CI: 1.161–1.488), and BMI (OR=1.597, P=0.002, 95%CI: 1.195–2.314) were independent risk factors for SAP.

Conclusions

Patients with HTGP had lower serum Ca²⁺ and higher hsCRP, NLR, and BMI, and these were associated with higher risk of developing SAP.

New insights into acute pancreatitis

The incidence of acute pancreatitis continues to increase worldwide, and it is one of the most common gastrointestinal causes for hospital admission in the USA. In the past decade, substantial advancements have been made in our understanding of the pathophysiological mechanisms of acute pancreatitis. Studies have elucidated mechanisms of calcium-mediated acinar cell injury and death and the importance of store-operated calcium entry channels and mitochondrial permeability transition pores. The cytoprotective role of the unfolded protein response and autophagy in preventing sustained endoplasmic reticulum stress, apoptosis and necrosis has also been characterized, as has the central role of unsaturated fatty acids in causing pancreatic organ failure. Characterization of these pathways has led to the identification of potential molecular targets for future therapeutic trials. At the patient level, two classification systems have been developed to classify the severity of acute pancreatitis into prognostically meaningful groups, and several landmark clinical trials have informed management strategies in areas of nutritional support and interventions for infected pancreatic necrosis that have resulted in important changes to acute pancreatitis management paradigms. In this Review, we provide a summary of recent advances in acute pancreatitis with a special emphasis on pathophysiological mechanisms and clinical management of the disorder.

Milk-induced hypertriglyceridaemia and acute pancreatitis after discontinuation of treatment for type 2 diabetes and hyperlipidaemia

A 39-year-old man with a background of type 2 diabetes mellitus presented with extreme hypertriglyceridaemia (114.4 mmol/L) and acute pancreatitis, attributed to excessive dairy intake. At his peak, he was drinking up to 6 pints of full fat milk a day. He was treated with an insulin regimen and was counselled on the danger his diet posed to his health. He recovered well, but this case highlights the impact that dietary and lifestyle factors can have on health, sometimes with life-threatening results.

Association of elevated serum triglyceride levels with a more severe course of acute pancreatitis: Cohort analysis of 1457 patients

BACKGROUND

Previous publications have reported an association between hypertriglyceridemia (HTG) and severity of acute pancreatitis, but this relationship remains somewhat controversial.

OBJECTIVE

To evaluate the outcome of acute pancreatitis according to serum triglyceride levels on admission.

METHODS

Retrospective analysis of prospectively collected data, which included all consecutive cases of acute pancreatitis admitted to a tertiary hospital (January 2002-December 2014). Acute pancreatitis patients were classified into 3 groups based on serum triglyceride levels (mg/dl) measured within 48 h from admission: normal triglycerides-mild HTG (<200); moderate HTG (200-749); severe HTG (≥750). Primary outcomes were the difference in organ failure, pancreatic necrosis, acute peripancreatic collections and mortality among the three groups.

RESULTS

A total of 1,457 cases were included: 1,335 with normal-mild HTG, 77 with moderate HTG and 45 with severe HTG. The rates of organ failure (11.2% in normal-mild HTG group, 15.6% in moderate HTG and 20.0% in severe HTG), persistent multiple organ failure (2.5% vs. 5.2% vs. 6.7%), pancreatic necrosis (9.2% vs. 14.3% vs. 26.7%) and acute collections (21.6% vs. 40.3% vs. 55.6%) increased significantly with hypertriglyceridemia severity grades. On multivariate analysis, triglycerides as a quantitative variable, evaluated in increments of 100 mg/dl, was independently associated with organ failure, pancreatic necrosis, acute collections and mortality (p < 0.05).

CONCLUSIONS

Elevated serum triglyceride levels are independently associated with a more severe course of pancreatitis. It must be highlighted the elevated frequency of local complications in patients with HTG that increases proportionally and significantly with HTG severity grades.

Dynamic Detection of Monocyte Subsets in Peripheral Blood of Patients with Acute Hypertriglyceridemic Pancreatitis

Aim

Monocytes play an important role in acute pancreatitis (AP). Hypertriglyceridemic pancreatitis (HTGP) is always more severe than normal lipid-AP, whether the mechanism of aggravation involves monocyte subsets remains unknown though. The present study was aimed to analyze changes of peripheral blood M1 and M2 monocytes in HTGP patients.

