Use of opioid medications for chronic noncancer pain syndromes in primary care

Development and application of an electronic health record information extraction tool to assess quality of pain management in primary care

Chronic pain is one of the most common presenting problems in primary care. Standards and guidelines have been developed for managing chronic pain, but it is unclear whether primary care providers routinely engage in guideline-concordant care. The purpose of this study is to develop a tool for extracting information about the quality of pain care in the primary care setting. Quality indicators were developed through review of the literature, input from an interdisciplinary panel of pain experts, and pilot testing. A comprehensive coding manual was developed, and inter-rater reliability was established. The final tool consists of 12 dichotomously scored indicators assessing quality and documentation of pain care in three domains: assessment, treatment, and reassessment. Presence of indicators varied widely. The tool is reliable and can be utilized to gather valuable information about pain management in the primary care setting.

Cohort protocol paper: the Pain and Opioids In Treatment (POINT) study

BACKGROUND

Internationally, there is concern about the increased prescribing of pharmaceutical opioids for chronic non-cancer pain (CNCP). In part, this is related to limited knowledge about the long-term benefits and outcomes of opioid use for CNCP. There has also been increased injection of some pharmaceutical opioids by people who inject drugs, and for some patients, the development of problematic and/or dependent use. To date, much of the research on the use of pharmaceutical opioids among people with CNCP, have been clinical trials that have excluded patients with complex needs, and have been of limited duration (i.e. fewer than 12 weeks). The Pain and Opioids In Treatment (POINT) study is unique study that aims to: 1) examine patterns of opioid use in a cohort of patients prescribed opioids for CNCP; 2) examine demographic and clinical predictors of adverse events, including opioid abuse or dependence, medication diversion, other drug use, and overdose; and 3) identify factors predicting poor pain relief and other outcomes.

METHODS/DESIGN

The POINT cohort comprises around 1,500 people across Australia prescribed pharmaceutical opioids for CNCP. Participants will be followed-up at four time points over a two year period. POINT will collect information on demographics, physical and medication use history, pain, mental health, drug and alcohol use, non-adherence, medication diversion, sleep, and quality of life. Data linkage will provide information on medications and services from Medicare (Australia's national health care scheme). Data on those who receive opioid substitution therapy, and on mortality, will be linked.

DISCUSSION

This study will rigorously examine prescription opioid use among CNCP patients, and examine its relationship to important health outcomes. The extent to which opioids for chronic pain is associated with pain reduction, quality of life, mental and physical health, aberrant medication behavior and substance use disorders will be extensively examined. Improved understanding of the longer-term outcomes of chronic opioid therapy will direct community-based interventions and health policy in Australia and internationally. The results of this study will assist clinicians to better identify those patients who are at risk of adverse outcomes and who therefore require alternative treatment strategies.

Prescription opioid analgesics increase the risk of depression

BACKGROUND

Prescription opioid analgesic use has quintupled recently. Evidence linking opioid use with depression emanates from animal models and studies of persons with co-occurring substance use and major depression. Little is known about depressogenic effects of opioid use in other populations.

OBJECTIVE

The purpose of this study was to determine whether prescription opioids are associated with increased risk of diagnosed depression.

DESIGN

Retrospective cohort study, new user design.

PATIENTS

Medical record data from 49,770 US Department of Veterans Affairs (VA) health care system patients with no recent (24-month) history of opioid use or a diagnosis of depression in 1999 and 2000.

MAIN MEASURES

Propensity scores were used to control for bias by indication, and the data were weighted to balance the distribution of covariates by duration of incident opioid exposure. Cox proportional hazard models with adjustment for painful conditions were used to estimate the association between duration of prescription opioid use and the subsequent risk of development of depression between 2001 and 2007.

KEY RESULTS

Of 49,770 patients who were prescribed an opioid analgesic, 91 % had a prescription for < 90 days, 4 % for 90-180 days, and 5 % for > 180 days. Compared to patients whose prescription was for < 90 days, the risk of depression increased significantly as the duration of opioid prescription increased (HR = 1.25; 95 % CI: 1.05-1.46 for 90-180 days, and HR = 1.51; 95 % CI:1.31-1.74 for > 180 days).

