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Rolf L, Muris AH, Hupperts R, Damoiseaux J. Illuminating vitamin D effects on B cells--the multiple sclerosis perspective. Immunology 2016; 147:275-84. [PMID: 26714674 DOI: 10.1111/imm.12572] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/04/2015] [Revised: 12/17/2015] [Accepted: 12/18/2015] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Vitamin D is associated with many immune-mediated disorders. In multiple sclerosis (MS) a poor vitamin D status is a major environmental factor associated with disease incidence and severity. The inflammation in MS is primarily T-cell-mediated, but increasing evidence points to an important role for B cells. This has paved the way for investigating vitamin D effects on B cells. In this review we elaborate on vitamin D interactions with antibody production, T-cell-stimulating capacity and regulatory B cells. Although in vitro plasma cell generation and expression of co-stimulatory molecules are inhibited and the function of regulatory B cells is promoted, this is not supported by in vivo data. We speculate that differences might be explained by the B-cell-Epstein-Barr virus interaction in MS, the exquisite role of germinal centres in B-cell biology, and/or in vivo interactions with other hormones and vitamins that interfere with the vitamin D pathways. Further research is warranted to illuminate this tube-versus-body paradox.
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Affiliation(s)
- Linda Rolf
- School for Mental Health and Neuroscience, Maastricht University Medical Centre, Maastricht, The Netherlands.,Academic MS Centre Limburg, Zuyderland Medisch Centrum, Sittard, The Netherlands
| | - Anne-Hilde Muris
- School for Mental Health and Neuroscience, Maastricht University Medical Centre, Maastricht, The Netherlands.,Academic MS Centre Limburg, Zuyderland Medisch Centrum, Sittard, The Netherlands
| | - Raymond Hupperts
- School for Mental Health and Neuroscience, Maastricht University Medical Centre, Maastricht, The Netherlands.,Academic MS Centre Limburg, Zuyderland Medisch Centrum, Sittard, The Netherlands
| | - Jan Damoiseaux
- Central Diagnostic Laboratory, Maastricht University Medical Centre, Maastricht, The Netherlands
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Kato I, Chlebowski RT, Hou L, Wactawski-Wende J, Ray RM, Abrams J, Bock C, Desai P, Simon MS. Menopausal estrogen therapy and non-Hodgkin's lymphoma: A post-hocanalysis of women's health initiative randomized clinical trial. Int J Cancer 2016; 138:604-11. [DOI: 10.1002/ijc.29819] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/12/2015] [Accepted: 08/14/2015] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Ikuko Kato
- Department of Oncology; Wayne State University School of Medicine; Detroit MI
- Department of Pathology; Wayne State University School of Medicine; Detroit MI
| | - Rowan T. Chlebowski
- Division of Medical Oncology and Hematology, Department of Medicine; Los Angeles Biomedical Research Institute at Harbor-University of California, Los Angels Medical Center; Torrance CA
| | - Lifang Hou
- Department of Preventive Medicine and the Robert H. Lurie Comprehensive Cancer Center, Feinberg School of Medicine; Northwestern University; Evanston IL
| | - Jean Wactawski-Wende
- Departments of Epidemiology and Environmental Health; University of Buffalo; Buffalo NY
| | - Roberta M. Ray
- Division of Public Health Sciences; Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center; Seattle WA
| | - Judith Abrams
- Department of Oncology; Wayne State University School of Medicine; Detroit MI
| | - Cathryn Bock
- Department of Oncology; Wayne State University School of Medicine; Detroit MI
| | - Pinkal Desai
- Division of Hematology and Oncology, Department of Medicine; Weill Cornell Medical College; New York NY
| | - Michael S Simon
- Department of Oncology; Wayne State University School of Medicine; Detroit MI
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Abstract
