The pre-B-cell receptor: selector of fitting immunoglobulin heavy chains for the B-cell repertoire

Silencing and nuclear repositioning of the lambda5 gene locus at the pre-B cell stage requires Aiolos and OBF-1

The chromatin regulator Aiolos and the transcriptional coactivator OBF-1 have been implicated in regulating aspects of B cell maturation and activation. Mice lacking either of these factors have a largely normal early B cell development. However, when both factors are eliminated simultaneously a block is uncovered at the transition between pre-B and immature B cells, indicating that these proteins exert a critical function in developing B lymphocytes. In mice deficient for Aiolos and OBF-1, the numbers of immature B cells are reduced, small pre-BII cells are increased and a significant impairment in immunoglobulin light chain DNA rearrangement is observed. We identified genes whose expression is deregulated in the pre-B cell compartment of these mice. In particular, we found that components of the pre-BCR, such as the surrogate light chain genes λ5 and VpreB, fail to be efficiently silenced in double-mutant mice. Strikingly, developmentally regulated nuclear repositioning of the λ5 gene is impaired in pre-B cells lacking OBF-1 and Aiolos. These studies uncover a novel role for OBF-1 and Aiolos in controlling the transcription and nuclear organization of genes involved in pre-BCR function.

Selective role of calcineurin in haematopoiesis and lymphopoiesis

The calcineurin/NFAT (nuclear factor of activated T-cells) signalling pathway is essential for many aspects of vertebrate development and is the target of the widely used immunosuppressive drugs FK506 and cyclosporine A. The basis for the therapeutic specificity of these drugs has remained unclear, as calcineurin is expressed ubiquitously. By inactivating calcineurin during haematopoietic development, we found that although this signalling pathway has an important, non-redundant role in the regulation of lymphocyte developmental checkpoints, it is not essential for the development of blood myeloid lineages. These studies have shown that the specificity of calcineurin inhibitors arises from the selective use of calcineurin at distinct developmental stages. The requirement for calcineurin/NFAT in the development of the adaptive but not of the innate immune system is consistent with the idea that the evolutionary appearance of this pathway was involved in the emergence of vertebrates.

IRF8 regulates B-cell lineage specification, commitment, and differentiation

PU.1, IKAROS, E2A, EBF, and PAX5 comprise a transcriptional network that orchestrates B-cell lineage specification, commitment, and differentiation. Here we identify interferon regulatory factor 8 (IRF8) as another component of this complex, and show that it also modulates lineage choice by hematopoietic stem cells (HSCs). IRF8 binds directly to an IRF8/Ets consensus sequence located in promoter regions of Sfpi1 and Ebf1, which encode PU.1 and EBF, respectively, and is associated with transcriptional repression of Sfpi1 and transcriptional activation of Ebf1. Bone marrows of IRF8 knockout mice (IRF8(-/-)) had significantly reduced numbers of pre-pro-B cells and increased numbers of myeloid cells. Although HSCs of IRF8(-/-) mice failed to differentiate to B220(+) B-lineage cells in vitro, the defect could be rescued by transfecting HSCs with wild-type but not with a signaling-deficient IRF8 mutant. In contrast, overexpression of IRF8 in HSC-differentiated progenitor cells resulted in growth inhibition and apoptosis. We also found that IRF8 was expressed at higher levels in pre-pro-B cells than more mature B cells in wild-type mice. Together, these results indicate that IRF8 modulates lineage choice by HSCs and is part of the transcriptional network governing B-cell lineage specification, commitment, and differentiation.