CONCLUSIONS

In this sample of veterans with no recent (24-month) history of depression or opioid analgesic use, the risk of development of depression increased as the duration of opioid analgesic exposure increased. The potential for depressogenic effect should be considered in risk-benefit discussions, and patients initiating opioid treatment should be monitored for development of depression.

The missing 'P' in pain management: how the current opioid epidemic highlights the need for psychiatric services in chronic pain care

OBJECTIVE

The prevalence of opioid therapy for chronic noncancer pain has increased dramatically in recent years, with a parallel increase in opioid abuse, misuse and deaths from accidental overdose. We review epidemiological and clinical data that point to the important roles psychiatric disorders have in the use and abuse of opioids in patients with chronic pain.

METHOD

We conducted literature searches on the PubMed with the key phrases "chronic pain" and "opioid therapy" and selected those articles on the epidemiology of comorbidity between chronic pain and psychiatric disorders, the trends in long-term opioid therapy and the clinical trials that involved using opioid therapy for chronic pain or for mental health disorders. We then thoroughly reviewed the bibliography of all relevant articles to identify additional papers to be included in the present review.

RESULTS

Chronic pain is highly comorbid with common psychiatric disorders. Patients with mental health and substance abuse disorders are more likely to receive long-term opioid therapy for chronic pain and more likely to have adverse outcomes from this therapy. Although opioids may exert brief antidepressant and anxiolytic effects in some patients with depression or anxiety, there is scant evidence for long-term benefit from opioid treatment of psychiatric disorders.

CONCLUSIONS

Opioids may be used in current clinical practice as the de facto and only psychiatric treatment for patients with chronic pain, despite little evidence for sustained benefit. The opioid epidemic thus reflects a serious unmet need for better recognition and treatment of common mental health problems in patients with chronic pain. Psychiatry is the missing P in chronic pain care.

Behavioral medicine perspectives on the design of health information technology to improve decision-making, guideline adherence, and care coordination in chronic pain management

Development of clinical decision support systems (CDSs) has tended to focus on facilitating medication management. An understanding of behavioral medicine perspectives on the usefulness of a CDS for patient care can expand CDSs to improve management of chronic disease. The purpose of this study is to explore feedback from behavioral medicine providers regarding the potential for CDSs to improve decision-making, care coordination, and guideline adherence in pain management. Qualitative methods were used to analyze semi-structured interview responses from behavioral medicine stakeholders following demonstration of an existing CDS for opioid prescribing, ATHENA-OT. Participants suggested that a CDS could assist with decision-making by educating providers, providing recommendations about behavioral therapy, facilitating risk assessment, and improving referral decisions. They suggested that a CDS could improve care coordination by facilitating division of workload, improving patient education, and increasing consideration and knowledge of options in other disciplines. Clinical decision support systems are promising tools for improving behavioral medicine care for chronic pain.

A preliminary study comparing methadone and buprenorphine in patients with chronic pain and coexistent opioid addiction

Patients with opioid addiction who receive prescription opioids for treatment of nonmalignant chronic pain present a therapeutic challenge. Fifty-four participants with chronic pain and opioid addiction were randomized to receive methadone or buprenorphine/naloxone. At the 6-month follow-up examination, 26 (48.1%) participants who remained in the study noted a 12.75% reduction in pain (P = 0.043), and no participants in the methadone group compared to 5 in the buprenorphine group reported illicit opioid use (P = 0.039). Other differences between the two conditions were not found. Long-term, low-dose methadone or buprenorphine/naloxone treatment produced analgesia in participants with chronic pain and opioid addiction.

Coexisting addiction and pain in people receiving methadone for addiction

The aim of this qualitative study was to examine the narratives of people who experience chronic pain (lasting 6 months or more) and were receiving methadone for the treatment of their opiate addiction through a major methadone clinic. This paper featured the pathway of how the participants developed chronic pain and addiction, and their beliefs of how prescription opioids would impact their addiction in the future. Thirty-four participants who experienced chronic pain and received methadone for treatment of opiate addiction were willing to tell the story of their experiences. The findings in three areas are presented: (a) whether participants experienced addiction first or pain first and how their exposures to addictive substances influenced their experiences, (b) the significance of recreational drug use and patterns of abuse behaviors leading to chronic pain, and (c) participants' experiences and beliefs about the potential for abuse of prescription opioid used for treatment of pain.

