Localisation of DivIVA by targeting to negatively curved membranes

Geometric protein localization cues in bacterial cells

Bacterial cells are highly organized at a molecular level. Understanding how specific proteins localize to their proper subcellular address has been a major challenge in bacterial cell biology. One mechanism, which appears to be increasingly more common, is the use of 'geometric cues' for protein localization. In this model, certain shape-sensing proteins recognize, and preferentially embed into, either negatively or positively curved (concave or convex, respectively) membranes. Here, we review examples of bacterial proteins that reportedly localize by sensing geometric cues and highlight emerging mechanistic understandings of how proteins may recognize subtle differences in membrane curvature.

Intermediate Filaments Supporting Cell Shape and Growth in Bacteria

For years intermediate filaments (IF), belonging to the third class of filamentous cytoskeletal proteins alongside microtubules and actin filaments, were thought to be exclusive to metazoan cells. Structurally these eukaryote IFs are very well defined, consisting of globular head and tail domains, which flank the central rod-domain. This central domain is dominated by an α-helical secondary structure predisposed to form the characteristic coiled-coil, parallel homo-dimer. These elementary dimers can further associate, both laterally and longitudinally, generating a variety of filament-networks built from filaments in the range of 10 nm in diameter. The general role of these filaments with their characteristic mechano-elastic properties both in the cytoplasm and in the nucleus of eukaryote cells is to provide mechanical strength and a scaffold supporting diverse shapes and cellular functions.Since 2003, after the first bacterial IF-like protein, crescentin was identified, it has been evident that bacteria also employ filamentous networks, other than those built from bacterial tubulin or actin homologues, in order to support their cell shape, growth and, in some cases, division. Intriguingly, compared to their eukaryote counterparts, the group of bacterial IF-like proteins shows much wider structural diversity. The sizes of both the head and tail domains are markedly reduced and there is great variation in the length of the central rod-domain. Furthermore, bacterial rod-domains often lack the sub-domain organisation of eukaryote IFs that is the defining feature of the IF-family. However, the fascinating display of filamentous assemblies, including rope, striated cables and hexagonal laces together with the conditions required for their formation both in vitro and in vivo strongly resemble that of eukaryote IFs suggesting that these bacterial proteins are deservedly classified as part of the IF-family and that the current definition should be relaxed slightly to allow their inclusion. The lack of extensive head and tail domains may well make the bacterial proteins more amenable for structural characterisation, which will be essential for establishing the mechanism for their association into filaments. What is more, the well-developed tools for bacterial manipulations provide an excellent opportunity of studying the bacterial systems with the prospect of making significant progress in our understanding of the general underlying principles of intermediate filament assemblies.

Modularity and determinants of a (bi-)polarization control system from free-living and obligate intracellular bacteria

Although free-living and obligate intracellular bacteria are both polarized it is unclear whether the underlying polarization mechanisms and effector proteins are conserved. Here we dissect at the cytological, functional and structural level a conserved polarization module from the free living α-proteobacterium Caulobacter crescentus and an orthologous system from an obligate intracellular (rickettsial) pathogen. The NMR solution structure of the zinc-finger (ZnR) domain from the bifunctional and bipolar ZitP pilus assembly/motility regulator revealed conserved interaction determinants for PopZ, a bipolar matrix protein that anchors the ParB centromere-binding protein and other regulatory factors at the poles. We show that ZitP regulates cytokinesis and the localization of ParB and PopZ, targeting PopZ independently of the previously known binding sites for its client proteins. Through heterologous localization assays with rickettsial ZitP and PopZ orthologs, we document the shared ancestries, activities and structural determinants of a (bi-)polarization system encoded in free-living and obligate intracellular α-proteobacteria.

DOI:http://dx.doi.org/10.7554/eLife.20640.001

Identification of aminopyrimidine-sulfonamides as potent modulators of Wag31-mediated cell elongation in mycobacteria

There is an urgent need to discover new anti-tubercular agents with novel mechanisms of action in order to tackle the scourge of drug-resistant tuberculosis. Here, we report the identification of such a molecule - an AminoPYrimidine-Sulfonamide (APYS1) that has potent, bactericidal activity against M. tuberculosis. Mutations in APYS1-resistant M. tuberculosis mapped exclusively to wag31, a gene that encodes a scaffolding protein thought to orchestrate cell elongation. Recombineering confirmed that a Gln201Arg mutation in Wag31 was sufficient to cause resistance to APYS1, however, neither overexpression nor conditional depletion of wag31 impacted M. tuberculosis susceptibility to this compound. In contrast, expression of the wildtype allele of wag31 in APYS1-resistant M. tuberculosis was dominant and restored susceptibility to APYS1 to wildtype levels. Time-lapse imaging and scanning electron microscopy revealed that APYS1 caused gross malformation of the old pole of M. tuberculosis, with eventual lysis. These effects resembled the morphological changes observed following transcriptional silencing of wag31 in M. tuberculosis. These data show that Wag31 is likely not the direct target of APYS1, but the striking phenotypic similarity between APYS1 exposure and genetic depletion of Wag31 in M. tuberculosis suggests that APYS1 might indirectly affect Wag31 through an as yet unknown mechanism.

Daptomycin inhibits cell envelope synthesis by interfering with fluid membrane microdomains

Daptomycin is a highly efficient last-resort antibiotic that targets the bacterial cell membrane. Despite its clinical importance, the exact mechanism by which daptomycin kills bacteria is not fully understood. Different experiments have led to different models, including (i) blockage of cell wall synthesis, (ii) membrane pore formation, and (iii) the generation of altered membrane curvature leading to aberrant recruitment of proteins. To determine which model is correct, we carried out a comprehensive mode-of-action study using the model organism Bacillus subtilis and different assays, including proteomics, ionomics, and fluorescence light microscopy. We found that daptomycin causes a gradual decrease in membrane potential but does not form discrete membrane pores. Although we found no evidence for altered membrane curvature, we confirmed that daptomycin inhibits cell wall synthesis. Interestingly, using different fluorescent lipid probes, we showed that binding of daptomycin led to a drastic rearrangement of fluid lipid domains, affecting overall membrane fluidity. Importantly, these changes resulted in the rapid detachment of the membrane-associated lipid II synthase MurG and the phospholipid synthase PlsX. Both proteins preferentially colocalize with fluid membrane microdomains. Delocalization of these proteins presumably is a key reason why daptomycin blocks cell wall synthesis. Finally, clustering of fluid lipids by daptomycin likely causes hydrophobic mismatches between fluid and more rigid membrane areas. This mismatch can facilitate proton leakage and may explain the gradual membrane depolarization observed with daptomycin. Targeting of fluid lipid domains has not been described before for antibiotics and adds another dimension to our understanding of membrane-active antibiotics.

