The anti-inflammatory effect of dimethyl trisulfide in experimental acute pancreatitis

Various organosulfur compounds, such as dimethyl trisulfide (DMTS), display anti-inflammatory properties. We aimed to examine the effects of DMTS on acute pancreatitis (AP) and its mechanism of action in both in vivo and in vitro studies. AP was induced in FVB/n mice or Wistar rats by caerulein, ethanol-palmitoleic acid, or L-ornithine-HCl. DMTS treatments were administered subcutaneously. AP severity was assessed by pancreatic histological scoring, pancreatic water content, and myeloperoxidase activity measurements. The behaviour of animals was followed. Pancreatic heat shock protein 72 (HSP72) expression, sulfide, and protein persulfidation were measured. In vitro acinar viability, intracellular Ca2+ concentration, and reactive oxygen species production were determined. DMTS dose-dependently decreased the severity of AP. It declined the pancreatic infiltration of leukocytes and cellular damage in mice. DMTS upregulated the HSP72 expression during AP and elevated serum sulfide and low molecular weight persulfide levels. DMTS exhibited cytoprotection against hydrogen peroxide and AP-inducing agents. It has antioxidant properties and modulates physiological but not pathophysiological Ca2+ signalling. Generally, DMTS ameliorated AP severity and protected pancreatic acinar cells. Our findings indicate that DMTS is a sulfur donor with anti-inflammatory and antioxidant effects, and organosulfur compounds require further investigation into this potentially lethal disease.

Mechanisms linking hypertriglyceridemia to acute pancreatitis

Hypertriglyceridemia (HTG) is a metabolic disorder, defined when serum or plasma triglyceride concentration (seTG) is >1.7 mM. HTG can be categorized as mild to very severe groups based on the seTG value. The risk of acute pancreatitis (AP), a serious disease with high mortality and without specific therapy, increases with the degree of HTG. Furthermore, even mild or moderate HTG aggravates AP initiated by other important etiological factors, including alcohol or bile stone. This review briefly summarizes the pathophysiology of HTG, the epidemiology of HTG-induced AP and the clinically observed effects of HTG on the outcomes of AP. Our main focus is to discuss the pathophysiological mechanisms linking HTG to AP. HTG is accompanied by an increased serum fatty acid (FA) concentration, and experimental results have demonstrated that these FAs have the most prominent role in causing the consequences of HTG during AP. FAs inhibit mitochondrial complexes in pancreatic acinar cells, induce pathological elevation of intracellular Ca²⁺ concentration, cytokine release and tissue injury, and reduce the function of pancreatic ducts. Furthermore, high FA concentrations can induce respiratory, kidney, and cardiovascular failure in AP. All these effects may contribute to the observed increased AP severity and frequent organ failure in patients. Importantly, experimental results suggest that the reduction of FA production by lipase inhibitors can open up new therapeutic options of AP. Overall, investigating the pathophysiology of HTG-induced AP or AP in the presence of HTG and determining possible treatments are needed.

Long-term prognostic value of left atrial longitudinal strain in a low-risk community-based cohort

 

Numerous studies established the significant predictive value of left ventricular (LV) global longitudinal strain (GLS) on adverse clinical outcomes in various cardiac diseases. Despite the well-known importance of left atrial (LA) mechanics in diastolic function, data are scarce regarding the prognostic power of LA longitudinal strain and its potential added value in the risk stratification of a low-risk population.

Accordingly, our aim was to determine the long-term prognostic importance of 2D speckle-tracking echocardiography-derived peak atrial longitudinal strain (PALS) in a community-based screening sample comprising of low-risk adult individuals.

Three hundred fourteen volunteers were retrospectively identified from a population-based screening program (mean age 62±11, 58% female) with a median follow-up of 9.5 years. All subjects who participated in the screening program underwent 2D echocardiography to measure LV volumes and ejection fraction (EF), LV GLS and PALS, as well as low-dose cardiac CT to determine the Agatston score. The primary endpoint was all-cause mortality.

Thirty-nine subjects (12.4%) met the primary endpoint. Subjects with adverse outcome had significantly decreased LV GLS (dead vs. alive; −19.2±4.3 vs. −20.6±3.5%, p<0.05) and PALS (32.3±12.0 vs. 41.8±14.2%, p<0.001), whereas LV EF did not show a difference between the two groups (51.1±7.0 vs. 52.1±6.2, %, p=NS). By multivariable Cox regression analysis, PALS (hazard ratio 0.970 [95% CI: 0.943–0.998], p<0.05) and Agatston score were independently associated with all-cause mortality, whereas GLS was not (hazard ratio 1.008 [95% CI, 0.919–1.105], p=NS). Furthermore, we dichotomised the population based on PALS values using a guideline-directed cut-off of 39%. In subjects with lower PALS values, the risk of all-cause mortality was almost 2.5 times higher than in subjects with PALS values above 39% (hazard ratio 2.499 [95% 1.334–4.682], p<0.05) as shown on the Kaplan-Meier curve (Figure 1).

Beyond the assessment of LV EF and LV GLS, PALS offers incremental value in cardiovascular risk stratification in a community-based cohort. PALS was found to be the only significant and independent predictor of long-term mortality among other echocardiographic functional parameters. Our results emphasize the importance of a thorough evaluation of LA mechanics even in a low-risk population.

Funding Acknowledgement

Type of funding sources: None.

Kynurenic Acid and Its Analogue SZR-72 Ameliorate the Severity of Experimental Acute Necrotizing Pancreatitis

The pathophysiology of acute pancreatitis (AP) is not well understood, and the disease does not have specific therapy. Tryptophan metabolite L-kynurenic acid (KYNA) and its synthetic analogue SZR-72 are antagonists of the N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor (NMDAR) and have immune modulatory roles in several inflammatory diseases. Our aims were to investigate the effects of KYNA and SZR-72 on experimental AP and to reveal their possible mode of action. AP was induced by intraperitoneal (i.p.) injection of L-ornithine-HCl (LO) in SPRD rats. Animals were pretreated with 75-300 mg/kg KYNA or SZR-72. Control animals were injected with physiological saline instead of LO, KYNA and/or SZR-72. Laboratory and histological parameters, as well as pancreatic and systemic circulation were measured to evaluate AP severity. Pancreatic heat shock protein-72 and IL-1β were measured by western blot and ELISA, respectively. Pancreatic expression of NMDAR1 was investigated by RT-PCR and immunohistochemistry. Viability of isolated pancreatic acinar cells in response to LO, KYNA, SZR-72 and/or NMDA administration was assessed by propidium-iodide assay. The effects of LO and/or SZR-72 on neutrophil granulocyte function was also studied. Almost all investigated laboratory and histological parameters of AP were significantly reduced by administration of 300 mg/kg KYNA or SZR-72, whereas the 150 mg/kg or 75 mg/kg doses were less or not effective, respectively. The decreased pancreatic microcirculation was also improved in the AP groups treated with 300 mg/kg KYNA or SZR-72. Interestingly, pancreatic heat shock protein-72 expression was significantly increased by administration of SZR-72, KYNA and/or LO. mRNA and protein expression of NMDAR1 was detected in pancreatic tissue. LO treatment caused acinar cell toxicity which was reversed by 250 µM KYNA or SZR-72. Treatment of acini with NMDA (25, 250, 2000 µM) did not influence the effects of KYNA or SZR-72. Moreover, SZR-72 reduced LO-induced H₂O₂ production of neutrophil granulocytes. KYNA and SZR-72 have dose-dependent protective effects on LO-induced AP or acinar toxicity which seem to be independent of pancreatic NMDA receptors. Furthermore, SZR-72 treatment suppressed AP-induced activation of neutrophil granulocytes. This study suggests that administration of KYNA and its derivative could be beneficial in AP.