A unique role for the lambda5 nonimmunoglobulin tail in early B lymphocyte development

Precursor BCR (pre-BCR) signaling governs proliferation and differentiation of pre-B cells during B lymphocyte development. However, it is controversial as to which parts of the pre-BCR, which is composed of Igmu H chain, surrogate L chain (SLC), and Igalpha-Igbeta, are important for signal initiation. Here, we show in transgenic mice that the N-terminal non-Ig-like (unique) tail of the surrogate L chain component lambda5 is critical for enhancing pre-BCR-induced proliferation signals. Pre-BCRs with a mutated lambda5 unique tail are still transported to the cell surface, but they deliver only basal signals that trigger survival and differentiation of pre-B cells. Further, we demonstrate that the positively charged residues of the lambda5 unique tail, which are required for pre-BCR self-oligomerization, can also mediate binding to stroma cell-associated self-Ags, such as heparan sulfate. These findings establish the lambda5 unique tail as a pre-BCR-specific autoreactive signaling motif that could increase the size of the primary Ab repertoire by selectively expanding pre-B cells with functional Igmu H chains.

B lymphocytes: how they develop and function

The discovery that lymphocyte subpopulations participate in distinct components of the immune response focused attention onto the origins and function of lymphocytes more than 40 years ago. Studies in the 1960s and 1970s demonstrated that B and T lymphocytes were responsible primarily for the basic functions of antibody production and cell-mediated immune responses, respectively. The decades that followed have witnessed a continuum of unfolding complexities in B-cell development, subsets, and function that could not have been predicted. Some of the landmark discoveries that led to our current understanding of B lymphocytes as the source of protective innate and adaptive antibodies are highlighted in this essay. The phenotypic and functional diversity of B lymphocytes, their regulatory roles independent of antibody production, and the molecular events that make this lineage unique are also considered. Finally, perturbations in B-cell development that give rise to certain types of congenital immunodeficiency, leukemia/lymphoma, and autoimmune disease are discussed in the context of normal B-cell development and selection. Despite the significant advances that have been made at the cellular and molecular levels, there is much more to learn, and cross-disciplinary studies in hematology and immunology will continue to pave the way for new discoveries.

From gene amplification to V(D)J recombination and back: a personal account of my early years in B cell biology

I have been invited to write a short historical feature in the context of being a co-recipient with Klaus Rajewsky and Fritz Melchers of the 2007 Novartis Prize in Basic Immunology that was given in the general area of the molecular biology of B cells. In this feature, I cover the main points of the short talk that I presented at the Award Ceremony at the International Immunology Congress in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. This talk focused primarily on the work and people involved early on in generating the models and ideas that have formed the basis for my ongoing efforts in the areas of V(D)J recombination and B cell development.

Surrogate-light-chain silencing is not critical for the limitation of pre-B cell expansion but is for the termination of constitutive signaling

The pre-B cell receptor (pre-BCR), composed of immunoglobulin mu heavy chain and the surrogate light chain (SLC) proteins lambda5 and Vpreb, signals for proliferation and maturation of developing pre-B cells. It has been assumed that pre-B cells stop cycling by the pre-BCR-mediated downregulation of SLC transcription. We generated transgenic mice expressing SLC throughout B cell development and, remarkably, found that enforced SLC expression had no effect on pre-B cell proliferation or differentiation. However, in the presence of conventional immunoglobulin light chains, SLC components had the capacity to induce constitutive BCR internalization, secondary immunoglobulin light-chain rearrangement, and a severe developmental arrest of immature B cells, dependent on the adaptor protein Slp65. Residual B cells in the spleen showed increased expression of surface CD5, which is a negative regulator of BCR signaling, and differentiated spontaneously into IgM+ plasma cells. Thus, the silencing of SLC genes is not essential for the limitation of pre-B cell proliferation, but is required for the prevention of constitutive activation of B cells.