In autoimmune neurologic disorders, the blood-brain barrier (BBB) plays a central role in immunopathogenesis, since this vascular interface is an entry path for cells and effector molecules of the peripheral immune system to reach the target organ, the central nervous system (CNS). The BBB's unique anatomic structure and the tightly regulated interplay of its cellular and acellular components allow for maintenance of brain homeostasis, regulation of influx and efflux, and protection from harm; these ensure an optimal environment for the neuronal network to function properly. In both health and disease, the BBB acts as mediator between the periphery and the CNS. For example, immune cell trafficking through the cerebral vasculature is essential to clear microbes or cell debris from neural tissues, while poorly regulated cellular transmigration can underlie or worsen CNS pathology. In this chapter, we focus on the specialized multicellular structure and function of the BBB/neurovascular unit and discuss how BBB breakdown can precede or be a consequence of neuroinflammation. We introduce the blood-cerebrospinal fluid barrier and include a brief aside about evolutionary aspects of barrier formation and refinements. Lastly, since restoration of barrier function is considered key to ameliorate neurologic disease, we speculate about new therapeutic avenues to repair a damaged BBB.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Ajay Verma
- Biomarkers and Experimental Medicine, Biogen, Cambridge, MA, USA
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104
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Stelzer IA, Arck PC. Immunity and the Endocrine System. ENCYCLOPEDIA OF IMMUNOBIOLOGY 2016. [PMCID: PMC7151910 DOI: 10.1016/b978-0-12-374279-7.19001-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
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105
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Ghirardello A, Gizzo S, Noventa M, Quaranta M, Vitagliano A, Gallo N, Pantano G, Beggio M, Cosma C, Gangemi M, Plebani M, Doria A. Acute immunomodulatory changes during controlled ovarian stimulation: evidence from the first trial investigating the short-term effects of estradiol on biomarkers and B cells involved in autoimmunity. J Assist Reprod Genet 2015; 32:1765-72. [PMID: 26466939 DOI: 10.1007/s10815-015-0588-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/07/2015] [Accepted: 09/28/2015] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
PURPOSE The aim of the present study was to evaluate the in vivo immunomodulatory effects of an acute short-term estradiol (E(2)) increase on serum levels of B cell-activating factor (BAFF), immunoglobulins (Ig), anti-nuclear antibodies (ANA), and the peripheral B cell phenotype. METHODS We conducted, at the Infertility Center of the University of Padua, a prospective case-control study on a cohort of infertile normo-responder women (group-A, 63 patients) undergoing controlled ovarian stimulation (COS) compared with an age-matched cohort of normo-ovulatory healthy women (group-B, 39 patients). Three serial blood sample assays were conducted in both groups, at T0, hypothalamic suppression; T1, ovulation induction; and T2, βhCG test in group A, and at T0, 2nd day; T1, 14th day; and T2, 21st day of cycle in group B, and serum levels of E(2) and BAFF, BAFF/E(2) ratio, circulating IgM, IgG, and IgA, ANA titer, and peripheral B cell phenotype were measured. We compared group-A versus group-B in terms of absolute and E(2) normalized values of BAFF at baseline (T0) to verify for possible differences between healthy and infertile women, at T1 to verify for possible differences occurring after spontaneous ovulation versus COS, and at T2 to evaluate differences in serum BAFF levels between pregnant versus non-pregnant patients (considering only group-A) and between non-pregnant women after spontaneous versus COS cycles (group-B versus group-A). In group-A, we also evaluated IgM, IgG, IgA levels, ANA titer, and peripheral B cell phenotype at T0 versus T1 versus T2. RESULTS With the exception of E(2) levels at T1 (as expected), no significant differences were found between the two groups for all outcome measures. In group-A, BAFF at T0 positively correlated with IgM levels; marginal zone CD19+/CD27+/IgD+ memory B cell compartment tended to be expanded at T1 when compared with T0. CONCLUSIONS Despite several mechanistic and clinical studies supporting a stimulatory role of E(2) on autoimmunity, the acute increase of E(2) during COS for infertility treatment does not seem to have a major impact on the immune system.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anna Ghirardello
- Division of Rheumatology, Department of Medicine, University of Padua, Padua, Italy
| | - Salvatore Gizzo
- Department of Woman and Child Health, Gynaecologic and Obstetric Unit, University of Padua, Padua, Italy. .,Dipartimento di Salute della Donna e del Bambino, U.O.C. di Ginecologia e Ostetricia, Via Giustiniani 3, 35128, Padova, Italy.