Mislocalization of CFTR expression in acute pancreatitis and the beneficial effect of VX-661 + VX-770 treatment on disease severity

Cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator (CFTR) has an essential role in maintaining pancreatic ductal function. Impaired CFTR function can trigger acute pancreatitis (AP) and exacerbate disease severity. We aimed to investigate the localization and expression of CFTR during AP, and determined the effects of a CFTR corrector (VX-661) and potentiator (VX-770) on disease severity. AP was induced in FVB/n mice by 6-10 hourly intraperitoneal injections of 50 μg/kg cerulein. Some mice were pre-treated with five to six daily injections of 2 mg/kg VX-661 + VX-770. Control animals were administered physiological saline instead of cerulein and dimethyl sulfoxide instead of VX compounds. AP severity was determined by measuring laboratory and histological parameters; CFTR and CK19 expression was measured. Activity of ion transporters was followed by intracellular pH or fluid secretion measurement of isolated pancreatic intra-/interlobular ducts. Cerulein-induced AP severity was greatest between 12 and 24 h. CFTR mRNA expression was significantly increased 24 h after AP induction. Immunohistochemistry demonstrated disturbed staining morphology of CFTR and CK19 proteins in AP. Mislocalization of CFTR protein was observed from 6 h, while expression increased at 24 h compared to control. Ductal HCO₃ ^- transport activity was significantly increased 6 h after AP induction. AP mice pre-treatment with VX-661 + VX-770 significantly reduced the extent of tissue damage by about 20-30%, but other parameters were unchanged. Interestingly, VX-661 + VX-770 in vitro administration significantly increased the fluid secretion of ducts derived from AP animals. This study described the course of the CFTR expression and mislocalization in cerulein-induced AP. Our results suggest that the beneficial effects of CFTR correctors and potentiators should be further investigated in AP. KEY POINTS: Cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator (CFTR) is an important ion channel in epithelial cells. Its malfunction has several serious consequences, like developing or aggravating acute pancreatitis (AP). Here, the localization and expression of CFTR during cerulein-induced AP in mice were investigated and the effects of CFTR corrector (VX-661) and a potentiator (VX-770) on disease severity were determined. CFTR mRNA expression was significantly increased and mislocalization of CFTR protein was observed in AP compared to the control group. Interestingly, pre-treatment of AP mice with VX-661 + VX-770 significantly reduced the extent of pancreatic tissue damage by 20-30%. In vitro administration of VX-661 + VX-770 significantly increased the fluid secretion of ducts derived from AP animals. Based on these results, the utilization of CFTR correctors and potentiators should be further investigated in AP.

Collaborative study for the validation of cell line assays for in-process toxicity and antigenicity testing of Clostridium septicum vaccine antigens - Part 2: Optimisation of cell line assays

During the production of clostridial vaccines large numbers of mice are used for various in-process control tests. Replacement in vitro assays had been developed for the testing of the toxins and toxoids of several clostridial species, but none of these assays had been assessed in an international collaborative study. Under the common aegis of the European Partnership for Alternative Approaches to Animal Testing (EPAA) and of the European Directorate for the Quality of Medicines & HealthCare (EDQM), a project on clostridial vaccines for veterinary use was started as part of the EDQM-co-ordinated Biological Standardisation Programme (BSP). Within the framework of this project (coded BSP130) a collaborative study was organised to evaluate Vero cell-based alternative methods to the current mouse tests used to measure: i) the toxicity of Clostridium septicum toxin, ii) the absence of toxicity of C. septicum toxoid and iii) the antigenicity of C. septicum toxoid. The principal aims of the study were to determine the repeatability and reproducibility of the in vitro assays and to demonstrate concordance of the in vitro and current in vivo tests. The study results demonstrated good concordance, but the information gathered through the study (later on called Part 1) and the participants' workshop prompted the extension of the project in order to further optimise the in vitro protocols and improve their repeatability and reproducibility, which were comparable to but not better than those of the in vivo assays in Part 1. The 3 in vitro assays to be optimised in the extension of the BSP130 project were : i) the in vitro toxin neutralisation equivalence plus (TNE+), as a replacement for the in vivo minimum lethal dose (MLD) test for quantification of the toxicity of toxin; ii) the in vitro MLD, as a replacement for the in vivo MLD test for detection of residual toxicity associated with toxoid; iii) the in vitro total combining power (TCP), as a replacement for the in vivo TCP test for quantification of the antigenicity of toxoid. At this point, the Analytical Method Transfer Laboratory of Ceva-Phylaxia (Hungary), supported by the project management team, developed suitable SOPs for the 3 in vitro assays. These optimised methods were further assessed in BSP130 through a second international collaborative study (Part 2) aimed at defining repeatability and reproducibility in different laboratories and determining the levels of improvement compared with the original in vivo tests and the initial in vitro assays used in Part 1 of the project. Fourteen laboratories, comprising 4 public sector and 10 manufacturers' medicines control laboratories, from 11 countries participated in the collaborative Part 2 study, each testing 6 different C. septicum toxins and 6 C. septicum toxoids. Improved repeatability and reproducibility were observed for the optimised assays. The results of this study confirm the suitability of these assays for in-process control of C. septicum vaccines, with better repeatability and reproducibility than their in vivo equivalents. It is expected that, with appropriate minor changes and the use of relevant reagents, these optimised in vitro assays could be used not only for the assessment of C. septicum toxins and toxoids but for all cytotoxin-based clostridial antigens. The development and implementation of such in vitro assays would offer a great opportunity to significantly reduce animal usage, shorten the duration of QC test procedures and increase the precision of toxicity and antigenicity assays in clostridial veterinary vaccine in-process control. This would also provide more accurate and reproducible dosing of antigens in the final vaccine products, help to promote compendial acceptance and to proffer a basis for improved international harmonisation across this area of product testing.