Methods

A total of 90 subjects were enrolled, among which 16 diagnosed with HTGP, 34 with acute biliary pancreatitis (ABP), 20 with hypertriglyceridemia (HTG), and 20 healthy controls (HC). Peripheral blood CD14+CD86+ M1 and CD14+CD206+ M2 monocytes were examined by flow cytometry on days 1, 3, and 7 after admission.

Results

We found a marked increase in total and M1 monocyte count in AP patients (P < 0.05). In HTGP, the percentage of M1 monocytes in white blood cells was significantly higher on days 1, 3, and 7, while M2 monocyte percentage was decreased on day 3, compared with ABP (P < 0.05). In mild HTGP, M1 monocyte count and percentage gradually decreased, while M2 monocyte percentage gradually increased from day 1 to 7. In severe HTGP, M1 monocyte count and percentage rose to the highest point while M2 were the lowest on day 3. Additionally, the level of M1 monocytes showed a positive correlation with plasma triglyceride and Ranson score of HTGP patients.

Conclusions

Peripheral blood M1 and M2 monocytes showed different dynamic changes in mild and severe HTGP. A more dominant role of CD14+CD86+ M1 monocytes may be involved in the pathogenesis of HTGP.

Acute Pancreatitis: A Multifaceted Set of Organelle and Cellular Interactions

Acute pancreatitis is an inflammatory disorder of the exocrine pancreas associated with tissue injury and necrosis. The disease can be mild, involving only the pancreas, and resolve spontaneously within days or severe, with systemic inflammatory response syndrome-associated extrapancreatic organ failure and even death. Importantly, there are no therapeutic agents currently in use that can alter the course of the disease. This article emphasizes emerging findings that stressors (environmental and genetic) that cause acute pancreatitis initially cause injury to organelles of the acinar cell (endoplasmic reticulum, mitochondria, and endolysosomal-autophagy system), and that disorders in the functions of the organelles lead to inappropriate intracellular activation of trypsinogen and inflammatory pathways. We also review emerging work on the role of damage-associated molecular patterns in mediating the local and systemic inflammatory response in addition to known cytokines and chemokine pathways. In the review, we provide considerations for correction of organelle functions in acute pancreatitis to create a discussion for clinical trial treatment and design options.

Organ Failure Due to Systemic Injury in Acute Pancreatitis

Acute pancreatitis may be associated with both local and systemic complications. Systemic injury manifests in the form of organ failure, which is seen in approximately 20% of all cases of acute pancreatitis and defines "severe acute pancreatitis." Organ failure typically develops early in the course of acute pancreatitis, but also may develop later due to infected pancreatic necrosis-induced sepsis. Organ failure is the most important determinant of outcome in acute pancreatitis. We review here the current understanding of the risk factors, pathophysiology, timing, impact on outcome, and therapy of organ failure in acute pancreatitis. As we discuss the pathophysiology of severe systemic injury, the distinctions between markers and mediators of severity are highlighted based on evidence supporting their causality in organ failure. Emphasis is placed on clinically relevant end points of organ failure and the mechanisms underlying the pathophysiological perturbations, which offer insight into potential therapeutic targets to treat.

Association of the hypertriglyceridemic waist phenotype and severity of acute pancreatitis

Background

The aim of this study was to evaluate the effect of a simple visceral obesity phenotype, known as the hypertriglyceridemic waist phenotype and its quantitative indicator waist circumference index on the severity of acute pancreatitis.

Materials and methods

Diagnosis and severity analysis of acute pancreatitis were determined according to the Atlanta classification guidelines, revised in 2012. We considered the hypertriglyceridemic waist phenotype as characterized by increased waist circumference and elevated triglyceride concentrations. We investigated the association between the acute pancreatitis severity and hypertriglyceridemic waist phenotype, including waist circumference index.

Results

The hypertriglyceridemic waist phenotype was significantly associated with systemic inflammatory response syndrome, organ failure, and severe acute pancreatitis. The median waist circumference index and demonstration of hypertriglyceridemic waist phenotype were positively correlated with acute pancreatitis severity. In addition, multivariate logistic analysis showed that patients with the hypertriglyceridemic waist phenotype had 1.664 times the risk of organ failure and 1.891 times the risk of systemic inflammatory response syndrome, compared with the other groups.