Long-term opioid treatment of chronic nonmalignant pain: unproven efficacy and neglected safety?

BACKGROUND

For the past 30 years, opioids have been used to treat chronic nonmalignant pain. This study tests the following hypotheses: (1) there is no strong evidence-based foundation for the conclusion that long-term opioid treatment of chronic nonmalignant pain is effective; and (2) the main problem associated with the safety of such treatment - assessment of the risk of addiction - has been neglected.

METHODS

Scientometric analysis of the articles representing clinical research in this area was performed to assess (1) the quality of presented evidence (type of study); and (2) the duration of the treatment phase. The sufficiency of representation of addiction was assessed by counting the number of articles that represent (1) editorials; (2) articles in the top specialty journals; and (3) articles with titles clearly indicating that the addiction-related safety is involved (topic-in-title articles).

RESULTS

Not a single randomized controlled trial with opioid treatment lasting >3 months was found. All studies with a duration of opioid treatment ≥6 months (n = 16) were conducted without a proper control group. Such studies cannot provide the consistent good-quality evidence necessary for a strong clinical recommendation. There were profound differences in the number of addiction articles related specifically to chronic nonmalignant pain patients and to opioid addiction in general. An inadequate number of chronic pain-related publications were observed with all three types of counted articles: editorials, articles in the top specialty journals, and topic-in-title articles.

CONCLUSION

There is no strong evidence-based foundation for the conclusion that long-term opioid treatment of chronic nonmalignant pain is effective. The above identified signs indicating neglect of addiction associated with the opioid treatment of chronic nonmalignant pain were present.

US Food and Drug Administration's Risk Evaluation and Mitigation Strategy for extended-release and long-acting opioids: pros and cons, and a European perspective

Prescriptions for opioid analgesics to manage moderate-to-severe chronic non-cancer pain have increased markedly over the last decade. An unintentional consequence of greater prescription opioid utilization has been the parallel increase in misuse, abuse and overdose, which are serious risks associated with all opioid analgesics. In response to disturbing rises in prescription opioid abuse, the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) has proposed the implementation of aggressive Risk Evaluation and Mitigation Strategies (REMS). While REMS could dramatically change the development, release, marketing and prescription of extended-release opioids, questions remain on how these programmes may influence prescribing practices, patient safety and ultimately patient access to these agents. The extent of the availability and misuse of prescription opioids in Europe is difficult to assess from the data currently available, due in large part to the considerable differences in prescribing patterns and regulations between countries. Balancing the availability of prescription opioids for those patients who have pain, while discouraging illicit use, is a complex challenge and requires effective efforts on many levels, particularly in Europe where policies are quite different between countries.

Spanish translation and linguistic validation of the screener and opioid assessment for patients with pain-revised (SOAPP-R)

INTRODUCTION

Given the increase in misuse and abuse of prescription opioids, clinicians clearly benefit from a standardized tool to screen patients being considered for chronic opioid therapy. The Screener and Opioid Assessment for Patients with Pain-Revised (SOAPP-R) is a widely used opioid risk assessment tool in clinical practice. As one third of the US population experiences chronic noncancer pain at any given time, and the Hispanic population now accounts for about 16% of the nation's population, the availability of a Spanish-language SOAPP-R fills an important clinical need.

OBJECTIVE

To derive a linguistically validated Spanish-language version of the SOAPP®-R.

METHOD

Each step of Spanish translation and linguistic validation of the SOAPP-R was based on the US Food and Drug Administration and the International Society for Pharmacoeconomics and Outcomes Research translation process.

RESULT

A linguistically validated Spanish-language version of the SOAPP-R.

CONCLUSION

The Spanish SOAPP-R may be useful as a risk assessment tool, considered along with other clinical information, by clinicians who prescribe opioid therapy for patients whose preferred language is Spanish.

Opioid use among low back pain patients in primary care: Is opioid prescription associated with disability at 6-month follow-up?