| | - Marco Noventa
- Department of Woman and Child Health, Gynaecologic and Obstetric Unit, University of Padua, Padua, Italy
| | - Michela Quaranta
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynaecology, University of Verona, Verona, Italy
| | - Amerigo Vitagliano
- Department of Woman and Child Health, Gynaecologic and Obstetric Unit, University of Padua, Padua, Italy
| | - Nicoletta Gallo
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, University of Padua, Padua, Italy
| | - Giorgia Pantano
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, University of Padua, Padua, Italy
| | - Marianna Beggio
- Division of Rheumatology, Department of Medicine, University of Padua, Padua, Italy
| | - Chiara Cosma
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, University of Padua, Padua, Italy
| | - Michele Gangemi
- Department of Woman and Child Health, Gynaecologic and Obstetric Unit, University of Padua, Padua, Italy
| | - Mario Plebani
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, University of Padua, Padua, Italy
| | - Andrea Doria
- Division of Rheumatology, Department of Medicine, University of Padua, Padua, Italy
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106
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Bernardi AI, Andersson A, Stubelius A, Grahnemo L, Carlsten H, Islander U. Selective estrogen receptor modulators in T cell development and T cell dependent inflammation. Immunobiology 2015; 220:1122-8. [DOI: 10.1016/j.imbio.2015.05.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/26/2015] [Revised: 02/26/2015] [Accepted: 05/01/2015] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
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108
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Relle M, Weinmann-Menke J, Scorletti E, Cavagna L, Schwarting A. Genetics and novel aspects of therapies in systemic lupus erythematosus. Autoimmun Rev 2015; 14:1005-18. [PMID: 26164648 DOI: 10.1016/j.autrev.2015.07.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/26/2015] [Accepted: 07/06/2015] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Autoimmune diseases, such as rheumatoid arthritis, multiple sclerosis, autoimmune hepatitis and inflammatory bowel disease, have complex pathogeneses and the factors which cause these disorders are not well understood. But all have in common that they arise from a dysfunction of the immune system, interpreting self components as foreign antigens. Systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) is one of these complex inflammatory disorders that mainly affects women and can lead to inflammation and severe damage of virtually any tissue and organ. Recently, the application of advanced techniques of genome-wide scanning revealed more genetic information about SLE than previously possible. These case-control or family-based studies have provided evidence that SLE susceptibility is based (with a few exceptions) on an individual accumulation of various risk alleles triggered by environmental factors and also help to explain the discrepancies in SLE susceptibility between different populations or ethnicities. Moreover, during the past years new therapies (autologous stem cell transplantation, B cell depletion) and improved conventional treatment options (corticosteroids, traditional and new immune-suppressants like mycophenolate mofetile) changed the perspective in SLE therapeutic approaches. Thus, this article reviews genetic aspects of this autoimmune disease, summarizes clinical aspects of SLE and provides a general overview of conventional and new therapeutic approaches in SLE.
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Affiliation(s)
- Manfred Relle
- First Department of Medicine, University Medical Center of the Johannes-Gutenberg University Mainz, Mainz, Germany
| | - Julia Weinmann-Menke
- First Department of Medicine, University Medical Center of the Johannes-Gutenberg University Mainz, Mainz, Germany
| | - Eva Scorletti
- Division of Rheumatology, IRCCS Fondazione Policlinico San Matteo, Lombardy, Pavia, Italy
| | - Lorenzo Cavagna
- Division of Rheumatology, IRCCS Fondazione Policlinico San Matteo, Lombardy, Pavia, Italy
| | - Andreas Schwarting
- First Department of Medicine, University Medical Center of the Johannes-Gutenberg University Mainz, Mainz, Germany; Acura Centre of Rheumatology Rhineland-Palatinate, Bad Kreuznach, Germany.