Conclusion

Upon admission, the hypertriglyceridemic waist phenotype was strongly associated with acute pancreatitis in patients. This phenotype, including waist circumference index, might be a simple method for evaluating individuals at high risk of severe acute pancreatitis.

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (10.1186/s12944-019-1019-2) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Carboxyl Ester Lipase May Not Mediate Lipotoxic Injury during Severe Acute Pancreatitis

Acute lipolysis of visceral fat or circulating triglycerides may worsen acute pancreatitis (AP)-associated local and systemic injury. The pancreas expresses pancreatic triacylglycerol lipase (PNLIP), pancreatic lipase-related protein 2 (PNLIPRP2), and carboxyl ester lipase (CEL), which may leak into the visceral fat or systemic circulation during pancreatitis. We, thus, aimed to determine the pancreatic lipase(s) regulating lipotoxicity during AP. For this AP, associated fat necrosis was analyzed using Western blot analysis. Bile acid (using liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry) and fatty acid (using gas chromatography) concentrations were measured in human fat necrosis. The fat necrosis milieu was simulated in vitro using glyceryl trilinoleate because linoleic acid is increased in fat necrosis. Bile acid requirements to effectively hydrolyze glyceryl trilinoleate were studied using exogenous or overexpressed lipases. The renal cell line (HEK 293) was used to study lipotoxic injury. Because dual pancreatic lipase knockouts are lethal, exocrine parotid acini lacking lipases were used to verify the results. PNLIP, PNLIPRP2, and CEL were increased in fat necrosis. Although PNLIP and PNLIPRP2 were equipotent in inducing lipolysis and lipotoxic injury, CEL required bile acid concentrations higher than in human fat necrosis. The high bile acid requirements for effective lipolysis make CEL an unlikely mediator of lipotoxic injury in AP. It remains to be explored whether PNLIP or PNLIPRP2 worsens AP severity in vivo.

Influence of Ambulatory Triglyceride Levels on Risk of Recurrence in Patients with Hypertriglyceridemic Pancreatitis

BACKGROUND AND AIMS

To evaluate impact of ambulatory triglyceride levels on risk of recurrent pancreatitis in patients with hypertriglyceridemic pancreatitis.

METHODS

We conducted a longitudinal retrospective cohort study of patients with serum triglyceride level ≥ 500 mg/dL during index hospitalization for acute pancreatitis within a regional integrated healthcare system between 2006 and 2013 (follow-up through 2015). Cases were identified based on combination of diagnosis codes and serum amylase/lipase. We used multivariable robust Poisson regression to determine independent effect of baseline (first outpatient) triglyceride measurement on risk of recurrent pancreatitis. Ambulatory triglyceride levels were categorized as normal (0-200 mg/dL), moderately elevated (201-500 mg/dL), and highly elevated (> 500 mg/dL). We further assessed factors related to likelihood of normalization of serum triglycerides (< 200 mg/dL) in the outpatient setting.

RESULTS

One hundred and fifty-one patients met study inclusion criteria with median follow-up of 3 years. Overall, 45 (29.8%) patients experienced at least 1 recurrent attack with 25 (16.6%) experiencing multiple episodes. In multivariable analysis, patients that continued to have moderately elevated ((adjusted rate ratio RR 5.47 (95% CL 1.80, 16.65)) as well as highly elevated (RR 8.45 (2.55, 27.96)) triglycerides were at increased risk of disease recurrence compared to patients that achieved normalization. Patients with triglyceride measurement performed within 30 days from discharge were more likely to achieve normalization, 40 versus 26%, p = 0.03.

CONCLUSIONS

For patients with hypertriglyceridemic pancreatitis, even modest elevation in subsequent triglyceride levels was associated with increased risk of recurrence. Future efforts should focus on ensuring timely care in the outpatient setting with a goal of normalizing triglycerides.

Effect of Sheng-jiang powder on multiple-organ inflammatory injury in acute pancreatitis in rats fed a high-fat diet

BACKGROUND

Obesity worsens inflammatory organ injury in acute pancreatitis (AP), but there is no effective preventive strategy. Sheng-jiang powder (SJP) has been shown to alleviate multiple-organ inflammatory injury in rats with high-fat diet-induced obesity. Hence, SJP is supposed to have an effect on multiple-organ inflammatory injury in AP in rats fed a high-fat diet.

AIM

To explore how obesity may contribute to aggravating inflammatory organ injury in AP in rats and observe the effect of SJP on multiple-organ inflammatory injury in AP in rats fed a high-fat diet.