Opioid prescribing for chronic noncancer pain is increasing, but there is limited knowledge about longer-term outcomes of people receiving opioids for conditions such as back pain. This study aimed to explore the relationship between prescribed opioids and disability among patients consulting in primary care with back pain. A total of 715 participants from a prospective cohort study, who gave consent for review of medical and prescribing records and completed baseline and 6 month follow-up questionnaires, were included. Opioid prescription data were obtained from electronic prescribing records, and morphine equivalent doses were calculated. The primary outcome was disability (Roland-Morris Disability Questionnaire [RMDQ]) at 6 months. Multivariable linear regression was used to examine the association between opioid prescription at baseline and RMDQ score at 6 months. Analyses were adjusted for potential confounders using propensity scores reflecting the probability of opioid prescription given baseline characteristics. In the baseline period, 234 participants (32.7%) were prescribed opioids. In the final multivariable analysis, opioid prescription at baseline was significantly associated with higher disability at 6-month follow-up (P < .022), but the magnitude of this effect was small, with a mean RMDQ score of 1.18 (95% confidence interval: 0.17 to 2.19) points higher among those prescribed opioids compared to those who were not. Our findings indicate that even after adjusting for a substantial number of potential confounders, opioids were associated with slightly worse functioning in back pain patients at 6-month follow-up. Further research may help us to understand the mechanisms underlying these findings and inform clinical decisions regarding the usefulness of opioids for back pain.

Geographic variation of chronic opioid use in fibromyalgia

BACKGROUND

Opioid use for the treatment of chronic nonmalignant pain has increased drastically over the past decade. Although no evidence of efficacy exists supporting the treatment of fibromyalgia (FM) with chronic opioid therapy, a large number of patients are receiving this therapy. Geographic variation in the use of opioids has been demonstrated in the past, but there are no studies examining variation of chronic opioid use.

OBJECTIVE

This study examines both the extent of geographic variation and the factors associated with variation across states of chronic opioid use among patients with FM.

METHODS

Using a large, nationally representative dataset of commercially insured individuals, the following characteristics were examined: sex, disease prevalence, physician prevalence, illicit drug use, and the prescence of a prescription monitoring program. Other contextual and structural characteristics were also assessed.

RESULTS

The analysis included 245,758 patients with FM; 11.3% received chronic opioid therapy during the study period. There was a 5-fold difference between the states with the lowest rate of use (~4%) and those with the highest (~20%). The weighted %CV was 36.2%. Percent female and previous illicit opioid use rates were associated with higher rates of chronic opioid use, and FM prevalence and physician prevalence were associated with lower rates. The presence of a prescription monitoring program was not significantly correlated.

CONCLUSIONS

Geographic variation in chronic opioid use among patients with FM exists at rates similar to those seen in other studies examining opioid use. This large level of geographic variation suggests that the prescribing decision is not based solely on physician-patient interaction but also on contextual and structural factors at the state level. The level of physician and condition prevalence suggest that information dissemination and peer-to-peer interaction may play a key role in adopting evidence-based medicine for the treatment of patients suffering from FM and related conditions. Level of diagnosis prevalence as a predictor of evidence-based practice has not been reported in the literature and is an important contribution to research on geographic variation.

Trajectories of health care service utilization and differences in patient characteristics among adults with specific chronic pain: analysis of health plan member claims

Introduction

The lack of consistency surrounding the diagnosis of chronic non-cancer pain, treatment approaches, and patient management suggests the need for further research to better characterize the chronic non-cancer pain population.

Objective

The purpose of this study was to identify distinct trajectories of health care service utilization of chronic non-cancer pain patients and describe the characteristic differences between trajectory groups.

Patients and methods

This study utilized the MarketScan claims databases. A total of 71,392 patients diagnosed with either low back pain or osteoarthritis between 2006 and 2009 served as the study sample. Each subject’s claims data were divided into three time periods around an initial diagnosis date: pre-period, post-Year 1, and post-Year 2. Subjects were categorized as either high (H) or low (L) cost at each post period, resulting in the creation of four trajectory groups based on the post-Year 1 and 2 cost pattern: H-H, H-L, L-H, and L-L. Multivariate statistical tests were used to predict and discriminate between trajectory group memberships.