Antimicrobial Peptides Targeting Gram-Positive Bacteria

Antimicrobial peptides (AMPs) have remarkably different structures as well as biological activity profiles, whereupon most of these peptides are supposed to kill bacteria via membrane damage. In order to understand their molecular mechanism and target cell specificity for Gram-positive bacteria, it is essential to consider the architecture of their cell envelopes. Before AMPs can interact with the cytoplasmic membrane of Gram-positive bacteria, they have to traverse the cell wall composed of wall- and lipoteichoic acids and peptidoglycan. While interaction of AMPs with peptidoglycan might rather facilitate penetration, interaction with anionic teichoic acids may act as either a trap for AMPs or a ladder for a route to the cytoplasmic membrane. Interaction with the cytoplasmic membrane frequently leads to lipid segregation affecting membrane domain organization, which affects membrane permeability, inhibits cell division processes or leads to delocalization of essential peripheral membrane proteins. Further, precursors of cell wall components, especially the highly conserved lipid II, are directly targeted by AMPs. Thereby, the peptides do not inhibit peptidoglycan synthesis via binding to proteins like common antibiotics, but form a complex with the precursor molecule, which in addition can promote pore formation and membrane disruption. Thus, the multifaceted mode of actions will make AMPs superior to antibiotics that act only on one specific target.

Stability of patterns on thin curved surfaces

We consider reaction-diffusion equations on a thin curved surface and obtain a set of effective reaction-diffusion (R-D) equations to O(ε^{2}), where ε is the surface thickness. We observe that the R-D systems on these curved surfaces can have space-dependent reaction kinetics. Further, we use linear stability analysis to study the Schnakenberg model on spherical and cylindrical geometries. The dependence of the steady state on the thickness is determined for both cases, and we find that a change in the thickness can stabilize the unstable modes, and vice versa. The combined effect of thickness and curvature can play an important role in the rearrangement of spatial patterns on thin curved surfaces.

Bacterial chromosome organization and segregation

If fully stretched out, a typical bacterial chromosome would be nearly 1 mm long, approximately 1,000 times the length of a cell. Not only must cells massively compact their genetic material, but they must also organize their DNA in a manner that is compatible with a range of cellular processes, including DNA replication, DNA repair, homologous recombination, and horizontal gene transfer. Recent work, driven in part by technological advances, has begun to reveal the general principles of chromosome organization in bacteria. Here, drawing on studies of many different organisms, we review the emerging picture of how bacterial chromosomes are structured at multiple length scales, highlighting the functions of various DNA-binding proteins and the impact of physical forces. Additionally, we discuss the spatial dynamics of chromosomes, particularly during their segregation to daughter cells. Although there has been tremendous progress, we also highlight gaps that remain in understanding chromosome organization and segregation.

Subunit Arrangement in GpsB, a Regulator of Cell Wall Biosynthesis

GpsB, a key regulator of cell division in Gram-positive bacteria, interacts with a key peptidoglycan synthase at the cell division septum, the penicillin binding protein PBP1 (a.k.a. PonA). Bacillus subtilis GpsB has been reported to interact with other components of the cell division machinery, including EzrA, MreC, and PrkC. In this study, we report an analysis of the arrangement of subunits in Listeria monocytogenes GpsB by small-angle X-ray scattering. The resulting model has an elongated shape with residues critical for interaction with PBP1 and the cell membrane clustered at one end of the molecule. Mutations that destabilize the hexameric assembly of the wild-type protein have a gpsB null phenotype, indicating that oligomerization is critical for the correct function of GpsB. We suggest a model in which a single GpsB hexamer can interact with multiple PBP1 molecules and can therefore influence the arrangement of PBP1 molecules within the cell division machinery, a dynamic multiprotein complex called the divisome, consistent with a role for GpsB in modulating the synthesis of the cell wall.

Physics of Intracellular Organization in Bacteria

With the realization that bacteria achieve exquisite levels of spatiotemporal organization has come the challenge of discovering the underlying mechanisms. In this review, we describe three classes of such mechanisms, each of which has physical origins: the use of landmarks, the creation of higher-order structures that enable geometric sensing, and the emergence of length scales from systems of chemical reactions coupled to diffusion. We then examine the diversity of geometric cues that exist even in cells with relatively simple geometries, and end by discussing both new technologies that could drive further discovery and the implications of our current knowledge for the behavior, fitness, and evolution of bacteria. The organizational strategies described here are employed in a wide variety of systems and in species across all kingdoms of life; in many ways they provide a general blueprint for organizing the building blocks of life.

Focal Targeting of the Bacterial Envelope by Antimicrobial Peptides

Antimicrobial peptides (AMPs) are utilized by both eukaryotic and prokaryotic organisms. AMPs such as the human beta defensins, human neutrophil peptides, human cathelicidin, and many bacterial bacteriocins are cationic and capable of binding to anionic regions of the bacterial surface. Cationic AMPs (CAMPs) target anionic lipids [e.g., phosphatidylglycerol (PG) and cardiolipins (CL)] in the cell membrane and anionic components [e.g., lipopolysaccharide (LPS) and lipoteichoic acid (LTA)] of the cell envelope. Bacteria have evolved mechanisms to modify these same targets in order to resist CAMP killing, e.g., lysinylation of PG to yield cationic lysyl-PG and alanylation of LTA. Since CAMPs offer a promising therapeutic alternative to conventional antibiotics, which are becoming less effective due to rapidly emerging antibiotic resistance, there is a strong need to improve our understanding about the AMP mechanism of action. Recent literature suggests that AMPs often interact with the bacterial cell envelope at discrete foci. Here we review recent AMP literature, with an emphasis on focal interactions with bacteria, including (1) CAMP disruption mechanisms, (2) delocalization of membrane proteins and lipids by CAMPs, and (3) CAMP sensing systems and resistance mechanisms. We conclude with new approaches for studying the bacterial membrane, e.g., lipidomics, high resolution imaging, and non-detergent-based membrane domain extraction.