Assessment of the course of acute pancreatitis in the light of aetiology: a systematic review and meta-analysis

The main causes of acute pancreatitis (AP) are biliary disease, alcohol consumption, hypertriglyceridaemia (HTG) and endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography (ERCP). The aim of this meta-analysis was to evaluate the effects of these aetiological factors on the severity and outcome of AP. Pubmed and Embase were searched between 01/01/2012 and 31/05/2020. Included articles involved adult alcoholic, biliary, HTG- or post-ERCP AP (PAP) patients. Primary outcome was severity, secondary outcomes were organ failures, intensive care unit admission, recurrence rate, pancreatic necrosis, mortality, length of hospital stay, pseudocyst, fluid collection and systematic inflammatory response syndrome. Data were analysed from 127 eligible studies. The risk for non-mild (moderately severe and severe) condition was the highest in HTG-induced AP (HTG-AP) followed by alcoholic AP (AAP), biliary AP (BAP) and PAP. Recurrence rate was significantly lower among BAP vs. HTG-AP or AAP patients (OR = 2.69 and 2.98, 95% CI 1.55–4.65 and 2.22–4.01, respectively). Mortality rate was significantly greater in HTG-AP vs. AAP or BAP (OR = 1.72 and 1.50, 95% CI 1.04–2.84 and 0.96–2.35, respectively), pancreatic necrosis occurred more frequently in AAP than BAP patients (OR = 1.58, 95% CI 1.08–2.30). Overall, there is a potential association between aetiology and the development and course of AP. HTG-AP is associated with the highest number of complications. Furthermore, AAP is likely to be more severe than BAP or PAP. Greater emphasis should be placed on determining aetiology on admission.

The Effect of Sodium Bicarbonate, a Beneficial Adjuvant Molecule in Cystic Fibrosis, on Bronchial Epithelial Cells Expressing a Wild-Type or Mutant CFTR Channel

Clinical and experimental results with inhaled sodium bicarbonate as an adjuvant therapy in cystic fibrosis (CF) are promising due to its mucolytic and bacteriostatic properties, but its direct effect has not been studied on respiratory epithelial cells. Our aim was to establish and characterize co-culture models of human CF bronchial epithelial (CFBE) cell lines expressing a wild-type (WT) or mutant (deltaF508) CF transmembrane conductance regulator (CFTR) channel with human vascular endothelial cells and investigate the effects of bicarbonate. Vascular endothelial cells induced better barrier properties in CFBE cells as reflected by the higher resistance and lower permeability values. Activation of CFTR by cAMP decreased the electrical resistance in WT but not in mutant CFBE cell layers confirming the presence and absence of functional channels, respectively. Sodium bicarbonate (100 mM) was well-tolerated by CFBE cells: it slightly reduced the impedance of WT but not that of the mutant CFBE cells. Sodium bicarbonate significantly decreased the more-alkaline intracellular pH of the mutant CFBE cells, while the barrier properties of the models were only minimally changed. These observations indicate that sodium bicarbonate is beneficial to deltaF508-CFTR expressing CFBE cells. Thus, sodium bicarbonate may have a direct therapeutic effect on the bronchial epithelium.

Fungal Planet description sheets: 951-1041

Novel species of fungi described in this study include those from various countries as follows: Antarctica, Apenidiella antarctica from permafrost, Cladosporium fildesense from an unidentified marine sponge. Argentina, Geastrum wrightii on humus in mixed forest. Australia, Golovinomyces glandulariae on Glandularia aristigera, Neoanungitea eucalyptorum on leaves of Eucalyptus grandis, Teratosphaeria corymbiicola on leaves of Corymbia ficifolia, Xylaria eucalypti on leaves of Eucalyptus radiata. Brazil, Bovista psammophila on soil, Fusarium awaxy on rotten stalks of Zea mays, Geastrum lanuginosum on leaf litter covered soil, Hermetothecium mikaniae-micranthae (incl. Hermetothecium gen. nov.) on Mikania micrantha, Penicillium reconvexovelosoi in soil, Stagonosporopsis vannaccii from pod of Glycine max. British Virgin Isles, Lactifluus guanensis on soil. Canada, Sorocybe oblongispora on resin of Picea rubens. Chile, Colletotrichum roseum on leaves of Lapageria rosea. China, Setophoma caverna from carbonatite in Karst cave. Colombia, Lareunionomyces eucalypticola on leaves of Eucalyptus grandis. Costa Rica, Psathyrella pivae on wood. Cyprus, Clavulina iris on calcareous substrate. France, Chromosera ambigua and Clavulina iris var. occidentalis on soil. French West Indies, Helminthosphaeria hispidissima on dead wood. Guatemala, Talaromyces guatemalensis in soil. Malaysia, Neotracylla pini (incl. Tracyllales ord. nov. and Neotracylla gen. nov.) and Vermiculariopsiella pini on needles of Pinus tecunumanii. New Zealand, Neoconiothyrium viticola on stems of Vitis vinifera, Parafenestella pittospori on Pittosporum tenuifolium, Pilidium novae-zelandiae on Phoenix sp. Pakistan, Russula quercus-floribundae on forest floor. Portugal, Trichoderma aestuarinum from saline water. Russia, Pluteus liliputianus on fallen branch of deciduous tree, Pluteus spurius on decaying deciduous wood or soil. South Africa, Alloconiothyrium encephalarti, Phyllosticta encephalarticola and Neothyrostroma encephalarti (incl. Neothyrostroma gen. nov.) on leaves of Encephalartos sp., Chalara eucalypticola on leaf spots of Eucalyptus grandis × urophylla, Clypeosphaeria oleae on leaves of Olea capensis, Cylindrocladiella postalofficium on leaf litter of Sideroxylon inerme, Cylindromonium eugeniicola (incl. Cylindromonium gen. nov.) on leaf litter of Eugenia capensis, Cyphellophora goniomatis on leaves of Gonioma kamassi, Nothodactylaria nephrolepidis (incl. Nothodactylaria gen. nov. and Nothodactylariaceae fam. nov.) on leaves of Nephrolepis exaltata, Falcocladium eucalypti and Gyrothrix eucalypti on leaves of Eucalyptus sp., Gyrothrix oleae on leaves of Olea capensis subsp. macrocarpa, Harzia metrosideri on leaf litter of Metrosideros sp., Hippopotamyces phragmitis (incl. Hippopotamyces gen. nov.) on leaves of Phragmites australis, Lectera philenopterae on Philenoptera violacea, Leptosillia mayteni on leaves of Maytenus heterophylla, Lithohypha aloicola and Neoplatysporoides aloes on leaves of Aloe sp., Millesimomyces rhoicissi (incl. Millesimomyces gen. nov.) on leaves of Rhoicissus digitata, Neodevriesia strelitziicola on leaf litter of Strelitzia nicolai, Neokirramyces syzygii (incl. Neokirramyces gen. nov.) on leaf spots of Syzygium sp., Nothoramichloridium perseae (incl. Nothoramichloridium gen. nov. and Anungitiomycetaceae fam. nov.) on leaves of Persea americana, Paramycosphaerella watsoniae on leaf spots of Watsonia sp., Penicillium cuddlyae from dog food, Podocarpomyces knysnanus (incl. Podocarpomyces gen. nov.) on leaves of Podocarpus falcatus, Pseudocercospora heteropyxidicola on leaf spots of Heteropyxis natalensis, Pseudopenidiella podocarpi, Scolecobasidium podocarpi and Ceramothyrium podocarpicola on leaves of Podocarpus latifolius, Scolecobasidium blechni on leaves of Blechnum capense, Stomiopeltis syzygii on leaves of Syzygium chordatum, Strelitziomyces knysnanus (incl. Strelitziomyces gen. nov.) on leaves of Strelitzia alba, Talaromyces clemensii from rotting wood in goldmine, Verrucocladosporium visseri on Carpobrotus edulis. Spain, Boletopsis mediterraneensis on soil, Calycina cortegadensisi on a living twig of Castanea sativa, Emmonsiellopsis tuberculata in fluvial sediments, Mollisia cortegadensis on dead attached twig of Quercus robur, Psathyrella ovispora on soil, Pseudobeltrania lauri on leaf litter of Laurus azorica, Terfezia dunensis in soil, Tuber lucentum in soil, Venturia submersa on submerged plant debris. Thailand, Cordyceps jakajanicola on cicada nymph, Cordyceps kuiburiensis on spider, Distoseptispora caricis on leaves of Carex sp., Ophiocordyceps khonkaenensis on cicada nymph. USA, Cytosporella juncicola and Davidiellomyces juncicola on culms of Juncus effusus, Monochaetia massachusettsianum from air sample, Neohelicomyces melaleucae and Periconia neobrittanica on leaves of Melaleuca styphelioides × lanceolata, Pseudocamarosporium eucalypti on leaves of Eucalyptus sp., Pseudogymnoascus lindneri from sediment in a mine, Pseudogymnoascus turneri from sediment in a railroad tunnel, Pulchroboletus sclerotiorum on soil, Zygosporium pseudomasonii on leaf of Serenoa repens. Vietnam, Boletus candidissimus and Veloporphyrellus vulpinus on soil. Morphological and culture characteristics are supported by DNA barcodes.