Results

The H-H, L-H, and H-L groups each utilized significantly greater pre-period high-cost venue services, post-Year 1 outpatient services, and post-Year 1 opioids compared to the L-L group (P < 0.001). Additionally, the H-H and L-H groups displayed elevated Charlson comorbidity index scores compared with the L-L group (P < 0.001), with each showing increased odds of having both opioid dependence and cardiovascular disease diagnoses (P < 0.01).

Conclusion

This study identified patient characteristics among chronic pain patients that discriminated between different levels of post-index high-cost venue service utilization and trajectories of change in the same. With implications for managed care program implementation and resource management, this study highlights results from a developed algorithm that employed a variety of accessible data elements to effectively discriminate between patients based on their pattern of high-cost venue service utilization over time.

Risk for prescription opioid misuse among patients with a history of substance use disorder

BACKGROUND

History of substance use disorder (SUD) is associated with risk for prescription opioid misuse in chronic pain patients; however, little data are available regarding risk for prescription opioid misuse within the subgroup of patients with SUD histories.

METHODS

Participants with chronic pain, histories of SUD, and current opioid prescriptions were recruited from a single VA Medical Center. Participants (n=80) completed measures of risk for prescription opioid misuse, pain severity, pain-related interference, pain catastrophizing, attitudes about managing pain, emotional functioning, and substance abuse.

RESULTS

Participants were divided into three groups based on risk for prescription opioid misuse, as assessed by the Pain Medication Questionnaire (PMQ). Participants in the High-PMQ group reported more pain severity, interference, catastrophizing, depressive symptoms, and lowest self-efficacy for managing pain, relative to the Low-PMQ group; the High-PMQ group and Moderate-PMQ group differed on measures of pain severity, catastrophizing, and psychiatric symptoms (all p-values <0.05). The High-PMQ group had the highest rates of current SUD (32% versus 20% and 0, p=0.009). A regression analysis evaluated factors associated with PMQ scores: pain catastrophizing was the only variable significantly associated with risk for prescription opioid misuse.

CONCLUSIONS

Among patients with SUD histories, those with higher risk for prescription opioid misuse reported more pain and impairment, symptoms of depression, and were more likely to have current SUD, relative to patients with lower risk for prescription opioid misuse. In adjusted analyses, pain catastrophizing was significantly associated with risk for prescription opioid misuse, but current SUD status was not a significant predictor.

Receipt of opioid analgesics by HIV-infected and uninfected patients

BACKGROUND

Opioids are increasingly prescribed, but there are limited data on opioid receipt by HIV status.

OBJECTIVES

To describe patterns of opioid receipt by HIV status and the relationship between HIV status and receiving any, high-dose, and long-term opioids.

DESIGN

Cross-sectional analysis of the Veterans Aging Cohort Study.

PARTICIPANTS

HIV-infected (HIV+) patients receiving Veterans Health Administration care, and uninfected matched controls.

MAIN MEASURES

Pain-related diagnoses were determined using ICD-9 codes. Any opioid receipt was defined as at least one opioid prescription; high-dose was defined as an average daily dose ≥ 120 mg of morphine equivalents; long-term opioids was defined as ≥ 90 consecutive days, allowing a 30 day refill gap. Multivariable models were used to assess the relationship between HIV infection and the three outcomes.

KEY RESULTS

Among the HIV+ (n = 23,651) and uninfected (n = 55,097) patients, 31 % of HIV+ and 28 % of uninfected (p < 0.001) received opioids. Among patients receiving opioids, HIV+ patients were more likely to have an acute pain diagnosis (7 % vs. 4 %), but less likely to have a chronic pain diagnosis (53 % vs. 69 %). HIV+ patients received a higher mean daily morphine equivalent dose than uninfected patients (41 mg vs. 37 mg, p = 0.001) and were more likely to receive high-dose opioids (6 % vs. 5 %, p < 0.001). HIV+ patients received fewer days of opioids than uninfected patients (median 44 vs. 60, p < 0.001), and were less likely to receive long-term opioids (31 % vs. 34 %, p < 0.001). In multivariable analysis, HIV+ status was associated with receipt of any opioids (AOR 1.40, 95 % CI 1.35, 1.46) and high-dose opioids (AOR 1.22, 95 % CI 1.07, 1.39), but not long-term opioids (AOR 0.94, 95 % CI 0.88, 1.01).