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109
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Ruzehaji N, Avouac J, Elhai M, Frechet M, Frantz C, Ruiz B, Distler JH, Allanore Y. Combined effect of genetic background and gender in a mouse model of bleomycin-induced skin fibrosis. Arthritis Res Ther 2015; 17:145. [PMID: 26025306 PMCID: PMC4461998 DOI: 10.1186/s13075-015-0659-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/10/2014] [Accepted: 05/21/2015] [Indexed: 02/04/2023] Open
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Systemic sclerosis (SSc) is a connective tissue disorder characterised by the development of skin fibrosis. Our current understanding of the disease pathogenesis is incomplete and the study of SSc is hindered, at least partially, by a lack of animal models that fully replicate the complex state of human disease. Murine model of bleomycin-induced dermal fibrosis encapsulates important events that take place early in the disease course. METHODS To characterise the optimum in vivo parameters required for the successful induction of dermal fibrosis we subjected three commonly used mouse strains to repeated subcutaneous bleomycin injections. We aimed to identify the effects of genetic background and gender on the severity of skin fibrosis. We used male and female Balb/C, C57BL/6, and DBA/2 strains and assessed their susceptibility to bleomycin-induced fibrosis by measuring dermal thickness, hydroxyproline/collagen content and number of resident myofibroblasts, all of which are important indicators of the severity of skin fibrosis. All data are expressed as mean values ± SEM. The Mann-Whitney U test was used for statistical analysis with GraphPad Prism 6.04 software. RESULTS Dermal fibrosis was most severe in Balb/C mice compared to C57BL/6 and DBA/2 suggesting that Balb/C mice are more susceptible to bleomycin-induced fibrosis. Analysis of the effect of gender on the severity of fibrosis showed that male Balb/C, C57BL/6, DBA/2 mice had a tendency to develop more pronounced fibrosis phenotype than female mice. Of potential importance, male Balb/C mice developed the most severe fibrosis phenotype compared to male C57BL/6 and male DBA/2 as indicated by significantly increased number of dermal myofibroblasts. CONCLUSION Our study highlights the importance of genetic background and gender in the induction of murine dermal fibrosis. Robust and reproducible animal models of fibrosis are important research tools used in pharmacological studies which may lead to better understanding of the pathogenesis of fibrotic diseases and assist in identification of new drugs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nadira Ruzehaji
- INSERM U1016/UMR 8104, Cochin Institute, Paris, France.
- Institut Cochin, INSERM U1016, Bâtiment Gustave Roussy, 27 rue du Faubourg Saint Jacques 75014, Paris, France.
| | - Jerome Avouac
- INSERM U1016/UMR 8104, Cochin Institute, Paris, France.
- Rheumatology A Department, Paris Descartes University, Paris, France.
| | - Muriel Elhai
- INSERM U1016/UMR 8104, Cochin Institute, Paris, France.
- Rheumatology A Department, Paris Descartes University, Paris, France.
| | | | | | - Barbara Ruiz
- INSERM U1016/UMR 8104, Cochin Institute, Paris, France.
| | - Joerg H Distler
- Department of Internal Medicine and Institute for Clinical Immunology, University of Erlangen-Nuremberg, Erlangen, Germany.
| | - Yannick Allanore
- INSERM U1016/UMR 8104, Cochin Institute, Paris, France.
- Rheumatology A Department, Paris Descartes University, Paris, France.