METHODS

Rats were randomly assigned to a control group (CG), an obese group (OG), and an SJP treatment group (SG), with eight rats per group. The rats in the OG and SG were fed a high-fat diet. From the third week, the rats in the SG were given oral doses of SJP (5 g/kg of body weight). After 12 wk, AP was induced in the three groups. Serum amylase level, body weight, Lee’s index, serum biochemistry parameters, and serum inflammatory cytokine and tissue cytokine levels were assessed, and the tissue histopathological scores were evaluated and compared.

RESULTS

Compared with the CG, serum triglyceride, total cholesterol, interleukin-6, and interleukin-10 levels were significantly higher in the OG, and serum high-density lipoprotein cholesterol level was significantly lower in the OG. Moreover, enhanced oxidative damage was observed in the pancreas, heart, spleen, lung, intestine, liver, and kidney. Evidence of an imbalanced antioxidant defense system, especially in the pancreas, spleen, and intestine, was observed in the obese AP rats. Compared with the OG, serum high-density lipoprotein cholesterol, interleukin-10, and superoxide dismutase expression levels in the pancreas, spleen, and intestine were increased in the SG. Additionally, SJP intervention led to a decrease in the following parameters: body weight; Lee’s index; serum triglyceride levels; serum total cholesterol levels; malondialdehyde expression levels in the pancreas, heart, spleen, lung, and liver; myeloperoxidase expression levels in the lung; and pathological scores in the liver.

CONCLUSION

Obesity may aggravate the inflammatory reaction and pathological multiple-organ injury in AP rats, and SJP may alleviate multiple-organ inflammatory injury in AP in rats fed a high-fat diet.

Severe Hypertriglyceridemia-Related Pancreatitis: Characteristics and Predictors of Recurrence

OBJECTIVES

The diagnosis of severe hypertriglyceridemia (HTG) as a cause for acute pancreatitis is often delayed with limited data on the characteristics and predictors of recurrent pancreatitis in this population.

METHODS

A regional database of severe HTG level of 1000 mg/dL or greater was analyzed to identify subjects with acute pancreatitis. Factors associated with recurrent pancreatitis during long-term follow-up were investigated.

RESULTS

Severe HTG-associated pancreatitis was evident in 171 patients (75% diabetics). Recurrent pancreatitis was observed in 16%; this was associated with younger age, alcohol abuse, and an increase in triglyceride levels. In multivariable analysis, peak triglycerides level of greater than 3000 mg/dL (hazard ratio, 2.92; 95% confidence interval, 1.28-6.64; P = 0.011) and most recent triglycerides level of greater than 500 mg/dL (hazard ratio, 3.72; 95% confidence interval, 1.60-8.66; P = 0.002) remained independently associated with recurrent pancreatitis. These lipid measures as well as alcohol abuse were additionally correlated with a stepwise increase in the number of pancreatitis episodes.

CONCLUSIONS

Severe HTG-related pancreatitis was closely associated with diabetes. Extreme HTG and a lack of attainment of lower triglyceride levels were independent long-term predictors of recurrent pancreatitis. These findings emphasize the importance of early identification and successful treatment of severe HTG and its underlying disorders to reduce the burden of recurrent pancreatitis.

Comparison of biochemical parameters among DPP4 inhibitor users and other oral hypoglycaemic drug users: a cross-sectional study from Anuradhapura, Sri Lanka

BACKGROUND

Higher efficacy of incretin-based therapies for type 2 diabetes mellitus has been reported from Asia. Pancreatitis and hepatitis have also been suspected to occur due to dipeptidyl peptidase-4 inhibitor (DPP4I) treatment. The present study aims at comparing selected biochemical parameters among DPP4 inhibitor users and other oral hypoglycaemic drug users.

METHODS

Patients were recruited from the State Pharmaceutical Corporation, Anuradhapura, Sri Lanka, for a comparative cross-sectional study. Two groups were involved: "DPP4I" user group (n = 63) and "other oral hypoglycaemic" user group (n = 126). Mann-Whitney U test was performed to find a significant difference (p < 0.05) in the distributions of HbA_1C, pancreatic amylase, serum lipase, AST and ALT levels between the two groups.