Interferon regulatory factors 4 and 8 induce the expression of Ikaros and Aiolos to down-regulate pre-B-cell receptor and promote cell-cycle withdrawal in pre-B-cell development

Pre-B lymphocytes consist of 2 distinct cell populations: large pre-B and small pre-B. The large pre-B cells are newly generated pre-B cells that express pre-B-cell receptor (pre-BCR) on the surface and are highly proliferative; small pre-B cells are derived from large pre-B cells that have down-regulated pre-BCR and withdrawn from cell cycle. The molecular events that mediate the transition from cycling pre-B to small, resting pre-B have not been fully elucidated. Here, we show that interferon regulatory factors 4 and 8 (IRF4,8) suppress surrogate light chain expression and down-regulate pre-BCR in pre-B cells. Our studies further reveal that IRF4,8 induce the expression of Ikaros and Aiolos in pre-B cells, and reconstitution of expression of either one is sufficient to suppress surrogate light chain expression and down-regulate pre-BCR in pre-B cells lacking IRF4,8. Interestingly, our results also indicate that pre-B cells undergo growth inhibition and cell-cycle arrest in the presence of IRF4,8. Moreover, we provide evidence that Ikaros and Aiolos are indispensable for the down-regulation of pre-BCR and the cell-cycle withdrawal mediated by IRF4,8. Thus, IRF4,8 orchestrate the transition from large pre-B to small pre-B cells by inducing the expression of Ikaros and Aiolos.

Transcription of productive and nonproductive VDJ-recombined alleles after IgH allelic exclusion

The process of allelic exclusion ensures that each B cell expresses a B-cell receptor encoded by only one of its Ig heavy (IgH) and light (IgL) chain alleles. Although its precise mechanism is unknown, recruitment of the nonfunctional IgH allele to centromeric heterochromatin correlates with the establishment of allelic exclusion. Similarly, recruitment in activated splenic B cells correlates with cell division. In the latter, the recruited IgH allele was reported to be transcriptionally silent. However, it is not known whether monoallelic recruitment during establishment of allelic exclusion correlates with transcriptional silencing. To investigate this, we assessed the transcriptional status of both IgH alleles in single primary cells over the course of B-cell development, using RNA fluorescence in situ hybridization. Before allelic exclusion both alleles are transcribed. Thereafter, in pre-BII and subsequent developmental stages both functional and nonfunctional VDJ- and DJ-transcription is observed. Thus, after the establishment of IgH allelic exclusion, monoallelic recruitment to heterochromatin does not silence VDJ- or DJ-transcription, but serves another purpose.

The CD53 and CEACAM-1 genes are genetic targets for early B cell factor

Early B cell factor (EBF)-1 is a transcription factor known to be of critical importance for early B lymphocyte development. EBF-1 has been shown to directly interact with and regulate expression of a set of genes involved in the functional formation of the pre-B cell receptor, but the dramatic phenotype observed in the EBF-1-deficient mice suggests that several additional genes are activated by this protein. In order to identify additional target genes for EBF-1, we transduced a hematopoietic progenitor cell line, BaF/3, with an EBF-1-encoding retrovirus and investigated the induced gene expression pattern by micro-arrays. This analysis suggested that among others, the CD53 and the carcinoembryonic antigen-related cell adhesion molecule (CEACAM)-1 genes both were induced by ectopic expression of EBF-1. Identification of the 5' end of the cDNA enabled the identification of promoter elements with functional binding sites for EBF-1 and ability to respond to EBF-1 expression in transient transfection assays. These data suggest that CD53 and CEACAM-1 are direct genetic targets for EBF-1, providing additional information concerning the activity of this crucial transcription factor in hematopoiesis.

Ablation of ribosomal protein L22 selectively impairs alphabeta T cell development by activation of a p53-dependent checkpoint

The alphabeta and gammadelta T lineages are thought to arise from a common precursor; however, the regulation of separation and development of these lineages is not fully understood. We report here that development of alphabeta and gammadelta precursors was differentially affected by elimination of ribosomal protein L22 (Rpl22), which is ubiquitously expressed but not essential for translation. Rpl22 deficiency selectively arrested development of alphabeta-lineage T cells at the beta-selection checkpoint by inducing their death. The death was caused by induction of p53 expression, because p53 deficiency blocked death and restored development of Rpl22-deficient thymocytes. Importantly, Rpl22 deficiency led to selective upregulation of p53 in alphabeta-lineage thymocytes, at least in part by increasing p53 synthesis. Taken together, these data indicate that Rpl22 deficiency activated a p53-dependent checkpoint that produced a remarkably selective block in alphabeta T cell development but spared gammadelta-lineage cells, suggesting that some ribosomal proteins may perform cell-type-specific or stage-specific functions.