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110
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Pregnancy Associated with Systemic Lupus Erythematosus: Immune Tolerance in Pregnancy and Its Deficiency in Systemic Lupus Erythematosus--An Immunological Dilemma. J Immunol Res 2015; 2015:241547. [PMID: 26090485 PMCID: PMC4451247 DOI: 10.1155/2015/241547] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/19/2014] [Revised: 02/05/2015] [Accepted: 02/06/2015] [Indexed: 01/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Pregnancy is a physiological condition that requires immune tolerance to the product of conception. Systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) is a disease with well-represented immune mechanisms that disturb immune tolerance. The association of pregnancy with systemic lupus erythematosus creates a particular immune environment in which the immune tolerance specific of pregnancy is required to coexist with alterations of the immune system caused by SLE. The main role is played by T regulatory (Treg) cells, which attempt to regulate and adapt the immune system of the mother to the new conditions of pregnancy. Other components of the immune system also participate to maintain maternal-fetal immune tolerance. If the immune system of pregnant women with SLE is not able to maintain maternal immune tolerance to the fetus, pregnancy complications (miscarriage, fetal hypotrophy, and preterm birth) or maternal complications (preeclampsia or activation of SLE, especially in conditions of lupus nephritis) may occur. In certain situations this can be responsible for neonatal lupus. At the same time, it must be noted that during pregnancy, the immune system is able to achieve immune tolerance while maintaining the anti-infectious immune capacity of the mother. Immunological monitoring of pregnancy during SLE, as well as of the mother's disease, is required. It is important to understand immune tolerance to grafts in transplant pathology.
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111
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Abstract
Autoimmune diseases occur when the immune system attacks and destroys the organs and tissues of its own host. Autoimmunity is the third most common type of disease in the United States. Because there is no cure for autoimmunity, it is extremely important to study the mechanisms that trigger these diseases. Most autoimmune diseases predominantly affect females, indicating a strong sex bias. Various factors, including sex hormones, the presence or absence of a second X chromosome, and sex-specific gut microbiota can influence gene expression in a sex-specific way. These changes in gene expression may, in turn, lead to susceptibility or protection from autoimmunity, creating a sex bias for autoimmune diseases. In this Review we discuss recent findings in the field of sex-dependent regulation of gene expression and autoimmunity.
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112
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Jog NR, Caricchio R. 17β estradiol regulates adhesion molecule expression in mesangial cells during glomerulonephritis. Clin Immunol 2015; 159:13-22. [PMID: 25926428 DOI: 10.1016/j.clim.2015.04.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/02/2015] [Revised: 04/17/2015] [Accepted: 04/19/2015] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
Abstract
We showed previously that 17β estradiol (E2) led to improved survival in nephrotoxic serum induced nephritis (NTN) in male mice. In this study we determined whether E2 regulates vascular cell adhesion molecule (VCAM)-1, an adhesion molecule that is upregulated in kidney during autoimmune nephritis, in mesangial cells (MC). We show that E2 inhibited VCAM-1 up-regulation in kidneys in vivo during NTN, and in MCs upon TNFα stimulation. VCAM-1 up-regulation in MCs was controlled by the transcription factor NFκB. E2 inhibited RNA polymerase II recruitment to the VCAM-1 promoter, but not p65 recruitment. Interestingly E2 inhibited TNFα stimulated interaction between poly (ADP-ribose) polymerase-1 (PARP-1) and p65. As PARP-1 is required for VCAM-1 upregulation in MCs, our data suggest that E2 may inhibit pre-initiation complex formation at VCAM-1 promoter by inhibiting PARP-1 recruitment to p65. We propose that E2 plays an important role in regulating renal inflammation locally.
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Affiliation(s)
- Neelakshi R Jog
- Rheumatology Section, Department of Medicine, Temple University School of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | - Roberto Caricchio
- Rheumatology Section, Department of Medicine, Temple University School of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA, USA.