RESULTS

Contradicting to previous Asian studies, distribution of HbA_1C (p = 0.569) between anti-diabetic regimes with and without DPP4 inhibitors showed no significant difference. Also, amylase (p = 0.171), AST (p = 0.238) and ALT (p = 0.347) failed to show significance. However, lipase was significantly (p = 0.012) high in the DPP4I group.

CONCLUSION

The study showed a significantly higher lipase level among the DPP4I users in comparison to other oral hypoglycaemic drug users, and possible reasons were discussed.

Continuous intravenous infusion of insulin and heparin vs plasma exchange in hypertriglyceridemia-induced acute pancreatitis

OBJECTIVE

Acute triglyceride-lowering therapy is crucial in the early treatment of hypertriglyceridemia-induced pancreatitis. This study aimed to compare the efficacy of continuous i.v. infusion of insulin and heparin therapy (IHT) and plasma exchange to lower triglyceride levels in the acute phase of hypertriglyceridemia-induced pancreatitis.

METHODS

A retrospective observational study was conducted in a tertiary teaching hospital. Patients with hypertriglyceridemia-induced pancreatitis were consecutively enrolled from 2012 to 2017. Serum triglyceride levels and clinical data during hospitalization were collected. The primary outcome was the rapid reduction of triglyceride levels.

RESULTS

Of the 62 patients enrolled, 34 (54.8%) were treated with IHT and the others with plasma exchange. A reduced triglyceride level of (66.9 ± 21.5)% after the first plasma exchange session and that of (75.0 ± 14.6)% after the first day of IHT were observed. There were no significant differences in the reduction of triglyceride (F = 0.334), high sensitivity C-reactive protein (F = 0.127) and the acute physiology and chronic health evaluation II score (F = 2.589) between the two groups (all P > 0.05). The medical cost during hospitalization was significantly lower in the IHT group than in the plasma exchange group (RMB [59 512.4 ± 23 645.1] vs RMB [89 461.9 ± 48 324.0], P < 0.05). Adverse effects were observed in six patients in the plasma exchange group but none in the IHT group.

CONCLUSION

As a minimally invasive and economical strategy, IHT is effective and non-inferior to plasma exchange in achieving a rapid reduction of triglyceride levels.

A systematic review of the epidemiology, pathophysiology and current management of hyperlipidaemic pancreatitis

BACKGROUND & AIMS

The aims of this systematic review were to define the epidemiology and pathophysiology of hyperlipidaemic pancreatitis, establish its association with clinical outcome and define management strategies.

METHODS

The Cochrane, Embase and Medline databases were searched, limited to the last decade, for articles on hyperlipidaemic pancreatitis. All randomised controlled trials, observational studies and case series (with a minimum of 10 patients) on hyperlipidaemic pancreatitis were included.

RESULTS

Thirty-eight studies with 1979 patients were included. The median admission triglyceride concentration was 42.8 mmol/L (range 13.6-108.6 mmol/L) [3785 mg/dL (range 1205-9612 mg/dL)]. Severe hypertriglyceridaemia (>1000 mg/dL, 11.0 mmol/L) was present in 1.7% of the adult population, and about 15-20% of these developed hyperlipidaemic acute pancreatitis. Medical management of severe hyperlipidaemia at onset of acute pancreatitis has not been investigated fully. However, tight regulation of triglyceride concentration after presentation with acute pancreatitis was found to reduce the risk of recurrence. Plasmapheresis reduced concentrations of triglycerides by up to 85%, but this did not impact morbidity or mortality. All studies included defined hyperlipidaemia as a more severe form of pancreatitis.

CONCLUSION

The available evidence suggests an increasing risk of acute pancreatitis in patients with hyperlipidaemia and a more severe form of pancreatitis. There is some evidence to suggest biochemical benefit of using novel techniques like plasmapheresis without the desired physiological benefit. However, there is a need for an international consensus on the management of hyperlipidaemic pancreatitis. More rigorous and methodologically robust studies are required to inform such consensus guidelines.