Reversible contraction by looping of the Tcra and Tcrb loci in rearranging thymocytes

Reversible contraction of immunoglobulin loci juxtaposes the variable (V) genes next to the (diversity)-joining-constant ((D)JC) gene domain, thus facilitating V-(D)J recombination. Here we show that the T cell receptor beta (Tcrb) and T cell receptor alphadelta (Tcra-Tcrd) loci also underwent long-range interactions by looping in double-negative and double-positive thymocytes, respectively. Contraction of the Tcrb and Tcra loci occurred in rearranging thymocytes and was reversed at the next developmental stage. Decontraction of the Tcrb locus probably prevented further V(beta)-DJ(beta) rearrangements in double-positive thymocytes by separating the V(beta) genes from the DJC(beta) domain. In most double-negative cells, one Tcrb allele was recruited to pericentromeric heterochromatin. Such allelic positioning may facilitate asynchronous V(beta)-DJ(beta) recombination. Hence, pericentromeric recruitment and locus 'decontraction' seem to contribute to the initiation and maintenance of allelic exclusion at the Tcrb locus.

Conventional Light Chains Inhibit the Autonomous Signaling Capacity of the B Cell Receptor

Signals from the B cell antigen receptor (BCR), consisting of mu heavy chain (muHC) and conventional light chain (LC), and its precursor the pre-BCR, consisting of muHC and surrogate light chain (SLC), via the adaptor protein SLP-65 regulate the development and function of B cells. Here, we compare the effect of SLC and conventional LC expression on receptor-induced Ca(2+) flux in B cells expressing an inducible form of SLP-65. We found that SLC expression strongly enhanced an autonomous ability of muHC to induce Ca(2+) flux irrespective of additional receptor crosslinking. In contrast, LC expression reduced this autonomous muHC ability and resulted in antigen-dependent Ca(2+) flux. These data indicate that autonomous ligand-independent signaling can be induced by receptor forms other than the pre-BCR. In addition, our data suggest that conventional LCs play an important role in the inhibition of autonomous receptor signaling, thereby allowing further B cell differentiation.

The pre-B-cell receptor

The pre-B-cell receptor (pre-BCR) is composed of two immunoglobulin mu heavy chains and two surrogate light chains, which associate with the signaling molecules Igalpha and Igbeta (Igalpha/beta). The production of a functional pre-BCR is the first checkpoint in the current model of B-cell development. The pre-BCR mediates signals resulting in heavy chain allelic exclusion, down-regulation of the recombination machinery, developmental progression, V(H) repertoire selection, proliferation and down-regulation of the surrogate light chain genes. Recent studies suggest that some of these processes could take place at an earlier stage in B-cell development than previously thought, and might not result from signals mediated by the pre-BCR.

Fate decisions regulating bone marrow and peripheral B lymphocyte development

In adult mammals, bone marrow pluripotent hematopoietic stem cells generate B lymphoid-specified progeny that progress through a series of well-characterized stages before generating B-cell receptor expressing B lymphocytes. These functionally immature B lymphocytes then migrate to the spleen wherein they differentiate through transitional stages into follicular or marginal zone B lymphocytes capable of responding to T-dependent and -independent antigens, respectively. During the terminal stages of B lymphocyte development in the bone marrow, as well as immediately following egress into the peripheral compartments, B lymphocytes are counterselected to eliminate B lymphocytes with potentially dangerous self-reactivity. These developmental and selection events in the bone marrow and periphery are dependent on the integration of intrinsic genetic programs with extrinsic microenvironmental signals that drive progenitors toward increasing B lineage commitment and maturation. This chapter provides a comprehensive overview of the various stages of primary and secondary B lymphocyte development with an emphasis on the selection processes that affect decisions at critical checkpoints. Our intent is to stress the concept that at many steps in the developmental process leading to a mature immunocompetent B lymphocyte, B lineage cells are integrating multiple and different signaling inputs that are translated into specific and appropriate cell fate decisions.