The effect of serum triglyceride concentration on the outcome of acute pancreatitis: systematic review and meta-analysis

Elevated serum triglyceride concentration (seTG, >1.7 mM or >150 mg/dL) or in other words hypertriglyceridemia (HTG) is common in the populations of developed countries. This condition is accompanied by an increased risk for various diseases, such as acute pancreatitis (AP). It has been proposed that HTG could also worsen the course of AP. Therefore, in this meta-analysis, we aimed to compare the effects of various seTGs on the severity, mortality, local and systemic complications of AP, and on intensive care unit admission. 16 eligible studies, including 11,965 patients were retrieved from PubMed and Embase. The results showed that HTG significantly elevated the odds ratio (OR = 1.72) for severe AP when compared to patients with normal seTG (<1.7 mM). Furthermore, a significantly higher occurrence of pancreatic necrosis, persistent organ failure and renal failure was observed in groups with HTG. The rates of complications and mortality for AP were significantly increased in patients with seTG >5.6 mM or >11.3 mM versus <5.6 mM or <11.3 mM, respectively. We conclude that the presence of HTG worsens the course and outcome of AP, but we found no significant difference in AP severity based on the extent of HTG.

From the Cover: In Vitro and In Vivo Blood-Brain Barrier Penetration Studies with the Novel Cyanide Antidote Candidate Dimethyl Trisulfide in Mice

Recent in vitro and in vivo studies highlight the strong potential of dimethyl trisulfide (DMTS) as an antidote for cyanide (CN) intoxication. Due to its high oxygen demand, the brain is one of the main target organs of CN. The blood-brain barrier (BBB) regulates the uptake of molecules into the brain. In the literature, there is no data about the ability of DMTS to penetrate the BBB. Therefore, our aim was to test the in vitro BBB penetration of DMTS and its in vivo pharmacokinetics in blood and brain. The in vitro BBB penetration of DMTS was measured by using a parallel artificial membrane permeability assay (BBB-PAMPA), and a triple BBB co-culture model. The pharmacokinetics was investigated in a mouse model by following the DMTS concentration in blood and brain at regular time intervals following intramuscular administration. DMTS showed high penetrability in both in vitro systems (apparent permeability coefficients: BBB-PAMPA 11.8 × 10-6 cm/s; cell culture 158 × 10-6 cm/s) without causing cell toxicity and leaving the cellular barrier intact. DMTS immediately absorbed into the blood after the intramuscular injection (5 min), and rapidly penetrated the brain of mice (10 min). In addition to the observed passive diffusion in the in vitro studies, the contribution of facilitated and/or active transport to the measured high permeability of DMTS in the pharmacokinetic studies can be hypothesized. Earlier investigations demonstrating the antidotal efficacy of DMTS against CN together with the present results highlight the promise of DMTS as a brain-protective CN antidote.

Niosomes decorated with dual ligands targeting brain endothelial transporters increase cargo penetration across the blood-brain barrier

Nanoparticles targeting transporters of the blood-brain barrier (BBB) are promising candidates to increase the brain penetration of biopharmacons. Solute carriers (SLC) are expressed at high levels in brain endothelial cells and show a specific pattern at the BBB. The aim of our study was to test glutathione and ligands of SLC transporters as single or dual BBB targeting molecules for nanovesicles. High mRNA expression levels for hexose and neutral amino acid transporting SLCs were found in isolated rat brain microvessels and our rat primary cell based co-culture BBB model. Niosomes were derivatized with glutathione and SLC ligands glucopyranose and alanine. Serum albumin complexed with Evans blue (67 kDa), which has a very low BBB penetration, was selected as a cargo. The presence of targeting ligands on niosomes, especially dual labeling, increased the uptake of the cargo molecule in cultured brain endothelial cells. This cellular uptake was temperature dependent and could be decreased with a metabolic inhibitor and endocytosis blockers filipin and cytochalasin D. Making the negative surface charge of brain endothelial cells more positive with a cationic lipid or digesting the glycocalyx with neuraminidase elevated the uptake of the cargo after treatment with targeted nanocarriers. Treatment with niosomes increased plasma membrane fluidity, suggesting the fusion of nanovesicles with endothelial cell membranes. Targeting ligands elevated the permeability of the cargo across the BBB in the culture model and in mice, and dual-ligand decoration of niosomes was more effective than single ligand labeling. Our data indicate that dual labeling with ligands of multiple SLC transporters can potentially be exploited for BBB targeting of nanoparticles.