Hypertriglyceridemic Pancreatitis Treated with Insulin Therapy: A Comparative Review of 34 Cases

Although the clinical presentation of hypertriglyceridemic pancreatitis is usually similar to other forms of acute pancreatitis, it is frequently associated with increased clinical severity and rate of complications. Therefore, appropriate and timely management is of paramount importance in these patients. We performed a structured literature search of the medical databases PubMed and Google Scholar, using the terms “hypertriglyceridemia,” “acute pancreatitis,” “insulin,” and “treatment.” In this search, we identified 34 cases of hypertriglyceridemia-related pancreatitis available in the full-text form in English. The data on patients’ characteristics, epidemiology, clinical features, comorbid conditions, and diagnostic modalities were collected and summarized. This review illustrates that the use of insulin therapy with close monitoring of blood glucose levels is safe. It can be considered as an important component of management in patients with hypertriglyceridemia-related pancreatitis, especially in a clinical setting without the availability of plasmapheresis. Randomized clinical trials are warranted to outline a generalized and efficient treatment regimen for hypertriglyceridemic pancreatitis.

Moderate Hypertriglyceridemia Causing Recurrent Pancreatitis: A Case Report and the Literature Review

Recurrent acute pancreatitis secondary to hypertriglyceridemia (HTG) with levels below 1000 mg/dL has been rarely reported in the literature. HTG is the third most common cause of acute pancreatitis and has been established in the literature as a risk factor when levels are greater than 1000 mg/dL. A 43-year-old patient presented to the hospital with severe epigastric abdominal pain. Initial laboratory investigations were significant for a lipase level of 4143 U/L and a triglyceride level of 600 mg/dL. Computed tomography (CT) of the abdomen showed diffuse enlargement of the pancreas consistent with pancreatitis. A diagnosis of severe acute pancreatitis secondary to high triglycerides was made based on the revised Atlanta classification 2012. The patient was initially managed with intravenous boluses of normal saline followed by continuous insulin infusion. Diabetic Ketoacidosis (DKA) was ruled out due to a past medical history of diabetes. Her clinical course was complicated by acute respiratory distress syndrome requiring intubation and mechanical ventilation. During the course, she improved symptomatically and was extubated. She was started on nasogastric feeding initially and subsequently switched to oral diet as tolerated. After initial management of HTG with insulin infusion, oral gemfibrozil was started for long-term treatment of HTG. Emerging literature implicates HTG as an independent indicator of poor prognosis in acute pancreatitis (AP). Despite the paucity of data, the risk of developing AP must be considered even at triglyceride levels lower than 1000 mg/dL.

The effect of serum triglyceride concentration on the outcome of acute pancreatitis: systematic review and meta-analysis

Elevated serum triglyceride concentration (seTG, >1.7 mM or >150 mg/dL) or in other words hypertriglyceridemia (HTG) is common in the populations of developed countries. This condition is accompanied by an increased risk for various diseases, such as acute pancreatitis (AP). It has been proposed that HTG could also worsen the course of AP. Therefore, in this meta-analysis, we aimed to compare the effects of various seTGs on the severity, mortality, local and systemic complications of AP, and on intensive care unit admission. 16 eligible studies, including 11,965 patients were retrieved from PubMed and Embase. The results showed that HTG significantly elevated the odds ratio (OR = 1.72) for severe AP when compared to patients with normal seTG (<1.7 mM). Furthermore, a significantly higher occurrence of pancreatic necrosis, persistent organ failure and renal failure was observed in groups with HTG. The rates of complications and mortality for AP were significantly increased in patients with seTG >5.6 mM or >11.3 mM versus <5.6 mM or <11.3 mM, respectively. We conclude that the presence of HTG worsens the course and outcome of AP, but we found no significant difference in AP severity based on the extent of HTG.

Management of Hypertriglyceridemia Induced Acute Pancreatitis

Hypertriglyceridemia is an uncommon but a well-established etiology of acute pancreatitis leading to significant morbidity and mortality. The risk and severity of acute pancreatitis increase with increasing levels of serum triglycerides. It is crucial to identify hypertriglyceridemia as the cause of pancreatitis and initiate appropriate treatment plan. Initial supportive treatment is similar to management of other causes of acute pancreatitis with additional specific therapies tailored to lower serum triglycerides levels. This includes plasmapheresis, insulin, heparin infusion, and hemofiltration. After the acute episode, diet and lifestyle modifications along with hypolipidemic drugs should be initiated to prevent further episodes. Currently, there is paucity of studies directly comparing different modalities. This article provides a comprehensive review of management of hypertriglyceridemia induced acute pancreatitis. We conclude by summarizing our treatment approach to manage hypertriglyceridemia induced acute pancreatitis.