Molecular basis for pre-TCR-mediated autonomous signaling

The pre-T-cell receptor (pre-TCR) is a multimeric complex composed of a nascent TCRbeta chain, an invariant pre-TCRalpha (pTalpha) chain and CD3 molecules, and is crucial for early T-cell development. Despite its structural similarity to the mature alphabetaTCR, which requires MHC-antigen for receptor triggering, the pre-TCR is proposed to initiate signals in a ligand-independent manner. However, the molecular mechanism underlying the autonomous signaling is still unclear. Recent studies have revealed that pTalpha possesses unique characteristics that promote autonomous signaling. In this review, we summarize current data relating to the molecular mechanism underlying the initiation of pre-TCR-mediated autonomous signaling.

Receptor editing in lymphocyte development and central tolerance

The specificities of lymphocytes for antigen are generated by a quasi-random process of gene rearrangement that often results in non-functional or autoreactive antigen receptors. Regulation of lymphocyte specificities involves not only the elimination of cells that display 'unsuitable' receptors for antigen but also the active genetic correction of these receptors by secondary recombination of the DNA. As I discuss here, an important mechanism for the genetic correction of antigen receptors is ongoing recombination, which leads to receptor editing. Receptor editing is probably an adaptation that is necessitated by the high probability of receptor autoreactivity. In both B cells and T cells, the genes that encode the two chains of the antigen receptor seem to be specialized to promote, on the one hand, the generation of diverse specificities and, on the other hand, the regulation of these specificities through efficient editing.

Association of the pre-B cell receptor (BCR) expression level with the quality of pre-BII cell differentiation reveals hierarchical pre-BCR function

The expression of a pre-B cell receptor (pre-BCR) is required for allelic exclusion and pre-BII cell differentiation. V(H)12 microH chains are unusual in that they form pre-BCRs and mediate allelic exclusion, but most cannot drive pre-BII cell differentiation. To explain this paradox, we examined pre-BCR functions and pre-BII cell differentiation in mice expressing microH chain transgenes encoding a B cell-permissible V(H)12 microH chain (designated 10/G4(6-1)), and a non-permissible V(H)12 microH chain (designated 8/G0). Compared with 10/G4 pre-BCRs, 8/G0 pre-BCRs are expressed at low levels on the cell surface. 8/G0 pre-BCRs mediate allelic exclusion, but 8/G0 pre-BII cells are defective in proliferation and expression of survival factors Bcl-2, Bcl-X(L) and hemokinin 1 (HK1). Increasing 8/G0 microH chain production restores HK1 transcription and improves proliferation of pre-BII cells as well as later stage B cell development. These data reveal a hierarchy of pre-BCR function that determines the development and plasticity of early B cells.

Testing gene function early in the B cell lineage in mb1-cre mice

The mb1 gene encodes the Ig-alpha signaling subunit of the B cell antigen receptor and is expressed exclusively in B cells beginning at the very early pro-B cell stage in the bone marrow. We examine here the efficacy of the mb1 gene as a host locus for cre recombinase expression in B cells. We show that by integrating a humanized cre recombinase into the mb1 locus we obtain extraordinarily efficient recombination of loxP sites in the B cell lineage. The results from a variety of reporter genes including the splicing factor SRp20 and the DNA methylase Dnmt1 suggest that mb1-cre is probably the best model so far described for pan-B cell-specific cre expression. The availability of a mouse line with efficient cre-mediated recombination at an early developmental stage in the B lineage provides an opportunity to study the role of various genes specifically in B cell development and function.