C4-Dicarboxylate Utilization in Aerobic and Anaerobic Growth

C4-dicarboxylates and the C4-dicarboxylic amino acid l-aspartate support aerobic and anaerobic growth of Escherichia coli and related bacteria. In aerobic growth, succinate, fumarate, D- and L-malate, L-aspartate, and L-tartrate are metabolized by the citric acid cycle and associated reactions. Because of the interruption of the citric acid cycle under anaerobic conditions, anaerobic metabolism of C4-dicarboxylates depends on fumarate reduction to succinate (fumarate respiration). In some related bacteria (e.g., Klebsiella), utilization of C4-dicarboxylates, such as tartrate, is independent of fumarate respiration and uses a Na+-dependent membrane-bound oxaloacetate decarboxylase. Uptake of the C4-dicarboxylates into the bacteria (and anaerobic export of succinate) is achieved under aerobic and anaerobic conditions by different sets of secondary transporters. Expression of the genes for C4-dicarboxylate metabolism is induced in the presence of external C4-dicarboxylates by the membrane-bound DcuS-DcuR two-component system. Noncommon C4-dicarboxylates like l-tartrate or D-malate are perceived by cytoplasmic one-component sensors/transcriptional regulators. This article describes the pathways of aerobic and anaerobic C4-dicarboxylate metabolism and their regulation. The citric acid cycle, fumarate respiration, and fumarate reductase are covered in other articles and discussed here only in the context of C4-dicarboxylate metabolism. Recent aspects of C4-dicarboxylate metabolism like transport, sensing, and regulation will be treated in more detail. This article is an updated version of an article published in 2004 in EcoSal Plus. The update includes new literature, but, in particular, the sections on the metabolism of noncommon C4-dicarboxylates and their regulation, on the DcuS-DcuR regulatory system, and on succinate production by engineered E. coli are largely revised or new.

Complex polar machinery required for proper chromosome segregation in vegetative and sporulating cells of Bacillus subtilis

Chromosome segregation is an essential process of cell multiplication. In prokaryotes, segregation starts with the newly replicated sister origins of replication, oriCs, which move apart to defined positions in the cell. We have developed a genetic screen to identify mutants defective in placement of oriC during spore development in the Gram‐positive bacterium Bacillus subtilis. In addition to the previously identified proteins Soj and DivIVA, our screen identified several new factors involved in polar recruitment of oriC: a reported regulator of competence ComN, and the regulators of division site selection MinD and MinJ. Previous work implicated Soj as an important regulator of oriC positioning in the cell. Our results suggest a model in which the DivIVA‐interacting proteins ComN and MinJ recruit MinD to the cell pole, and that these proteins work upstream of Soj to enable oriC placement. We show that these proteins form a polar complex, which acts in parallel with but distinct from the sporulation‐specific RacA pathway of oriC placement, and also functions during vegetative growth. Our study further shows that MinD has two distinct cell cycle roles, in cell division and chromosome segregation, and highlights that cell probably use multiple parallel mechanisms to ensure accurate chromosome segregation.

Curvature-driven positioning of Turing patterns in phase-separating curved membranes

We introduce a new finite difference scheme to study the dynamics of Turing patterns of a two-species activator-inhibitor system embedded on a phase-separating curved membrane, modelling for instance a lipid bilayer. We show that the underlying binary fluid can strongly affect both the dynamical and the steady state properties of the ensuing Turing patterns. Furthermore, geometry plays a key role, as a large enough local membrane curvature can both arrest the coarsening of the lipid domains and position the patterns selectively at areas of high or small local curvature. The physical phenomena we observe are due to a minimal coupling, between the diffusivity of the Turing components and the local membrane composition. While our study is theoretical in nature, it can provide a framework within which to address intracellular pattern formation in systems of interacting membrane proteins.

Right Place, Right Time: Focalization of Membrane Proteins in Gram-Positive Bacteria

Membrane proteins represent a significant proportion of total bacterial proteins and perform vital cellular functions ranging from exchanging metabolites and genetic material, secretion and sorting, sensing signal molecules, and cell division. Many of these functions are carried out at distinct foci on the bacterial membrane, and this subcellular localization can be coordinated by a number of factors, including lipid microdomains, protein-protein interactions, and membrane curvature. Elucidating the mechanisms behind focal protein localization in bacteria informs not only protein structure-function correlation, but also how to disrupt the protein function to limit virulence. Here we review recent advances describing a functional role for subcellular localization of membrane proteins involved in genetic transfer, secretion and sorting, cell division and growth, and signaling.

Molecular insights into DNA binding and anchoring by the Bacillus subtilis sporulation kinetochore-like RacA protein

During Bacillus subtilis sporulation, segregating sister chromosomes are anchored to cell poles and the chromosome is remodeled into an elongated structure called the axial filament. Data indicate that a developmentally regulated protein called RacA is involved in these functions. To gain insight into how RacA performs these diverse processes we performed a battery of structural and biochemical analyses. These studies show that RacA contains an N-terminal winged-helix-turn-helix module connected by a disordered region to a predicted coiled-coil domain. Structures capture RacA binding the DNA using distinct protein-protein interfaces and employing adjustable DNA docking modes. This unique DNA binding mechanism indicates how RacA can both specifically recognize its GC-rich centromere and also non-specifically bind the DNA. Adjacent RacA molecules within the protein-DNA structure interact leading to DNA compaction, suggesting a mechanism for axial filament formation. We also show that the RacA C-domain coiled coil directly contacts the coiled coil region of the polar protein DivIVA, which anchors RacA and hence the chromosome to the pole. Thus, our combined data reveal unique DNA binding properties by RacA and provide insight into the DNA remodeling and polar anchorage functions of the protein.