Recent advances in understanding and managing acute pancreatitis

This review highlights advances made in recent years in the diagnosis and management of acute pancreatitis (AP). We focus on epidemiological, clinical, and management aspects of AP. Additionally, we discuss the role of using risk stratification tools to guide clinical decision making. The majority of patients suffer from mild AP, and only a subset develop moderately severe AP, defined as a pancreatic local complication, or severe AP, defined as persistent organ failure. In mild AP, management typically involves diagnostic evaluation and supportive care resulting usually in a short hospital length of stay (LOS). In severe AP, a multidisciplinary approach is warranted to minimize morbidity and mortality over the course of a protracted hospital LOS. Based on evidence from guideline recommendations, we discuss five treatment interventions, including intravenous fluid resuscitation, feeding, prophylactic antibiotics, probiotics, and timing of endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography (ERCP) in acute biliary pancreatitis. This review also highlights the importance of preventive interventions to reduce hospital readmission or prevent pancreatitis, including alcohol and smoking cessation, same-admission cholecystectomy for acute biliary pancreatitis, and chemoprevention and fluid administration for post-ERCP pancreatitis. Our review aims to consolidate guideline recommendations and high-quality studies published in recent years to guide the management of AP and highlight areas in need of research.

Recent advances in understanding and managing acute pancreatitis

This review highlights advances made in recent years in the diagnosis and management of acute pancreatitis (AP). We focus on epidemiological, clinical, and management aspects of AP. Additionally, we discuss the role of using risk stratification tools to guide clinical decision making. The majority of patients suffer from mild AP, and only a subset develop moderately severe AP, defined as a pancreatic local complication, or severe AP, defined as persistent organ failure. In mild AP, management typically involves diagnostic evaluation and supportive care resulting usually in a short hospital length of stay (LOS). In severe AP, a multidisciplinary approach is warranted to minimize morbidity and mortality over the course of a protracted hospital LOS. Based on evidence from guideline recommendations, we discuss five treatment interventions, including intravenous fluid resuscitation, feeding, prophylactic antibiotics, probiotics, and timing of endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography (ERCP) in acute biliary pancreatitis. This review also highlights the importance of preventive interventions to reduce hospital readmission or prevent pancreatitis, including alcohol and smoking cessation, same-admission cholecystectomy for acute biliary pancreatitis, and chemoprevention and fluid administration for post-ERCP pancreatitis. Our review aims to consolidate guideline recommendations and high-quality studies published in recent years to guide the management of AP and highlight areas in need of research.

The effect of volanesorsen treatment on the burden associated with familial chylomicronemia syndrome: the results of the ReFOCUS study

BACKGROUND

Volanesorsen, an investigational inhibitor of apoC-III synthesis, significantly reduced triglyceride levels in clinical trials in patients with familial chylomicronemia syndrome (FCS), a rare genetic disorder characterized by marked chylomicronemia leading to a spectrum of symptoms, including recurrent abdominal pain and episodes of potentially fatal acute pancreatitis (AP).

OBJECTIVE

To determine the effect of volanesorsen on burden of disease on patients with FCS Methods: ReFOCUS was a retrospective global web-based survey open to patients with FCS who received volanesorsen for ≥3 months in an open-label extension study. The survey included questions about patients' experiences before and after volanesorsen treatment.

RESULTS

Twenty-two respondents had received volanesorsen for a median of 222 days. Volanesorsen significantly reduced the number of symptoms per patient across physical, emotional, and cognitive domains. Significant reductions from baseline were reported for steatorrhea, pancreatic pain, and constant worry about an attack of pain/AP. Respondents reported that volanesorsen improved overall management of symptoms and reduced interference of FCS with work/school responsibilities. Reductions in the negative impact of FCS on personal, social, and professional life were also reported.

CONCLUSIONS

Treatment with volanesorsen has the potential to reduce disease burden in patients with FCS through modulation of multiple symptom domains.

Significantly different clinical features between hypertriglyceridemia and biliary acute pancreatitis: a retrospective study of 730 patients from a tertiary center

BACKGROUND

Unlike western world, gallstones and hypertriglyceridemia (HTG) are among the first two etiologies of acute pancreatitis (AP) in China. But yet, detailed differences in clinical features and outcomes between hypertriglyceridemia and biliary acute pancreatitis have not been well described.

METHODS

This retrospective study enrolled 730 acute pancreatitis patients from July 1, 2013 to October 1, 2016 in Jinling Hospital. The causes of the study patients were defined according to specific diagnostic criteria. The clinical features and outcomes of patients with hypertriglyceridemia acute pancreatitis (HTG-AP) and biliary acute pancreatitis (BAP) were compared in terms of general information, disease severity, laboratory data, system complications, local complications, and clinical outcome.