B cell tolerance--how to make it and how to break it

A series of checkpoints for antigen receptor fitness and specificity during B cell development ensures the elimination or anergy of primary, high-avidity-autoantigen-reactive B cells. Defects in genes encoding molecules with which this purging of the original B cell repertoires is achieved may break this B cell tolerance, allowing the development of B cell- and autoantibody-mediated immune diseases. Furthermore, whenever tolerance of helper T cells to a part of an autoantigen is broken, a T cell-dependent germinal center-type response of the remaining low--or no--autoreactive B cells is activated. It induces longevity of these B cells, and expression of AiD, which effects Ig class switching and IgV-region hypermutation. The development of V-region-mutant B cells and the selections of high-avidity-autoantigen-reactive antibodies producing B cells by autoantigens from them, again, can lead to the development and propagation of autoimmune diseases such as lupus erythematosus or chronic inflammatory rheumatoid arthritis by the autoantibody BcR-expressing B cells and their secreted autoantibodies.

Precursor B cell receptor signaling activity can be uncoupled from surface expression

Signals from the precursor BCR (preBCR) cause proliferation and differentiation of progenitor (pro-) B cells into pre-B cells. Given the very low amounts of surface preBCRs and the demonstrated cell autonomy of preBCR signaling, we examined the possible occurrence of preBCR signal propagation from intracellular membranes such as the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) and the trans-Golgi network (TGN) in transformed and primary pro-B cells. PreBCRs composed of normal Ig mu or truncated Dmu heavy chains (HCs) were redirected to intracellular sites via localization sequences appended to the HC cytoplasmic tail. PreBCR complexes retained in the TGN or shunted from the TGN to lysosomes were as or 50% as active as the corresponding wild-type preBCRs in directing preBCR-dependent events, including CD2 and CD22 expression and proliferation in primary pro-B cells. This occurred despite their low to undetectable surface expression in transformed cells, which otherwise allowed significant surface accumulation of wild-type preBCRs. In contrast, ER-retained preBCRs were inactive. These results suggest that preBCR signaling is remarkably tolerant of dramatic changes in its subcellular distribution within post-ER compartments and support the possibility that the preBCR can activate signaling pathways in the TGN as well as the plasma membrane.

Bruton's tyrosine kinase and SLP-65 regulate pre-B cell differentiation and the induction of Ig light chain gene rearrangement

Bruton's tyrosine kinase (Btk) and the adapter protein SLP-65 (Src homology 2 domain-containing leukocyte-specific phosphoprotein of 65 kDa) transmit precursor BCR (pre-BCR) signals that are essential for efficient developmental progression of large cycling into small resting pre-B cells. We show that Btk- and SLP-65-deficient pre-B cells have a specific defect in Ig lambda L chain germline transcription. In Btk/SLP-65 double-deficient pre-B cells, both kappa and lambda germline transcripts are severely reduced. Although these observations point to an important role for Btk and SLP-65 in the initiation of L chain gene rearrangement, the possibility remained that these signaling molecules are only required for termination of pre-B cell proliferation or for pre-B cell survival, whereby differentiation and L chain rearrangement is subsequently initiated in a Btk/SLP-65-independent fashion. Because transgenic expression of the antiapoptotic protein Bcl-2 did not rescue the developmental arrest of Btk/SLP-65 double-deficient pre-B cells, we conclude that defective L chain opening in Btk/SLP-65-deficient small resting pre-B cells is not due to their reduced survival. Next, we analyzed transgenic mice expressing the constitutively active Btk mutant E41K. The expression of E41K-Btk in Ig H chain-negative pro-B cells induced 1) surface marker changes that signify cellular differentiation, including down-regulation of surrogate L chain and up-regulation of CD2, CD25, and MHC class II; and 2) premature rearrangement and expression of kappa and lambda light chains. These findings demonstrate that Btk and SLP-65 transmit signals that induce cellular maturation and Ig L chain rearrangement independently of their role in termination of pre-B cell expansion.