CONCLUSIONS

Patients with HIV infection are more likely to be prescribed opioids than uninfected individuals, and there is a variable association with pain diagnoses. Efforts to standardize approaches to pain management may be warranted in this highly complex and vulnerable patient population.

Variation in refill protocols and procedures in a family medicine residency network

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES

Efficient and accurate medication refill authorization is an integral service provided by family physicians and an essential skill to teach family medicine residents. The goal of this study was to examine the variation in medication refill protocols, procedures, and resources in family medicine residency practices across a five-state region as a background for development of best practices.

METHODS

Structured telephone interviews with a key informant at each of 11 clinical practices in a five-state (Washington, Wyoming, Alaska, Montana, and Idaho) family medicine residency network focused on refill protocols and procedures, which personnel have authorization authority, and other factors related to refill protocols and medication prescribing curriculum. Key themes were abstracted from interview notes.

RESULTS

There was marked variation in refill protocols and procedures across the clinical sites. While all practices were able to identify their refill procedure, no two practices' procedures were the same, and only 36.4% had a formal written protocol that could be identified by the key informant. All of the practices with formal protocols routinely reviewed medical records before authorizing refills (100%, four/four) compared to less than half of those without formal protocols (42.9%, three/seven). Practices with formal protocols (75.0%) also transferred refill requests between staff prior to authorization more than those without formal protocols (57.1%).

CONCLUSIONS

Refill protocols and procedures were highly variable across these family medicine residency program practices. Surprisingly, formal written refill protocols were uncommon. Further research to identify best practices in medication refill procedures associated with safety outcomes is warranted.

Depression and prescription opioid misuse among chronic opioid therapy recipients with no history of substance abuse

PURPOSE

Opioid misuse in the context of chronic opioid therapy (COT) is a growing concern. Depression may be a risk factor for opioid misuse, but it has been difficult to tease out the contribution of co-occurring substance abuse. This study aims to examine whether there is an association between depression and opioid misuse in patients receiving COT who have no history of substance abuse.

METHODS

A telephone survey was conducted at Group Health Cooperative and Kaiser Permanente of Northern California. We interviewed 1,334 patients on COT for noncancer pain who had no history of substance abuse. Patients were asked about 3 forms of opioid misuse: (1) self-medicating for symptoms other than pain, (2) self-increasing doses, and (3) giving to or getting opioids from others. Depression was evaluated by the 8-item Patient Health Questionnaire (PHQ-8).

RESULTS

Compared with patients who were not depressed (PHQ-8 score 0 to 4), patients with moderate depression (PHQ-8 score 10 to 14) and severe depression (PHQ-8 score 15 or higher) were 1.8 and 2.4 times more likely, respectively, to misuse their opioid medications for non-pain symptoms. Patients with mild (PHQ-8 score 5 to 9), moderate, and severe depression were 1.9, 2.9, and 3.1 times more likely, respectively, to misuse their opioid medications by self-increasing their dose. There was no statistically significant association between depression and giving opioids to or getting them from others.

CONCLUSION

In patients with no substance abuse history, depressive symptoms are associated with increased rates of some forms of self-reported opioid misuse. Clinicians should be alert to the risk of patients with depressive symptoms using opioids to relieve these symptoms and thereby using more opioids than prescribed.