Organization and function of anionic phospholipids in bacteria

In addition to playing a central role as a permeability barrier for controlling the diffusion of molecules and ions in and out of bacterial cells, phospholipid (PL) membranes regulate the spatial and temporal position and function of membrane proteins that play an essential role in a variety of cellular functions. Based on the very large number of membrane-associated proteins encoded in genomes, an understanding of the role of PLs may be central to understanding bacterial cell biology. This area of microbiology has received considerable attention over the past two decades, and the local enrichment of anionic PLs has emerged as a candidate mechanism for biomolecular organization in bacterial cells. In this review, we summarize the current understanding of anionic PLs in bacteria, including their biosynthesis, subcellular localization, and physiological relevance, discuss evidence and mechanisms for enriching anionic PLs in membranes, and conclude with an assessment of future directions for this area of bacterial biochemistry, biophysics, and cell biology.

Membrane curvature at a glance

Membrane curvature is an important parameter in defining the morphology of cells, organelles and local membrane subdomains. Transport intermediates have simpler shapes, being either spheres or tubules. The generation and maintenance of curvature is of central importance for maintaining trafficking and cellular functions. It is possible that local shapes in complex membranes could help to define local subregions. In this Cell Science at a Glance article and accompanying poster, we summarize how generating, sensing and maintaining high local membrane curvature is an active process that is mediated and controlled by specialized proteins using general mechanisms: (i) changes in lipid composition and asymmetry, (ii) partitioning of shaped transmembrane domains of integral membrane proteins or protein or domain crowding, (iii) reversible insertion of hydrophobic protein motifs, (iv) nanoscopic scaffolding by oligomerized hydrophilic protein domains and, finally, (v) macroscopic scaffolding by the cytoskeleton with forces generated by polymerization and by molecular motors. We also summarize some of the discoveries about the functions of membrane curvature, where in addition to providing cell or organelle shape, local curvature can affect processes like membrane scission and fusion as well as protein concentration and enzyme activation on membranes.

CyDiv, a Conserved and Novel Filamentous Cyanobacterial Cell Division Protein Involved in Septum Localization

Cell division in bacteria has been studied mostly in Escherichia coli and Bacillus subtilis, model organisms for Gram-negative and Gram-positive bacteria, respectively. However, cell division in filamentous cyanobacteria is poorly understood. Here, we identified a novel protein, named CyDiv (Cyanobacterial Division), encoded by the all2320 gene in Anabaena sp. PCC 7120. We show that CyDiv plays a key role during cell division. CyDiv has been previously described only as an exclusive and conserved hypothetical protein in filamentous cyanobacteria. Using polyclonal antibodies against CyDiv, we showed that it localizes at different positions depending on cell division timing: poles, septum, in both daughter cells, but also in only one of the daughter cells. The partial deletion of CyDiv gene generates partial defects in cell division, including severe membrane instability and anomalous septum localization during late division. The inability to complete knock out CyDiv strains suggests that it is an essential gene. In silico structural protein analyses and our experimental results suggest that CyDiv is an FtsB/DivIC-like protein, and could therefore, be part of an essential late divisome complex in Anabaena sp. PCC 7120.

Oscillating behavior of Clostridium difficile Min proteins in Bacillus subtilis

In rod‐shaped bacteria, the proper placement of the division septum at the midcell relies, at least partially, on the proteins of the Min system as an inhibitor of cell division. The main principle of Min system function involves the formation of an inhibitor gradient along the cell axis; however, the establishment of this gradient differs between two well‐studied gram‐negative and gram‐positive bacteria. While in gram‐negative Escherichia coli, the Min system undergoes pole‐to‐pole oscillation, in gram‐positive Bacillus subtilis, proper spatial inhibition is achieved by the preferential attraction of the Min proteins to the cell poles. Nevertheless, when E.coli Min proteins are inserted into B.subtilis cells, they still oscillate, which negatively affects asymmetric septation during sporulation in this organism. Interestingly, homologs of both Min systems were found to be present in various combinations in the genomes of anaerobic and endospore‐forming Clostridia, including the pathogenic Clostridium difficile. Here, we have investigated the localization and behavior of C.difficile Min protein homologs and showed that MinDE proteins of C.difficile can oscillate when expressed together in B.subtilis cells. We have also investigated the effects of this oscillation on B.subtilis sporulation, and observed decreased sporulation efficiency in strains harboring the MinDE genes. Additionally, we have evaluated the effects of C.difficile Min protein expression on vegetative division in this heterologous host.

Geometry-induced protein pattern formation

Protein patterns are known to adapt to cell shape and serve as spatial templates that choreograph downstream processes like cell polarity or cell division. However, how can pattern-forming proteins sense and respond to the geometry of a cell, and what mechanistic principles underlie pattern formation? Current models invoke mechanisms based on dynamic instabilities arising from nonlinear interactions between proteins but neglect the influence of the spatial geometry itself. Here, we show that patterns can emerge as a direct result of adaptation to cell geometry, in the absence of dynamical instability. We present a generic reaction module that allows protein densities robustly to adapt to the symmetry of the spatial geometry. The key component is an NTPase protein that cycles between nucleotide-dependent membrane-bound and cytosolic states. For elongated cells, we find that the protein dynamics generically leads to a bipolar pattern, which vanishes as the geometry becomes spherically symmetrical. We show that such a reaction module facilitates universal adaptation to cell geometry by sensing the local ratio of membrane area to cytosolic volume. This sensing mechanism is controlled by the membrane affinities of the different states. We apply the theory to explain AtMinD bipolar patterns in [Formula: see text] EcMinDE Escherichia coli. Due to its generic nature, the mechanism could also serve as a hitherto-unrecognized spatial template in many other bacterial systems. Moreover, the robustness of the mechanism enables self-organized optimization of protein patterns by evolutionary processes. Finally, the proposed module can be used to establish geometry-sensitive protein gradients in synthetic biological systems.

Structure of the bacterial cell division determinant GpsB and its interaction with penicillin-binding proteins

Each bacterium has to co-ordinate its growth with division to ensure genetic stability of the population. Consequently, cell division and growth are tightly regulated phenomena, albeit different bacteria utilise one of several alternative regulatory mechanisms to maintain control. Here we consider GpsB, which is linked to cell growth and division in Gram-positive bacteria. ΔgpsB mutants of the human pathogen Listeria monocytogenes show severe lysis, division and growth defects due to distortions of cell wall biosynthesis. Consistent with this premise, GpsB interacts both in vitro and in vivo with the major bi-functional penicillin-binding protein. We solved the crystal structure of GpsB and the interaction interfaces in both proteins are identified and validated. The inactivation of gpsB results in strongly attenuated virulence in animal experiments, comparable in degree to classical listerial virulence factor mutants. Therefore, GpsB is essential for in vitro and in vivo growth of a highly virulent food-borne pathogen, suggesting that GpsB could be a target for the future design of novel antibacterials.