A unique function for cyclin D3 in early B cell development

During hematopoiesis, stem cell proliferation is dependent on expression of the D-type cyclins. However, little is known about how each cyclin D contributes to the development of specific hematopoietic lineages. Here, analysis of Ccnd1(-/-), Ccnd2(-/-), Ccnd3(-/-) and Ccnd2(-/-)Ccnd3(-/-) mice showed that cyclin D3 was uniquely required for the development of pre-B cells. Transcription of Ccnd3 was dependent on expression of the common gamma-chain. In contrast, expression of the pre-B cell receptor and activation of 'downstream' signaling pathways prevented proteasome-mediated degradation of cyclin D3. Cyclin D3 has a key function in B cell development by integrating cytokine and pre-B cell receptor-dependent signals to expand the pool of pre-B cells that have successfully rearranged immunoglobulin heavy chain.

Powered by pairing: The surrogate light chain amplifies immunoglobulin heavy chain signaling and pre-selects the antibody repertoire

Selective expansion of functional pre-B cells is accomplished by the assembly of a signaling-competent pre-B cell receptor (pre-BCR) consisting of immunoglobulin mu heavy chains (muHC), surrogate light chains (SLC) and Igalpha/Igbeta. Here, we review recent data showing that muHCs, in the absence of SLC, deliver autonomous differentiation signals. However, enhanced signaling necessary for pre-B cell expansion requires cross-linking of pre-BCRs via the non-immunoglobulin tail of SLC's subunit lambda5. We also discuss how SLC's ability to modulate the strength of pre-BCR signals is controlled by a muHC's idiotype and its affinity to the chaperone BiP. In this model, BiP in concert with SLC functions as a pre-selector of the antibody repertoire.

Involvement of SLP-65 and Btk in tumor suppression and malignant transformation of pre-B cells

Signals from the precursor-B cell receptor (pre-BCR) are essential for selection and clonal expansion of pre-B cells that have performed productive immunoglobulin heavy chain V(D)J recombination. In the mouse, the downstream signaling molecules SLP-65 and Btk cooperate to limit proliferation and induce differentiation of pre-B cells, thereby acting as tumor suppressors to prevent pre-B cell leukemia. In contrast, recent observations in human BCR-ABL1(+) pre-B lymphoblastic leukemia cells demonstrate that Btk is constitutively phosphorylated and activated by the BCR-ABL1 fusion protein. As a result, activated Btk transmits survival signals that are essential for the transforming activity of oncogenic Abl tyrosine kinase.

Role of transcription factors in commitment and differentiation of early B lymphoid cells

B lymphopoiesis is a differentiation process in which hematopoietic stem cells are converted into antibody-producing plasma cells. B cell differentiation involves multiple steps, including cell specification, commitment to the B cell lineage, immunoglobulin rearrangements, maturation of B cells and terminal differentiation into plasma cells. Each of these steps is controlled by signaling pathways and transcription factors that act in synergy, feedback-loops or cross-antagonism to generate complex regulatory networks that allow for plasticity and stability of B cell differentiation.

Pre-BCR signals and the control of Ig gene rearrangements

Progenitor B lymphocytes that successfully assemble a heavy chain gene encoding an immunoglobulin capable of pairing with surrogate light chain proteins trigger their own further differentiation by signaling via the pre-BCR complex. The pre-BCR signals several rounds of proliferation and, in this expanded population, directs a complex, B cell-specific set of epigenetic changes resulting in allelic exclusion of the heavy chain locus and activation of the light chain loci for V(D)J recombination.