Method development for detecting the novel cyanide antidote dimethyl trisulfide from blood and brain, and its interaction with blood

The antidotal potency of dimethyl trisulfide (DMTS) against cyanide poisoning was discovered and investigated in our previous studies. Based on our results it has better efficacy than the Cyanokit and the Nithiodote therapies that are presently used against cyanide intoxication in the US. Because of their absence in the literature, the goal of this work was to develop analytical methods for determining DMTS from blood and brain that could be employed in future pharmacokinetic studies. An HPLC-UV method for detection of DMTS from blood, a GC-MS method for detection of DMTS from brain, and associated validation experiments are described here. These analytical methods were developed using in vitro spiking of brain and blood, and are suitable for determining the in vivo DMTS concentrations in blood and brain in future pharmacokinetic and distribution studies. An important phenomenon was observed in the process of developing these methods. Specifically, recoveries from fresh blood spiked with DMTS were found to be significantly lower than recoveries from aged blood spiked in the same manner with DMTS. This decreased DMTS recovery from fresh blood is important, both because of the role it may play in the antidotal action of DMTS in the presence of cyanide, and because it adds the requirement of sample stabilization to the method development process. Mitigation procedures for stabilizing DMTS samples in blood are reported.

Cytotoxicity of Different Excipients on RPMI 2650 Human Nasal Epithelial Cells

The nasal route receives a great deal of attention as a non-invasive method for the systemic administration of drugs. For nasal delivery, specific formulations containing excipients are used. Because of the sensitive respiratory mucosa, not only the active ingredients, but also additives need to be tested in appropriate models for toxicity. The aim of the study was to measure the cytotoxicity of six pharmaceutical excipients, which could help to reach larger residence time, better permeability, and increased solubility dissolution rate. The following excipients were investigated on RPMI 2650 human nasal septum tumor epithelial cells: β-d-mannitol, sodium hyaluronate, α and β-cyclodextrin, polyvinyl alcohol and methylcellulose. 3-(4,5-dimethyltiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide (MTT) dye conversion assay and real-time impedance analysis were used to investigate cytotoxicity. No excipient showed toxicity at 0.3% (w/v) concentration or below while 1% concentration a significantly reduced metabolic activity was measured by MTT assay for methylcellulose and cyclodextrins. Using impedance measurements, only β-cyclodextrin (1%) was toxic to cells. Mannitol at 1% concentration had a barrier opening effect on epithelial cells, but caused no cellular damage. Based on the results, all additives at 0.3%, sodium hyaluronate and polyvinyl alcohol at 1% concentrations can be safely used for nasal formulations.

Restraint Stress-Induced Morphological Changes at the Blood-Brain Barrier in Adult Rats

Stress is well-known to contribute to the development of both neurological and psychiatric diseases. While the role of the blood-brain barrier is increasingly recognized in the development of neurodegenerative disorders, such as Alzheimer's disease, dysfunction of the blood-brain barrier has been linked to stress-related psychiatric diseases only recently. In the present study the effects of restraint stress with different duration (1, 3, and 21 days) were investigated on the morphology of the blood-brain barrier in male adult Wistar rats. Frontal cortex and hippocampus sections were immunostained for markers of brain endothelial cells (claudin-5, occluding, and glucose transporter-1) and astroglia (GFAP). Staining pattern and intensity were visualized by confocal microscopy and evaluated by several types of image analysis. The ultrastructure of brain capillaries was investigated by electron microscopy. Morphological changes and intensity alterations in brain endothelial tight junction proteins claudin-5 and occludin were induced by stress. Following restraint stress significant increases in the fluorescence intensity of glucose transporter-1 were detected in brain endothelial cells in the frontal cortex and hippocampus. Significant reductions in GFAP fluorescence intensity were observed in the frontal cortex in all stress groups. As observed by electron microscopy, 1-day acute stress induced morphological changes indicating damage in capillary endothelial cells in both brain regions. After 21 days of stress thicker and irregular capillary basal membranes in the hippocampus and edema in astrocytes in both regions were seen. These findings indicate that stress exerts time-dependent changes in the staining pattern of tight junction proteins occludin, claudin-5, and glucose transporter-1 at the level of brain capillaries and in the ultrastructure of brain endothelial cells and astroglial endfeet, which may contribute to neurodegenerative processes, cognitive and behavioral dysfunctions.

Preparation and investigation of mefenamic acid - polyethylene glycol - sucrose ester solid dispersions

Mefenamic acid (MA) is a widely used non-steroidal antiinflammatory (NSAID) drug. The adverse effects typical of NSAIDs are also present in the case of MA, partly due to its low water solubility. The aim of this study was to increase the water solubility of MA in order to influence its absorption and bioavailability. Solid dispersions of MA were prepared by the melting method using polyethylene glycol 6000 and different types (laurate, D-1216; palmitate, P-1670; stearate, S-1670) and amounts of sucrose esters as carriers. The X-ray diffraction results show that MA crystals were not present in the products. Dissolution tests carried out in artificial intestinal juice showed that the product containing 10 % D-1216 increased water solubility about 3 times. The apparent permeability coefficient of MA across human Caco-2 intestinal epithelial cell layers was high and, despite the difference in solubility, there was no further increase in drug penetration in the presence of the applied additives.

Supermacroporous chemically cross-linked poly(aspartic acid) hydrogels

Chemically cross-linked poly(aspartic acid) (PASP) gels were prepared by a solid-liquid phase separation technique, cryogelation, to achieve a supermacroporous interconnected pore structure. The precursor polymer of PASP, polysuccinimide (PSI) was cross-linked below the freezing point of the solvent and the forming crystals acted as templates for the pores. Dimethyl sulfoxide was chosen as solvent instead of the more commonly used water. Thus larger temperatures could be utilized for the preparation and the drawback of increase in specific volume of water upon freezing could be eliminated. The morphology of the hydrogels was characterized by scanning electron microscopy and interconnectivity of the pores was proven by the small flow resistance of the gels. Compression tests also confirmed the interconnected porous structure and the complete re-swelling and shape recovery of the supermacroporous PASP hydrogels. The prepared hydrogels are of interest for several biomedical applications as scaffolding materials because of their cytocompatibility, controllable morphology and pH-responsive character.