Managing co-occurring substance use and pain disorders

The safest pain treatment strategy for an individual at risk or recovering from addiction is a nonopioid and benzodiazepine-free approach. If an opioid treatment is necessary, the extent of the risk can be stratified by the use of a biopsychosocial assessment and opioid screening tools. Individuals at high risk should have the greatest amount of structure and monitoring. A written informed consent and treatment agreement can provide a framework for the patient and the patient’s family, as well as the clinician. The structure of treatment should specify only that one prescribing physician will write a limited supply of opioids, without refills, until the analgesic efficacy, adverse events, and goals for functional restoration can be assessed. An additional recommendation is that prescriptions should be filled at the same pharmacy with no refill by phone or opportunity for replacement because of loss, damage, or stolen medications. Additionally, random urine drug screens and PDMP reports obtained will help determine if the patient is taking other substances, as well as monitor the patient’s medication use patterns. It is important to assess for risk factors in treating chronic pain with opioids; clinicians need to have a realistic appreciation of the resources available to them and the types of patients that can be managed in their practice. Chronic pain treatment with opioids should not be undertaken in patients who are currently addicted to illicit substances or alcohol. With the support of family and friends, ideally the patient can be motivated to participate in an intensive substance abuse treatment. In patients without an immediate risk, precautionary steps should be taken when prescribing opioids. Clinicians and patients need to review the risk factors for opioid-related problems including younger age, benzodiazepine use, and comorbid conditions such as depression, anxiety, and heavy smoking. Both the provider and the patient need a personal investment in the treatment plan and protocol to increase the safety of opioid treatment. New medications and treatment monitoring are being developed to provide maximal relief for the patient while protecting the public health. The optimal ingredients for safe opioid treatment include a strong provider-patient relationship and clinician training in the assessment and treatment of addiction and pain.

Dynamic risk factors in the misuse of opioid analgesics

OBJECTIVE

Identify the risk factors for prescription opioid misuse among patients taking prescription opioids to deal with chronic pain.

METHODS

We examined the literature for a variety of dynamic risk factors associated with opioid misuse among the chronic pain population in order to present a narrative review. Considered were: taking single or multiple opioids, pain intensity, mental health disorders, including a history of preadolescent sexual abuse, personal and familial history of substance abuse, a history of legal problems, being a crime victim, drug-seeking behaviors, drug craving, and age.

RESULTS

A variety of risk factors have been studied in the literature. Risk factors in chronic opioid therapy patients are dynamic in that they can change with disease progression, tolerance, changes in pain quality, mental health, comorbidities, other drug therapies or drug interactions, and changes in the patient's lifestyle.

CONCLUSION

Opioid analgesic therapy must be tailored to carefully monitor all patients in order to minimize misuse and abuse, since the risk is constant and dynamic and therefore every patient is at some degree of risk for opioid misuse.

The changing landscape of opioid prescribing: long-acting and extended-release opioid class-wide Risk Evaluation and Mitigation Strategy

Prescriptions for opioid analgesics to manage moderate-to-severe chronic noncancer pain have increased markedly over the last decade, as have postmarketing reports of adverse events associated with opioids. As an unintentional consequence of greater prescription opioid utilization, there has been the parallel increase in misuse, abuse, and overdose, which are serious risks associated with all opioid analgesics. In response to these concerns, the Food and Drug Administration announced the requirement for a class-wide Risk Evaluation and Mitigation Strategy (REMS) for long-acting and extended-release (ER) opioid analgesics in April 2011. An understanding of the details of this REMS will be of particular importance to primary care providers. The class-wide REMS is focused on educating health care providers and patients on appropriate prescribing and safe use of ER opioids. Support from primary care will be necessary for the success of this REMS, as these clinicians are the predominant providers of care and the main prescribers of opioid analgesics for patients with chronic pain. Although currently voluntary, future policy will likely dictate that providers undergo mandatory training to continue prescribing medications within this class. This article outlines the elements of the class-wide REMS for ER opioids and clarifies the impact on primary care providers with regard to training, patient education, and clinical practice.

Postoperative pain associated with orthopedic shoulder and elbow surgery: a prospective study

BACKGROUND

In the last 2 decades, extensive research in postoperative pain management has been undertaken to decrease morbidity. Orthopedic procedures tend to have increased pain compared with other procedures, but further research must be done to manage pain more efficiently. Postoperative pain morbidities and analgesic dependence continue to adversely affect health care.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The study assessed the pain of 78 elbow and shoulder surgery patients preoperatively and postoperatively using the Short-Form McGill Pain Questionnaire (SF-MPQ). Preoperatively, each patient scored their preoperative pain (PP) and anticipated postoperative pain (APP). Postoperatively, they scored their 3-day (3dpp) and 6-week postoperative pain (6wpp). The pain intensities at these 4 intervals were then compared and analyzed using Pearson coefficients.

RESULTS

APP and PP were strong predictors of postoperative pain. The average APP was higher than the average postoperative pain. The 6wpp was significantly lower than the 3dpp. Sex, chronicity, and type of surgery were not significant factors; however, the group aged 18 to 39 years had a significant correlation with postoperative pain.