Protein Targeting during Bacillus subtilis Sporulation

The Gram-positive bacterium Bacillus subtilis initiates the formation of an endospore in response to conditions of nutrient limitation. The morphological differentiation that spores undergo initiates with the formation of an asymmetric septum near to one pole of the cell, forming a smaller compartment, the forespore, and a larger compartment, the mother cell. This process continues with the complex morphogenesis of the spore as governed by an intricate series of interactions between forespore and mother cell proteins across the inner and outer forespore membranes. Given that these interactions occur at a particular place in the cell, a critical question is how the proteins involved in these processes get properly targeted, and we discuss recent progress in identifying mechanisms responsible for this targeting.

Distribution and dynamics of OXPHOS complexes in the bacterial cytoplasmic membrane

Oxidative phosphorylation (OXPHOS) is an essential process for most living organisms mostly sustained by protein complexes embedded in the cell membrane. In order to thrive, cells need to quickly respond to changes in the metabolic demand or in their environment. An overview of the strategies that can be employed by bacterial cells to adjust the OXPHOS outcome is provided. Regulation at the level of gene expression can only provide a means to adjust the OXPHOS outcome to long-term trends in the environment. In addition, the actual view is that bioenergetic membranes are highly compartmentalized structures. This review discusses what is known about the spatial organization of OXPHOS complexes and the timescales at which they occur. As exemplified with the commensal gut bacterium Escherichia coli, three levels of spatial organization are at play: supercomplexes, membrane microdomains and polar assemblies. This review provides a particular focus on whether dynamic spatial organization can fine-tune the OXPHOS through the definition of specialized functional membrane microdomains. Putative mechanisms responsible for spatio-temporal regulation of the OXPHOS complexes are discussed. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled Organization and dynamics of bioenergetic systems in bacteria, edited by Conrad Mullineaux.

Transmembrane protein sorting driven by membrane curvature

The intricate structure of prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells depends on the ability to target proteins to specific cellular locations. In most cases, we have a poor understanding of the underlying mechanisms. A typical example is the assembly of bacterial chemoreceptors at cell poles. Here we show that the classical chemoreceptor TlpA of Bacillus subtilis does not localize according to the consensus stochastic nucleation mechanism but accumulates at strongly curved membrane areas generated during cell division. This preference was confirmed by accumulation at non-septal curved membranes. Localization appears to be an intrinsic property of the protein complex and does not rely on chemoreceptor clustering, as was previously shown for Escherichia coli. By constructing specific amino-acid substitutions, we demonstrate that the preference for strongly curved membranes arises from the curved shape of chemoreceptor trimer of dimers. These findings demonstrate that the intrinsic shape of transmembrane proteins can determine their cellular localization.

The accumulation of chemoreceptor proteins at bacterial poles is thought to depend on their clustering into arrays. Strahl et al. show that in Bacillus subtilis, the chemoreceptor TlpA uses high membrane curvature as a spatial cue for polar localization, through the intrinsic curvature sensitivity of the receptor complex.

Spherical nanoparticle supported lipid bilayers for the structural study of membrane geometry-sensitive molecules

Many essential cellular processes including endocytosis and vesicle trafficking require alteration of membrane geometry. These changes are usually mediated by proteins that can sense and/or induce membrane curvature. Using spherical nanoparticle supported lipid bilayers (SSLBs), we characterize how SpoVM, a bacterial development factor, interacts with differently curved membranes by magic angle spinning solid-state NMR. Our results demonstrate that SSLBs are an effective system for structural and topological studies of membrane geometry-sensitive molecules.

Asymmetric division triggers cell-specific gene expression through coupled capture and stabilization of a phosphatase

Formation of a division septum near a randomly chosen pole during sporulation in Bacillus subtilis creates unequal sized daughter cells with dissimilar programs of gene expression. An unanswered question is how polar septation activates a transcription factor (σ(F)) selectively in the small cell. We present evidence that the upstream regulator of σ(F), the phosphatase SpoIIE, is compartmentalized in the small cell by transfer from the polar septum to the adjacent cell pole where SpoIIE is protected from proteolysis and activated. Polar recognition, protection from proteolysis, and stimulation of phosphatase activity are linked to oligomerization of SpoIIE. This mechanism for initiating cell-specific gene expression is independent of additional sporulation proteins; vegetative cells engineered to divide near a pole sequester SpoIIE and activate σ(F) in small cells. Thus, a simple model explains how SpoIIE responds to a stochastically-generated cue to activate σ(F) at the right time and in the right place.

Spatial organization of bacterial chromosomes

Bacterial chromosomes are organized in stereotypical patterns that are faithfully and robustly regenerated in daughter cells. Two distinct spatial patterns were described almost a decade ago in our most tractable model organisms. In recent years, analysis of chromosome organization in a larger and more diverse set of bacteria and a deeper characterization of chromosome dynamics in the original model systems have provided a broader and more complete picture of both chromosome organization and the activities that generate the observed spatial patterns. Here, we summarize these different patterns highlighting similarities and differences and discuss the protein factors that help establish and maintain them.

Against the mainstream: the membrane-associated type I toxin BsrG from Bacillus subtilis interferes with cell envelope biosynthesis without increasing membrane permeability

Toxin-antitoxin loci, which encode a toxic protein alongside with either RNA or a protein able to counteract the toxicity, are widespread among archaea and bacteria. These loci are implicated in persistence, and as addiction modules to ensure stable inheritance of plasmids and phages. In type I toxin-antitoxin systems, a small RNA acts as an antitoxin, which prevents the synthesis of the toxin. Most type I toxins are small hydrophobic membrane proteins generally assumed to induce pores, or otherwise permeabilise the cytoplasmic membrane and, as a result, induce cell death by energy starvation. Here we show that this mode of action is not a conserved property of type I toxins. The analysis of the cellular toxicity caused by Bacillus subtilis prophage SPβ-encoded toxin BsrG revealed that, surprisingly, it neither dissipates membrane potential nor affects cellular ATP-levels. In contrast, BsrG strongly interferes with the cell envelope biosynthesis, causes membrane invaginations together with delocalisation of the cell wall synthesis machinery and triggers autolysis. Furthermore, efficient inhibition of protein biosynthesis is observed. These findings question the simplistic assumption that small membrane targeting toxins generally act by permeabilising the membrane.