RESULTS

In the enrolled 730 AP patients, 305 (41.8%) were HTG-AP, and 425 (58.2%) were BAP. Compared to BAP, the HTG-AP patients were found to be younger, with higher body mass Index (BMI), and much higher proportion of diabetes, fatty liver and high fat diet. Besides that, HTG-AP patients had significantly higher C-reactive protein (CRP) (p<0.01) and creatinine (p = 0.031), together with more acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) (p = 0.039), acute kidney injury (AKI) (p<0.001), deep venous thrombosis (p = 0.008) and multiple organ dysfunction syndrome (MODS) (p = 0.032) in systematic complications. As for local complications, HTG-AP patients had significantly less infected pancreatitis necrosis (p = 0.005). However, there was no difference in mortality, hospital duration and costs between the groups.

CONCLUSION

HTG-AP patients were younger, more male, having high fat diet and with higher BMI compared to BAP patients. The prevalence of AKI/ARDS/DVT/MODS in HTG-AP patients was higher than BAP patients, while BAP patients had a greater possibility in development of infected pancreatitis necrosis (IPN). According to the multivariate analysis, only the complication of AKI was independently related with the etiology of HTG, however, BMI contributes to AKI, ARDS and DVT.

Characterizing familial chylomicronemia syndrome: Baseline data of the APPROACH study

BACKGROUND

Familial chylomicronemia syndrome (FCS) is a rare metabolic disorder caused by mutations in lipoprotein lipase (LPL) or genes required for LPL functionality and is characterized by hyperchylomicronemia that results in recurrent episodes of acute pancreatitis. Owing to the rarity of FCS, there are few case series describing the phenotypic variability in FCS patients in detail.

OBJECTIVE

To provide baseline characteristics in the largest study population to date of patients with FCS.

METHODS

We analyzed baseline demographic and clinical characteristics of adult FCS patients in the phase 3 APPROACH study of volanesorsen sodium (antisense inhibitor of apolipoprotein C-III).

RESULTS

Sixty-six patients were included in the analysis. Mean (SD) age was 46 (13) years; and mean body mass index was 24.9 (5.7) kg/m². We identified causal mutations in 79% (52) of patients, with LPL mutations accounting for 62% (41) of cases. Median age at diagnosis was 24 years, 54% were females, and 81% were Caucasian. All patients followed a low-fat diet, 43% received fibrates, 27% fish oils, and 21% statins. Median fasting triglyceride levels (P25, P75) were 1985 (1179, 3047 mg/dL). Overall, 76% of patients reported ≥1 lifetime episode of acute pancreatitis; 23 patients reported a total of 53 pancreatitis events in the 5 years before enrollment.

CONCLUSIONS

Our data emphasize the severe hypertriglyceridemia characteristic of FCS patients despite restrictive low-fat diets and frequent use of existing hypolipemic therapies. Acute pancreatitis and recurrent acute pancreatitis are frequent complications of FCS. Diagnosis at an older age suggests likely underdiagnosis and underappreciation of this rare disorder.

Total Plasma Exchange in Hypertriglyceridemia-Induced Pancreatitis: Case Report and Literature Review

Objective

To emphasize the role of apheresis in management of pancreatitis.

Methods

The clinical course of a patient admitted for hypertriglyceridemia-induced pancreatitis (HTGP) complicated by multiorgan dysfunction is described, who demonstrated dramatic improvement in his clinical status after total plasma exchange (TPE). In addition, the current guidelines for TPE and the alternative treatment options for HTGP are also presented.

Results

A patient presenting with pancreatitis associated with severe systemic inflammatory response was admitted to our hospital with an initial triglyceride level of 1181 mg/dL. Given the patient's worsening clinical condition, he was started on TPE with a rapid fall in his serum TG levels, in turn leading to early clinical recovery.

Conclusion

Though various therapeutic options for the treatment of HTGP are described in literature, there are no set guidelines available to tackle this difficult clinical situation. TPE, albeit not very well known in this context, is one of the many therapies available. Though it leads to a rapid, precipitous fall in the TG levels and early symptom resolution, the data about the long-term morbidity as well as the effectiveness of this therapy is still lacking.