Accessibility control of V(D)J recombination

Mammals contend with a universe of evolving pathogens by generating an enormous diversity of antigen receptors during lymphocyte development. Precursor B and T cells assemble functional immunoglobulin (Ig) and T cell receptor (TCR) genes via recombination of numerous variable (V), diversity (D), and joining (J) gene segments. Although this combinatorial process generates significant diversity, genetic reorganization is inherently dangerous. Thus, V(D)J recombination must be tightly regulated to ensure proper lymphocyte development and avoid chromosomal translocations that cause lymphoid tumors. Each genomic rearrangement is mediated by a common V(D)J recombinase that recognizes sequences flanking all antigen receptor gene segments. The specificity of V(D)J recombination is due, in large part, to changes in the accessibility of chromatin at target gene segments, which either permits or restricts access to recombinase. The chromatin configuration of antigen receptor loci is governed by the concerted action of enhancers and promoters, which function as accessibility control elements (ACEs). In general, ACEs act as conduits for transcription factors, which in turn recruit enzymes that covalently modify or remodel nucleosomes. These ACE-mediated alterations are critical for activation of gene segment transcription and for opening chromatin associated with recombinase target sequences. In this chapter, we describe advances in understanding the mechanisms that control V(D)J recombination at the level of chromatin accessibility. The discussion will focus on cis-acting regulation by ACEs, the nuclear factors that control ACE function, and the epigenetic modifications that establish recombinase accessibility.

Only VpreB1, but not VpreB2, is expressed at levels which allow normal development of B cells

The surrogate light chain (SLC) consists of the polypeptides lambda5 and, in the mouse, either VpreB1 or VpreB2. SLC associates with BILL-Cadherin and other glycoproteins to form the pro-B cell receptor (pro-BCR) at the pre-BI cell stage, and with the immunoglobulin mu heavy chain to form the pre-BCR at the pre-BII cell stage. The function of the pro-BCR, if any, is unknown, whereas the pre-BCR is crucial for proliferative expansion of pre-BII cells. To shed light on the functional properties of VpreB1 and VpreB2 in vivo, mice with either one or two VpreB1, or one or two VpreB2, alleles have been investigated. We show that B cell development in mice with two VpreB1 alleles is indistinguishable from that of normal mice. In contrast, mice with two VpreB2 alleles show an approximately 1.6-fold increase in pre-BI and a 35% decrease in pre-BII cell numbers, while mice with only one VpreB2 allele show a reduction in B cell development manifested in a 2-fold enrichment in pre-BI cells and a 75% reduction in pre-BII cells. However, such a gene dosage effect is not observed for VpreB1. Our results suggest that the difference between VpreB1- and VpreB2-deficient mice is due to lower VpreB2 protein expression, thus limiting the formation of pre-BCRs and thereby the number of large, cycling pre-BII cells.

The pre-B-cell receptor induces silencing of VpreB and lambda5 transcription

The pre-B-cell receptor (pre-BCR), composed of Ig heavy and surrogate light chain (SLC), signals pre-BII-cell proliferative expansion. We have investigated whether the pre-BCR also signals downregulation of the SLC genes (VpreB and lambda5), thereby limiting this expansion. We demonstrate that, as BM cells progress from the pre-BI to large pre-BII-cell stage, there is a shift from bi- to mono-allelic lambda5 transcription, while the second allele is silenced in small pre-BII cells. A VpreB1-promoter-driven transgene shows the same pattern, therefore suggesting that VpreB1 is similarly regulated and thereby defines the promoter as a target for transcriptional silencing. Analyses of pre-BCR-deficient mice show a temporal delay in lambda5 downregulation, thereby demonstrating that the pre-BCR is essential for monoallelic silencing at the large pre-BII-cell stage. Our data also suggest that SLP-65 is one of the signaling components important for this process. Furthermore, the VpreB1/lambda5 alleles undergo dynamic changes with respect to nuclear positioning and heterochromatin association, thereby providing a possible mechanism for their transcriptional silencing.

Unique features of the pre-T-cell receptor α-chain: not just a surrogate

The pre-T-cell receptor (pre-TCR) has a crucial role in the normal development of alphabeta T cells. Different views have emerged concerning the structure and function of the pre-TCR. This molecular complex can be viewed as a variant of the alphabeta-TCR in which the pre-TCR alpha-chain that is covalently associated with the TCR beta-chain is a 'surrogate' TCR alpha-chain. Alternatively, the unique structure of the pre-TCR might be associated with a unique function, owing to evolutionary selection of a pre-TCR alpha-chain that has different capabilities from the TCR alpha-chain. As described here, I consider that experimental evidence favours the latter view.