A hyperparasite affects the population dynamics of a wild plant pathogen

Assessing the impact of natural enemies of plant and animal pathogens on their host's population dynamics is needed to determine the role of hyperparasites in affecting disease dynamics, and their potential for use in efficient control strategies of pathogens. Here, we focus on the long-term study describing metapopulation dynamics of an obligate pathogen, the powdery mildew (Podosphaera plantaginis) naturally infecting its wild host plant (Plantago lanceolata) in the fragmented landscape of the Åland archipelago (southwest Finland). Regionally, the pathogen persists through a balance of extinctions and colonizations, yet factors affecting extinction rates remain poorly understood. Mycoparasites of the genus Ampelomyces appear as good candidates for testing the role of a hyperparasite, i.e. a parasite of other parasites, in the regulation of their fungal hosts' population dynamics. For this purpose, we first designed a quantitative PCR assay for detection of Ampelomyces spp. in field-collected samples. This newly developed molecular test was then applied to a large-scale sampling within the Åland archipelago, revealing that Ampelomyces is a widespread hyperparasite in this system, with high variability in prevalence among populations. We found that the hyperparasite was more common on leaves where multiple powdery mildew strains coexist, a pattern that may be attributed to differential exposure. Moreover, the prevalence of Ampelomyces at the plant level negatively affected the overwinter survival of its fungal host. We conclude that this hyperparasite may likely impact on its host population dynamics and argue for increased focus on the role of hyperparasites in disease dynamics.

Surgical strategies in severe acute pancreatitis (SAP): indications, complications and surgical approaches

BACKGROUND

Severe acute pancreatitis (SAP) is still related to high mortality rates. This study evaluated the various surgical strategies for treatment of suspected infected necroziting pancreatitis (INP).

METHODS

This retrospective study included 212 patients with SAP and INP, who had surgical treatment during the period between January 2000 - December 2012 at the Ist Surgical Clinic. Surgical approaches included laparostomy with continous postoperative retropancreatic lavage, open abdomen strategy, laparotomy with primary abdominal closure accompanied or not by laparostomy (marsupialization), retroperiostomy with retroperitoneal lavage.

RESULTS

The overall mortality rate was 34.0 percent, with 24 percent in laparotomy with continous retropancreatic lavage,11 percent for retroperitoneostomy and retroperitoneal continous lavage, 71 percent for the open abdomen strategy,and 43 percent for laparotomy with closed abdomen(p 0.001). Acute operations, alcoholic origin, Apache II scores of ‰¥10 organ dysfunction on admission were independent factors that predisposed patients to complications.Colonic necrosis with high mortality rates (53 percent), however seemed to be of prognostic relevance.

CONCLUSIONS

The conservative approach in severe acutepancreatitis is a promising therapeutic concept. Delaying surgery up to the third week after onset of disease significantly improves the patients€™ survival. Complications are common in severe necrotizing pancreatitis leading to organ failure and need for acute operations. Colonic necros is is an independent prognostic factor for survival.

A COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF FIRST DAY NEONATAL MORTALITY BETWEEN ADOLESCENTS AND ADULT FEMALES GIVING BIRTH AT LIGULA HOSPITAL IN MTWARA, SOUTH EASTERN TANZANIA 2008-2009

OBJECTIVE

Compare first day neonatal mortality between adolescents and adults delivering at the main referral hospital in Mtwara, Tanzania

DESIGN

Cross-sectional chart review

SETTING

The study was conducted at the main referral hospital in Mtwara, Tanzania. Rates of adolescent pregnancy at the hospital were 15.5% in 2009 and 14.3% in 2010 SUBJECTS: A total of 450 adolescent and adult females delivering at Ligula Hospital between 2008 and 2009 were included in the study.

OUTCOME MEASURES

First day neonatal mortality between adolescents and adults was the primary outcome. Secondary outcomes included neonatal birth weight, parity, gravidity, prematurity, HIV and neonates delivered.

RESULTS

First day neonatal mortality was 5.56%. Birth weight was the only risk factor significantly associated with neonatal mortality

CONCLUSION

Younger women have predisposal to neonatal mortality due to underlying causal mechanisms. In order to validate the results of this study, further research on risk and causes of first day neonatal mortality at facilities is warranted.

Transthoracic versus Transhiatal esophagectomy: a permanent dilemma. our 15-year experience

OBJECTIVE

Controversy still exists regarding the optimal surgical management of esophageal cancer. This study was performed to determine and compare early and late morbidity,mortality and overall survival after transthoracic (TTE) and transhiatal esophagectomies (THE).

METHODS

Between 1997-2011, 100 patients underwent TTE or THE for squamous esophageal carcinoma (90 patients)and adenocarcinoma (10 patients). Assessed parameters included patient demographics, operative data, pathology results, postoperative morbidity and mortality and 1-3 year survival.

RESULTS

Thoracic approach was preferred in cases of more advanced tumors, located in the upper and mid-third of the esophagus, in patients with a better cardiopulmonary status. Perioperative blood loss was significantly higher after transthoracic resections (p=0.0004) and these surgeries took significantly longer than transhiatal esophagectomies(p=0.02). We identified complications in 70.7% patients who under went TTE and in 59.3% patients with transhiatal approach. Respiratory complications were statistically significant in the TTE- group (p-0.0003). The 30-day mortality rates were 12.2% for patients in TTE group and 10.1% in THE patients group, respectively. The mortality ratefor the entire period of the study has been calculated at 84.4%.We have identified a survival rate after 1 year of 62.2%, after 2 years of 39.3% and after 3 years - 15.1%.

CONCLUSIONS

According to the results of this study, both procedures appear to be acceptable depending on surgeon preference and appropriate patient selection.

Intraosseous structural graft technique: a new surgical concept in the treatment of superolateral defects in case of dysplastic acetabulum, during hip replacement surgery biomechanical and cadaver experimentations

PURPOSE

The replacement of the dysplastic hip, despite the numerous available surgical techniques, is not entirely solved. One of the reasons for this is the relative lack of bone in the acetabulum. In this study, we present a new concept (intraosseous structural graft technique), with the aim to improve the primary stability and biological environment of the graft.

METHODS

During the procedure in the cranial quadrant of the acetabulum, a proximally hinged cortico-spongious plate is fashioned that is opened laterally and a wedge-shaped graft made from the femoral head is impacted. The precisely fitted graft has good primary rotational and cranial stability which is further improved by a bicortical screw.

RESULTS

The hypothesis is supported by examination on 3D models. Cadaver experimentations were performed on 19 hips of 10 cadavers, and stability testing was done on a further 20 hips of 10 cadavers with a material testing apparatus. Also the analysis of the biological and mechanical properties of the graft and the implant were examined.

CONCLUSION

Based on our results, it can be concluded that our technique provides good primary stability with a more favorable biological condition for bony incorporation compared to other bulk bone graft techniques.

Efficient continuous-flow synthesis of novel 1,2,3-triazole-substituted β-aminocyclohexanecarboxylic acid derivatives with gram-scale production

The preparation of novel multi-substituted 1,2,3-triazole-modified β-aminocyclohexanecarboxylic acid derivatives in a simple and efficient continuous-flow procedure is reported. The 1,3-dipolar cycloaddition reactions were performed with copper powder as a readily accessible Cu(I) source. Initially, high reaction rates were achieved under high-pressure/high-temperature conditions. Subsequently, the reaction temperature was lowered to room temperature by the joint use of both basic and acidic additives to improve the safety of the synthesis, as azides were to be handled as unstable reactants. Scale-up experiments were also performed, which led to the achievement of gram-scale production in a safe and straightforward way. The obtained 1,2,3-triazole-substituted β-aminocyclohexanecarboxylates can be regarded as interesting precursors for drugs with possible biological effects.