Collaborative protein filaments

It is now well established that prokaryotic cells assemble diverse proteins into dynamic cytoskeletal filaments that perform essential cellular functions. Although most of the filaments assemble on their own to form higher order structures, growing evidence suggests that there are a number of prokaryotic proteins that polymerise only in the presence of a matrix such as DNA, lipid membrane or even another filament. Matrix-assisted filament systems are frequently nucleotide dependent and cytomotive but rarely considered as part of the bacterial cytoskeleton. Here, we categorise this family of filament-forming systems as collaborative filaments and introduce a simple nomenclature. Collaborative filaments are frequent in both eukaryotes and prokaryotes and are involved in vital cellular processes including chromosome segregation, DNA repair and maintenance, gene silencing and cytokinesis to mention a few. In this review, we highlight common principles underlying collaborative filaments and correlate these with known functions.

Induction of Plasmid Conjugation in Bacillus subtilis Is Bistable and Driven by a Direct Interaction of a Rap/Phr Quorum-sensing System with a Master Repressor

Conjugation of plasmid pLS20 from Bacillus subtilis is limited to a time window between early and late exponential growth. Genetic evidence has suggested that pLS20-encoded protein RcoLS20 represses expression of a large conjugation operon, whereas Rap protein RapLS20 relieves repression. We show that RapLS20 is a true antirepressor protein that forms dimers in vivo and in vitro and that it directly binds to the repressor protein RcoLS20 in a 1:1 stoichiometry. We provide evidence that RapLS20 binds to the helix-turn-helix-containing domain of RcoLS20 in vivo, probably obstructing DNA binding of RcoLS20, as seen in competitive DNA binding experiments. The activity of RapLS20 in turn is counteracted by the addition of the cognate PhrLS20 peptide, which directly binds to the Rap protein and presumably induces a conformational change of the antirepressor. Thus, a Rap protein acts directly as an antirepressor protein during regulation of plasmid conjugation, turning on conjugation, and is counteracted by the PhrLS20 peptide, which, by analogy to known Rap/Phr systems, is secreted and taken back up into the cells, mediating cell density-driven regulation. Finally, we show that this switchlike process establishes a population heterogeneity, where up to 30% of the cells induce transcription of the conjugation operon.

The membrane: transertion as an organizing principle in membrane heterogeneity

The bacterial membrane exhibits a significantly heterogeneous distribution of lipids and proteins. This heterogeneity results mainly from lipid-lipid, protein-protein, and lipid-protein associations which are orchestrated by the coupled transcription, translation and insertion of nascent proteins into and through membrane (transertion). Transertion is central not only to the individual assembly and disassembly of large physically linked groups of macromolecules (alias hyperstructures) but also to the interactions between these hyperstructures. We review here these interactions in the context of the processes in Bacillus subtilis and Escherichia coli of nutrient sensing, membrane synthesis, cytoskeletal dynamics, DNA replication, chromosome segregation, and cell division.

Reovirus FAST Proteins Drive Pore Formation and Syncytiogenesis Using a Novel Helix-Loop-Helix Fusion-Inducing Lipid Packing Sensor

Pore formation is the most energy-demanding step during virus-induced membrane fusion, where high curvature of the fusion pore rim increases the spacing between lipid headgroups, exposing the hydrophobic interior of the membrane to water. How protein fusogens breach this thermodynamic barrier to pore formation is unclear. We identified a novel fusion-inducing lipid packing sensor (FLiPS) in the cytosolic endodomain of the baboon reovirus p15 fusion-associated small transmembrane (FAST) protein that is essential for pore formation during cell-cell fusion and syncytiogenesis. NMR spectroscopy and mutational studies indicate the dependence of this FLiPS on a hydrophobic helix-loop-helix structure. Biochemical and biophysical assays reveal the p15 FLiPS preferentially partitions into membranes with high positive curvature, and this partitioning is impeded by bis-ANS, a small molecule that inserts into hydrophobic defects in membranes. Most notably, the p15 FLiPS can be functionally replaced by heterologous amphipathic lipid packing sensors (ALPS) but not by other membrane-interactive amphipathic helices. Furthermore, a previously unrecognized amphipathic helix in the cytosolic domain of the reptilian reovirus p14 FAST protein can functionally replace the p15 FLiPS, and is itself replaceable by a heterologous ALPS motif. Anchored near the cytoplasmic leaflet by the FAST protein transmembrane domain, the FLiPS is perfectly positioned to insert into hydrophobic defects that begin to appear in the highly curved rim of nascent fusion pores, thereby lowering the energy barrier to stable pore formation.

The fusogenic ortho- and aquareoviruses are the only known nonenveloped viruses that induce syncytium formation. Cell-cell fusion is a virulence determinant of fusogenic reoviruses, and is mediated by a singular family of fusion-associated small transmembrane (FAST) proteins, the smallest known viral fusogens. Unlike their enveloped virus counterparts, reovirus FAST proteins have exceptionally small ectodomains and considerable larger cytoplasmic endodomains, suggesting FAST protein interactions with the cytoplasmic leaflet of the plasma membrane likely play a prominent role in the fusion process. We determined that the baboon reovirus p15 FAST protein endodomain contains a novel type of helix-loop-helix lipid packing sensor that partitions into hydrophobic defects present in highly curved membranes. This fusion-inducing lipid packing sensor (FLiPS) is required for pore formation, and can be functionally replaced by heterologous lipid packing sensors. By masking hydrophobic defects appearing in the highly curved rim of nascent fusion pores, the FliPS would make the forward reaction to pore formation a more energetically favored means of resolving an unstable hemifusion intermediate. These results define a new role for curvature sensing motifs, and reveal how viral fusion proteins can drive pore formation without having to rely on membrane stresses induced by complex refolding of large ectodomains.