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Otani Y, Ichii O, Otsuka-Kanazawa S, Chihara M, Nakamura T, Kon Y. MRL/MpJ-Faslprmice show abnormalities in ovarian function and morphology with the progression of autoimmune disease. Autoimmunity 2015; 48:402-11. [DOI: 10.3109/08916934.2015.1031889] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
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114
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Wong AH, Agrawal N, Hughes GC. Altered IgG autoantibody levels and CD4(+) T cell subsets in lupus-prone Nba2 mice lacking the nuclear progesterone receptor. Autoimmunity 2015; 48:389-401. [PMID: 25857203 DOI: 10.3109/08916934.2015.1030613] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022]
Abstract
Important interactions between female reproduction and autoimmunity are suggested by the female-predominance of systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) and other autoimmune diseases and the amelioration of certain autoimmune diseases during pregnancy. Sexually dimorphic risk of developing SLE involves modulation of genetic risk by environmental factors, sex hormones and non-hormonal factors encoded on the sex chromosomes. In some lupus models, estrogen, via estrogen receptor alpha (ER-α), enhances production of highly pathogenic IgG2a/c autoantibodies (autoAbs). Some studies indicate that treatment with progesterone, a chief female reproductive steroid, can suppress IgG2a/2c autoAb production. Little is known about how endogenous progesterone impacts lupus autoimmunity. To investigate this, we introduced a disruptive progesterone receptor (PR) gene mutation into lupus-prone mice and tracked the development of spontaneous IgG autoAbs. Here, we present evidence that PR can suppress the emergence of class-switched IgG2c autoAbs, suggesting that PR and ER-α counter-regulate a critical step in lupus autoimmunity. PR's control of IgG2c autoAb production correlates with alterations in the relative abundance of splenic T follicular helper (TFH) cells and non-TFH CD4(+) T cells, especially regulatory T cells (TREGS). Surprisingly, PR also appears to help to maintain sexually dimorphic abundance of splenic leukocytes, a feature common to many mouse models of SLE. Together our results identify a novel molecular link between female reproduction and lupus autoimmunity. Further investigation into the immunomodulatory functions of PR promises to inform reproductive health care in women and offers mechanistic insight into important immunologic phenomena of pregnancy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alan H Wong
- a Division of Rheumatology, Department of Medicine , University of Washington , Seattle , WA , USA
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115
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Maternal uterine natural killer cells nurture fetal growth: in medio stat virtus. Trends Mol Med 2015; 21:60-7. [DOI: 10.1016/j.molmed.2014.12.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/12/2014] [Revised: 12/19/2014] [Accepted: 12/19/2014] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
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116
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Rubtsova K, Marrack P, Rubtsov AV. TLR7, IFNγ, and T-bet: their roles in the development of ABCs in female-biased autoimmunity. Cell Immunol 2014; 294:80-3. [PMID: 25541140 PMCID: PMC4380581 DOI: 10.1016/j.cellimm.2014.12.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/22/2014] [Revised: 12/04/2014] [Accepted: 12/05/2014] [Indexed: 01/21/2023]
Abstract
The majority of autoimmune diseases have a strong gender bias, affecting mostly females. Gender-specific factors like sex-hormones, the presence or absence of a second X chromosome, and gender-specific gut microbiota may contribute to this bias. In this review we will discuss the role of the X chromosome encoded toll-like receptor 7 (TLR7) and interferon gamma (IFNγ) in the development of autoimmunity. We will also review recent data indicating how these factors may affect an immune response in a gender-dependent manner.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kira Rubtsova
- Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Denver, CO 80206, USA; Department of Biomedical Science, National Jewish Health and Department of Immunology and Microbiology, University of Colorado Health Sciences Center, Denver, CO 80206, USA.
| | - Philippa Marrack
- Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Denver, CO 80206, USA; Department of Biomedical Science, National Jewish Health and Department of Immunology and Microbiology, University of Colorado Health Sciences Center, Denver, CO 80206, USA; Department of Medicine, University of Colorado School of Medicine, Aurora, CO 80045, USA; Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Genetics, University of Colorado Health Sciences Center, Aurora, CO 80045, USA
| | - Anatoly V Rubtsov
- Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Denver, CO 80206, USA; Department of Biomedical Science, National Jewish Health and Department of Immunology and Microbiology, University of Colorado Health Sciences Center, Denver, CO 80206, USA
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