Alkyne-azide cycloadditions with copper powder in a high-pressure continuous-flow reactor: high-temperature conditions versus the role of additives

A safe and efficient flow-chemistry-based procedure is presented for 1,3-dipolar cycloaddition reactions between organic azides and acetylenes. This simple and inexpensive technique eliminates the need for costly special apparatus and utilizes Cu powder as a plausible Cu(I) source. To maximize the reaction rates, high-pressure/high-temperature conditions are utilized; alternatively, the harsh reaction conditions can be moderated at room temperature by the joint application of basic and acidic additives. A comparison of the performance of these two approaches in a series of model reactions has resulted in the formation of useful 1,4-disubstituted 1,2,3-triazoles in excellent yields. The risks that are associated with the handling of azides are lowered, thanks to the benefits of flow processing, and gram-scale production has been safely implemented. The synthetic capability of this continuous-flow technique is demonstrated by the efficient syntheses of some highly functionalized derivatives of the antifungal cispentacin.

Reverse-mode NCX current in mouse airway smooth muscle: Na(+) and voltage dependence, contributions to Ca(2+) influx and contraction, and altered expression in a model of allergen-induced hyperresponsiveness

AIM

We examined the electrophysiological properties of reverse-mode Na(+) /Ca(2+) exchange (NCX) in mouse airway smooth muscle (ASM), assessing its contributions to regulation of [Ca(2+) ], and its expression in acute and chronic airway hyperresponsiveness (AHR).

METHODS

Membrane currents were studied in single murine ASM cells under voltage clamp at -60 mV using ramp depolarizing commands to +80 mV. Confocal fluorimetric and RT-PCR techniques were used to monitor changes in cytosolic [Ca(2+) ] and NCX expression, respectively.

RESULTS

With standard KCl-containing electrode, 30 μm KB-R7943 (an inhibitor of reverse-mode NCX activity) exhibited variable effects on membrane current, indicating modulation of more than one conductance. KB-R7943 activated outwardly rectifying current that was inhibited by 100 μm iberiotoxin (blocker of large-conductance Ca(2+) -dependent K(+) channels), indicating a direct enhancing effect of KB-R7943 on those K(+) channels. After obviating K(+) currents, we found that a current sensitive to 4-4'-diisothiocyanostilbene-2,2'-disulfonic acid (blocker of Ca(2+) -dependent Cl- channels) was markedly increased by elevating [Na(+) ] in the electrode solution to 13, 15.5 and 18 mm and suppressed by KB-R7943, indicating Ca(2+) influx via reverse-mode NCX activity. With conditions preventing Ca(2+) influx through voltage-dependent Ca(2+) channels but promoting that through NCX, we found that introduction of Ca(2+) led to marked but transient KB-R7943-sensitive elevation of [Ca(2+) ]. Additionally, KB-R7943 suppressed cholinergically evoked Ca(2+) waves. Finally, NCX1 expression was not significantly changed in allergen-induced AHR acute model but increased approx. 2.5-fold in a chronic model.

CONCLUSION

Reverse-mode NCX activity leads to a physiologically relevant increase in [Ca(2+) ] even under control conditions, and this may be exaggerated in allergen-induced AHR and asthma.

Role of Ca²+-sensitive K+ currents in controlling ventricular repolarization: possible implications for future antiarrhytmic drug therapy

Normal heart function and repolarization of the cardiac action potential (AP) is to a high extent subjective to synchronized activity of sarcolemmal K(+) channels, expressed in both ventricular and atrial myocardium, largely contributing to regulation of the resting potential, the pacemaker activity, and the shape and duration of the AP. Clinical observations and experimental studies in cardiomyocytes and multicellular preparations provided firm evidence for the sensitivity of some major outward K+ currents and the corresponding ion channels to shifts in intracellular Ca(2+) concentration ([Ca(2+)](i)). Direct regulation via interaction between [Ca(2+ )](i) and the channel protein or indirect modulation via Ca(2+ ) signaling pathways of these currents have strong implications to mechanical and electrical performance of the heart, and its physiological adaptation to altered load. It may also lead to severe cardiac dysfunction, if [Ca(2+ )](i) handling is disturbed in a variety of pathological conditions. In this review we attempt to summarize the present state of the topic on two ubiquitous repolarizing K(+) currents (I(to1) and I(K1)) with documented Ca(2+)-sensitivity and critical significance in cellular antiarrhythmic defense, to highlight fields where clue data are missing, and discuss the apparently unsolved "mystery" of the cardiac small conductance Ca(2+ )-activated K(+ ) (SK) channels. We have collected the available information on the known novel, although usually still not enough selective inhibitors and activators of these currents justifying the need for more selective ones. Finally, we emphasize a few related therapeutical perspectives to be considered for future experimental research and particularly in pharmaceutical development.

Pathological evidence in support of total mesorectal excision in the management of rectal cancer

BACKGROUND

Pelvic recurrence following conventional rectal resection for cancer is common. Preoperative iradiation has been shown in prospective randomized studies to halve this risk.

AIM

This multiinstitutional study aimed to assess the necesity of total mesorectal excision in rectal cancer.

PATIENTS AND METHOD

Pathological resections from 50 consecutive patients with adenocarcinoma of the rectum within 12 cm of the anal verge who underwent currative resection incorporating total mesorectal excision were examined. The resection specimen was examined by one of two pathologists. Some 50 total mesorectal excision specimens were examined following rectal excision for cancer. Some 38 had total mesorectal excision as a component of a low anterior resection and 12 with abdomino-perineal resection. "Cure" was defined as absence of metastatic disease and the excision of entire macroscopic tumor tissue with negative proximal and distal borders. TME was performed as described by Heald et al. The mesorectum was evaluated for lymph nodes and tumor deposists in three areas: deep to the tumor, in the proximal mesorectum and in the distal mesorectum.

RESULTS

Six patients had Dukes A lesions. Of 21 patients with Dukes B tumors, five had discrete foci of adenocarcinoma in the mesorectum, with no evidence of lymph node metastasis. Dukes C lesions were more heterogeneous, but 12 out of 23 patients had distinct mesorectal deposists in addition to mesorectal node involvement. Circumferential margin involvement was rare, but mesorectal tumor deposits were present in 17 of 44 patients with pT3 tumors, and 23 of 44 had mesorectal nodal involvement. No patient with a pT2 tumor had mesorectal involvement. Failure to excise the mesorectum completely has the potential to leave gross or microscopic residual disease that may in theory predispose to local failure.