The Min system and other nucleoid-independent regulators of Z ring positioning

Rod-shaped bacteria such as E. coli have mechanisms to position their cell division plane at the precise center of the cell, to ensure that the daughter cells are equal in size. The two main mechanisms are the Min system and nucleoid occlusion (NO), both of which work by inhibiting assembly of FtsZ, the tubulin-like scaffold that forms the cytokinetic Z ring. Whereas NO prevents Z rings from constricting over unsegregated nucleoids, the Min system is nucleoid-independent and even functions in cells lacking nucleoids and thus NO. The Min proteins of E. coli and B. subtilis form bipolar gradients that inhibit Z ring formation most at the cell poles and least at the nascent division plane. This article will outline the molecular mechanisms behind Min function in E. coli and B. subtilis, and discuss distinct Z ring positioning systems in other bacterial species.

Phosphorylation of the cell division protein GpsB regulates PrkC kinase activity through a negative feedback loop in Bacillus subtilis

Although many membrane Ser/Thr-kinases with PASTA motifs have been shown to control bacterial cell division and morphogenesis, inactivation of the Ser/Thr-kinase PrkC does not impact Bacillus subtilis cell division. In this study, we show that PrkC localizes at the division septum. In addition, three proteins involved in cell division/elongation, GpsB, DivIVA and EzrA are required for stimulating PrkC activity in vivo. We show that GpsB interacts with the catalytic subunit of PrkC that, in turn, phosphorylates GpsB. These observations are not made with DivIVA and EzrA. Consistent with the phosphorylated residue previously detected for GpsB in a high-throughput phosphoproteomic analysis of B. subtilis, we show that threonine 75 is the single PrkC-mediated phosphorylation site in GpsB. Importantly, the substitution of this threonine by a phospho-mimetic residue induces a loss of PrkC kinase activity in vivo and a reduced growth under high salt conditions as observed for gpsB and prkC null mutants. Conversely, substitution of threonine 75 by a phospho-ablative residue does not induce such growth and PrkC kinase activity defects. Altogether, these data show that proteins of the divisome control PrkC activity and thereby phosphorylation of PrkC substrates through a negative feedback loop in B. subtilis.

Chromosome segregation in Vibrio cholerae

The study of chromosome segregation is currently one of the most exciting research frontiers in cell biology. In this review, we discuss our current knowledge of the chromosome segregation process in Vibrio cholerae, based primarily on findings from fluorescence microscopy experiments. This bacterium is of special interest because of its eukaryotic feature of having a divided genome, a feature shared with 10% of known bacteria. We also discuss how the segregation mechanisms of V. cholerae compare with those in other bacteria, and highlight some of the remaining questions regarding the process of bacterial chromosome segregation.

The essential features and modes of bacterial polar growth

Polar growth represents a surprising departure from the canonical dispersed cell growth model. However, we know relatively little of the underlying mechanisms governing polar growth or the requisite suite of factors that direct polar growth. Underscoring how classic doctrine can be turned on its head, the peptidoglycan layer of polar-growing bacteria features unusual crosslinks and in some species the quintessential cell division proteins FtsA and FtsZ are recruited to the growing poles. Remarkably, numerous medically important pathogens utilize polar growth, accentuating the need for intensive research in this area. Here we review models of polar growth in bacteria based on recent research in the Actinomycetales and Rhizobiales, with emphasis on Mycobacterium and Agrobacterium species.

Interaction sites of DivIVA and RodA from Corynebacterium glutamicum

Elongation growth in actinobacteria is localized at the cell poles. This is in contrast to many classical model organisms where insertion of new cell wall material is localized around the lateral site. We previously described a role of RodA from Corynebacterium glutamicum in apical cell growth and morphogenesis. Deletion of rodA had drastic effects on morphology and growth, likely a result from misregulation of penicillin-binding proteins and cell wall precursor delivery. We identified the interaction of RodA with the polar scaffold protein DivIVA, thus explaining subcellular localization of RodA to the cell poles. In this study, we describe this interaction in detail and map the interaction sites of DivIVA and RodA. A single amino acid residue in the N-terminal domain of DivIVA was found to be crucial for the interaction with RodA. The interaction site of RodA was mapped to its cytoplasmic, C-terminal domain, in a region encompassing the last 10 amino acids (AAs). Deletion of these 10 AAs significantly decreased the interaction efficiency with DivIVA. Our results corroborate the interaction of DivIVA and RodA, underscoring the important role of DivIVA as a spatial organizer of the elongation machinery in Corynebacterineae.

Polar localization of a tripartite complex of the two-component system DcuS/DcuR and the transporter DctA in Escherichia coli depends on the sensor kinase DcuS

The C4-dicarboxylate responsive sensor kinase DcuS of the DcuS/DcuR two-component system of E. coli is membrane-bound and reveals a polar localization. DcuS uses the C4-dicarboxylate transporter DctA as a co-regulator forming DctA/DcuS sensor units. Here it is shown by fluorescence microscopy with fusion proteins that DcuS has a dynamic and preferential polar localization, even at very low expression levels. Single assemblies of DcuS had high mobility in fast time lapse acquisitions, and fast recovery in FRAP experiments, excluding polar accumulation due to aggregation. DctA and DcuR fused to derivatives of the YFP protein are dispersed in the membrane or in the cytosol, respectively, when expressed without DcuS, but co-localize with DcuS when co-expressed at appropriate levels. Thus, DcuS is required for location of DctA and DcuR at the poles and formation of tripartite DctA/DcuS/DcuR sensor/regulator complexes. Vice versa, DctA, DcuR and the alternative succinate transporter DauA were not essential for polar localization of DcuS, suggesting that the polar trapping occurs by DcuS. Cardiolipin, the high curvature at the cell poles, and the cytoskeletal protein MreB were not required for polar localization. In contrast, polar localization of DcuS required the presence of the cytoplasmic PAS(C) and the kinase domains of DcuS.