CONCLUSION

Total mesorectal excision is necessary to avoid incomplete pathological evaluation of the mesorectum and understaging of rectal cancer.

First Report of Oidium longipes as the Causal Agent of Petunia Powdery Mildew in the United Kingdom

In autumn 2009, during a survey of powdery mildews of solanaceous plants in the United Kingdom, petunia (Petunia × hybrida) plants showing typical symptoms of powdery mildew infections were repeatedly collected in East Malling, Rochester, and Sandringham, UK. Leaves, stems, and petals of the collected plants, grown as outdoor ornamentals, were covered by dense, sporulating, white mycelium. Conidia were ellipsoid-cylindrical, measured 20 to 30 × 10 to 15 μm, and were produced in chains. Germ tubes arose from the ends of conidia and terminated in simple, unlobed apices. Some of the conidiophores were extremely long, up to 250 μm, because the second or third cell, or sometimes the foot cell, was up to 105 to 170 μm long. Other conidiophores were shorter, with no exceptionally long cells, but all of them exhibited a few characteristics in common: their width increased from base to top, sometimes enlarging considerably at a particular point of the foot cell, and basal septa were usually located 7 to 30 μm from the point of branching. Hyphal appressoria were nipple shaped. The teleomorph stage was not found. On the basis of these characteristics, the fungus was identified as Oidium longipes, a recently described (4) and little known pathogen of petunia and other solanaceous plants (1,3). To support the identification of this fungus, DNA was extracted from conidia collected with sterile brushes from single leaves collected in Sandringham, East Malling, and Rochester with a Qiagen DNeasy Plant Kit (Qiagen, Hilden, Germany), and the internal transcribed spacer (ITS) region of the nuclear ribosomal DNA was amplified and determined as described in Jankovics et al. (2). The three identical ITS sequences, deposited in GenBank under Accession Nos. HM156495, HM156496, and HM156497, were identical to several ITS sequences of O. longipes, such as AF250777, EU327324, and EU327325. This has also supported that the disease was caused by this species. Herbarium specimens were deposited under the Accession Nos. HAL 2373F, HAL 2374F, and HAL 2375F at the Herbarium of Martin Luther University, Halle, Germany. To our knowledge, this is the first report of O. longipes in the UK. References: (1) A. Bolay. Cryptogam. Helv. 20:1, 2005. (2) T. Jankovics et al. Phytopathology 98:529, 2008. (3) L. Kiss et al. Plant Disease 92:818, 2008. (4) M. E. Noordeloos and W. M. Loerakker. Persoonia 14:51, 1989.

First Report of Powdery Mildew on Lemon Balm (Melissa officinalis) Caused by Golovinomyces biocellatus in Hungary

Lemon balm is a well-known perennial, medicinal and culinary herb, and also a melliferous plant that is grown commercially in many parts of the world including Hungary. In October 2009, symptoms of powdery mildew infection were observed on lemon balm plants grown in several gardens in Budapest, Maklár, and Eger, Hungary, as well as in Ghenci, Romania. Abundant mycelium and conidial sporulation was observed on both leaf surfaces and stems. Conidia were produced in chains and were ellipsoid-ovoid to subcylindrical, measured 29 to 44 × 15 to 18 μm, and germinated with germ tubes produced apically or subapically on conidia. The basal septa of the conidiophores were sometimes displaced from the point of branching. The width of their foot cells increased from base to top and sometimes enlarged considerably at a particular point. Hyphal appressoria were nipple shaped. On the basis of these characteristics, the pathogen was identified as an Oidium sp. belonging to the subgenus Reticuloidium. The teleomorph stage was not found. To precisely identify the pathogen, DNA was extracted from mycelia collected from single leaves collected in Budapest and Ghenci with a Qiagen (Valencia, CA) DNeasy Plant Kit. The internal transcribed spacer (ITS) sequences of the nrDNA were amplified and sequenced as described in Jankovics et al. (3). The two ITS sequences, deposited in GenBank under Accession Nos. HM156493 and HM156494, were identical to several ITS sequences of Golovinomyces biocellatus, such as AB307675, AF011291, and EU035602. Thus, the pathogen was identified as G. biocellatus based on the host plant species, anamorph morphology, and ITS sequence. It was clearly distinguished from Neoerysiphe galeopsidis, another powdery mildew species known to infect lemon balm in Europe (1). Specimens were deposited under Accession Nos. HAL 2369F and HAL 2370F at the Herbarium of Martin Luther University, Halle, Germany. Pathogenicity tests were carried out in cabinets within a controlled environment as described for other powdery mildews in Jankovics et al. (3) using five potted healthy lemon balm plants bought from a nursery. The first powdery mildew colonies appeared 7 to 10 days after inoculation, and 2 to 3 weeks later, nearly all the leaves and stems of the three inoculated plants became covered with powdery mildew mycelium. Light microscopy confirmed that the pathogen was the anamorph of G. biocellatus. The two noninoculated plants remained healthy. This confirmed the pathogenicity of the fungus collected from the field to lemon balm. G. biocellatus has long been known to infect lemon balm in some European countries and elsewhere (1), but was not listed as a pathogen of this plant species in Hungary (4). However, it was reported from Romania, a neighboring country, more than 30 years ago (2). This suggests that G. biocellatus might have occurred in Hungary on lemon balm during the past decades without being reported in the literature. References: (1) U. Braun. Beih. Nova Hedwigia 89:1, 1987. (2) O. Constantinescu and G. Negrean. Sydowia 29:75, 1976-77. (3) T. Jankovics et al. Phytopathology 98:529, 2008. (4) Sz. Nagy and L. Kiss. Acta Phytopathol. Entomol. Hung. 41:79, 2006.

Muscle regeneration is undisturbed by repeated polytraumatic injury

INTRODUCTION

Clinical observations suggest that repeated injury within a week after a traumatic event impairs the regeneration of tissues. Our aim was to investigate the effect of repeated trauma on the proliferation of satellite cells in skeletal muscle tissue.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Cold lesion injury was performed in the soleus muscle and in the motor cortex of anesthetized male Wistar rats 0, 1, or 2 times with 7 day intervals between the interventions. Following the last operation, 5-bromo-2'-deoxyuridine was injected i.p. for 6 or 12 days to label dividing cells. Gut epithelium was used as positive control. Immunohistochemistry was performed 1 and 5 weeks after the last injury and the sections were analyzed with confocal microscopy.

RESULTS

In the case of repeated trauma, the percentage of proliferating cells remained the same compared to single hit animals after 1 week (28.0 ± 2.5% and 29.6 ± 3.0%) as well as after 5 weeks (13.9 ± 1.8% and 14.5 ± 2.2%).

CONCLUSION

The second hit phenomenon is probably due to systemic factors rather than to a diminished regenerating potential of injured soft tissues.