LocZ is a new cell division protein involved in proper septum placement in Streptococcus pneumoniae

How bacteria control proper septum placement at midcell, to guarantee the generation of identical daughter cells, is still largely unknown. Although different systems involved in the selection of the division site have been described in selected species, these do not appear to be widely conserved. Here, we report that LocZ (Spr0334), a newly identified cell division protein, is involved in proper septum placement in Streptococcus pneumoniae. We show that locZ is not essential but that its deletion results in cell division defects and shape deformation, causing cells to divide asymmetrically and generate unequally sized, occasionally anucleated, daughter cells. LocZ has a unique localization profile. It arrives early at midcell, before FtsZ and FtsA, and leaves the septum early, apparently moving along with the equatorial rings that mark the future division sites. Consistently, cells lacking LocZ also show misplacement of the Z-ring, suggesting that it could act as a positive regulator to determine septum placement. LocZ was identified as a substrate of the Ser/Thr protein kinase StkP, which regulates cell division in S. pneumoniae. Interestingly, homologues of LocZ are found only in streptococci, lactococci, and enterococci, indicating that this close phylogenetically related group of bacteria evolved a specific solution to spatially regulate cell division.

IMPORTANCE

Bacterial cell division is a highly ordered process regulated in time and space. Recently, we reported that the Ser/Thr protein kinase StkP regulates cell division in Streptococcus pneumoniae, through phosphorylation of several key proteins. Here, we characterized one of the StkP substrates, Spr0334, which we named LocZ. We show that LocZ is a new cell division protein important for proper septum placement and likely functions as a marker of the cell division site. Consistently, LocZ supports proper Z-ring positioning at midcell. LocZ is conserved only among streptococci, lactococci, and enterococci, which lack homologues of the Min and nucleoid occlusion effectors, indicating that these bacteria adapted a unique mechanism to find their middle, reflecting their specific shape and symmetry.

Molecular modeling of lipid membrane curvature induction by a peptide: more than simply shape

Molecular dynamics simulations of an amphipathic helix embedded in a lipid bilayer indicate that it will induce substantial positive curvature (e.g., a tube of diameter 20 nm at 16% surface coverage). The induction is twice that of a continuum model prediction that only considers the shape of the inclusion. The discrepancy is explained in terms of the additional presence of specific interactions described only by the molecular model. The conclusion that molecular shape alone is insufficient to quantitatively model curvature is supported by contrasting molecular and continuum models of lipids with large and small headgroups (choline and ethanolamine, respectively), and of the removal of a lipid tail (modeling a lyso-lipid). For the molecular model, curvature propensity is analyzed by computing the derivative of the free energy with respect to bending. The continuum model predicts that the inclusion will soften the bilayer near the headgroup region, an effect that may weaken curvature induction. The all-atom predictions are consistent with experimental observations of the degree of tubulation by amphipathic helices and variation of the free energy of binding to liposomes.

RNA localization in bacteria

One of the most important discoveries in the field of microbiology in the last two decades is that bacterial cells have intricate subcellular organization. This understanding has emerged mainly from the depiction of spatial and temporal organization of proteins in specific domains within bacterial cells, e.g., midcell, cell poles, membrane and periplasm. Because translation of bacterial RNA molecules was considered to be strictly coupled to their synthesis, they were not thought to specifically localize to regions outside the nucleoid. However, the increasing interest in RNAs, including non-coding RNAs, encouraged researchers to explore the spatial and temporal localization of RNAs in bacteria. The recent technological improvements in the field of fluorescence microscopy allowed subcellular imaging of RNAs even in the tiny bacterial cells. It has been reported by several groups, including ours that transcripts may specifically localize in such cells. Here we review what is known about localization of RNA and of the pathways that determine RNA fate in bacteria, and discuss the possible cues and mechanisms underlying these distribution patterns.

Regulation of cell polarity in bacteria

Bacteria are polarized cells with many asymmetrically localized proteins that are regulated temporally and spatially. This spatiotemporal dynamics is critical for several fundamental cellular processes including growth, division, cell cycle regulation, chromosome segregation, differentiation, and motility. Therefore, understanding how proteins find their correct location at the right time is crucial for elucidating bacterial cell function. Despite the diversity of proteins displaying spatiotemporal dynamics, general principles for the dynamic regulation of protein localization to the cell poles and the midcell are emerging. These principles include diffusion-capture, self-assembling polymer-forming landmark proteins, nonpolymer forming landmark proteins, matrix-dependent self-organizing ParA/MinD ATPases, and small Ras-like GTPases.

A function of DivIVA in Listeria monocytogenes division site selection

The cell division protein DivIVA influences protein transport via the accessory SecA2 secretion route in Listeria monocytogenes. In contrast, DivIVA from the closely related bacterium Bacillus subtilis contributes to division site selection via the MinCDJ system. However, no classical min phenotype, i.e. filamentation and minicell production was observed with a listerial ΔdivIVA mutant. This has prompted the speculation that division site selection is DivIVA-independent in L. monocytogenes. We addressed this question with genetic, cytological and bacterial two-hybrid experiments and the data obtained correct this view. DivIVA not only binds to MinJ but also directly interacts with MinD. Experiments with fluorescently tagged proteins showed that localization of MinC and MinD was clearly DivIVA-dependent, whereas localization of MinJ was not. An impact of DivIVA on cell division was confirmed by careful comparisons of cell size distributions of divIVA and secA2 mutants. Gene deletion studies and epistasis experiments consistently reinforced these findings, and also revealed that MinJ must have a DivIVA-independent function. The frequency of minicell formation is low in L. monocytogenes min mutants. However, since listerial minicells might be useful as carriers for the introduction of therapeutic compounds into eukaryotic cells, we present a strategy how minicell frequency can be increased.

Delineation of polar localization domains of Agrobacterium tumefaciens type IV secretion apparatus proteins VirB4 and VirB11

Agrobacterium tumefaciens transfers DNA and proteins to a plant cell through a type IV secretion apparatus assembled by the VirB proteins. All VirB proteins localized to a cell pole, although these conclusions are in dispute. To study subcellular location of the VirB proteins and to identify determinants of their subcellular location, we tagged two proteins, VirB4 and VirB11, with the visual marker green fluorescent protein (GFP) and studied localization of the fusion proteins by epifluorescence microscopy. Both GFP-VirB4 and GFP-VirB11 fusions localized to a single cell pole. GFP-VirB11 was also functional in DNA transfer. To identify the polar localization domains (PLDs) of VirB4 and VirB11, we analyzed fusions of GFP with smaller segments of the two proteins. Two noncontiguous regions in VirB4, residues 236–470 and 592–789, contain PLDs. The VirB11 PLD mapped to a 69 amino acid segment, residues 149–217, in the central region of the protein. These domains are probably involved in interactions that target the two proteins to a cell pole.