CONCLUSION

PP and APP were both independent predictors of increased postoperative pain. PP was also predictive of APP. Although, overall postoperative pain was lower than APP or PP due to pain management techniques, postoperative pain was still significantly higher in patients with increased APP or PP than their counterparts. Therefore, surgeons should factor patient's APP and PP to better manage their patient's postoperative pain to decrease comorbidities.

Managing pain in high-risk patients within a patient-centered medical home

Chronic pain remains a major healthcare problem despite noteworthy advancements in diagnostics, pharmacotherapy, and invasive and non-invasive interventions. The prevalence of chronic pain in the United States is staggering and continues to grow, and the personal and societal costs are not inconsequential. The etiology of pain is complex, and individuals suffering from chronic pain tend to have significant medical and psychiatric comorbidities such as depression, anxiety, and in some cases, substance use disorders. There is great concern regarding the burgeoning rate of prescription opioid misuse/abuse both for non-medical use and in pain patients receiving chronic opioid therapy. While there is ongoing debate about the "true" incidence of opioid abuse in the pain population, clearly, patients afflicted with both pain and substance use disorder are particularity challenging. The majority of patients with chronic pain including those with co-occurring substance use disorders are managed in the primary care setting. Primary care practitioners have scant time, resources and training to effectively assess, treat and monitor these complicated cases. A number of evidence- and expert consensus-based treatment guidelines on opioid therapy and risk mitigation have been developed but they have been underutilized in both specialty and primary care clinics. This article will discuss the utilization of new technologies and delivery systems for risk stratification, intervention and monitoring of patients with pain receiving opioid.

Concurrent use of alcohol and sedatives among persons prescribed chronic opioid therapy: prevalence and risk factors

Taking opioids with other central nervous system (CNS) depressants can increase risk of oversedation and respiratory depression. We used telephone survey and electronic health care data to assess the prevalence of, and risk factors for, concurrent use of alcohol and/or sedatives among 1,848 integrated care plan members who were prescribed chronic opioid therapy (COT) for chronic noncancer pain. Concurrent sedative use was defined by receiving sedatives for 45+ days of the 90 days preceding the interview; concurrent alcohol use was defined by consuming 2+ drinks within 2 hours of taking an opioid in the prior 2 weeks. Some analyses were stratified by substance use disorder (SUD) history (alcohol or drug). Among subjects with no SUD history, 29% concurrently used sedatives versus 39% of those with an SUD history. Rates of concurrent alcohol use were similar (12 to 13%) in the 2 substance use disorder strata. Predictors of concurrent sedative use included SUD history, female gender, depression, and taking opioids at higher doses and for more than 1 pain condition. Male gender was the only predictor of concurrent alcohol use. Concurrent use of CNS depressants was common among this sample of COT users regardless of substance use disorder status.

PERSPECTIVE

Risks associated with concurrent use of CNS depressants are not restricted to COT users who abuse those substances. And, the increased risk of concurrently using CNS depressants is not restricted to opioid users with a prior SUD history. COT requires close monitoring, regardless of substance use disorder history.

Screening for addictive disorders within a workers' compensation clinic: an exploratory study

We conducted a cross-sectional study investigating the extent of addictive disorders within a workers' compensation (WC) clinic. We also examined the feasibility of substance abuse screening within the same clinic. In 2009 , 100 patients were asked to complete the World Health Organization's Alcohol, Smoking, Substance Involvement Screening Test (WHO-ASSIST) and the Current Opioid Misuse Measure (COMM). According to the WHO-ASSIST, we found that 46% of WC patients required intervention for at least one substance-related disorder (25% tobacco, 23% sedatives, 8% opioids), and according to the COMM, 46% screened positive for prescription opioid misuse. Importantly, the addition of this screening was brief, economical, and well accepted by patients. Further research should analyze the costs and benefits of detection and intervention of substance-related disorders in this setting.

Long-term chronic opioid therapy discontinuation rates from the TROUP study

OBJECTIVE

To report chronic opioid therapy discontinuation rates after five years and identify factors associated with discontinuation.

METHODS

Medical and pharmacy claims records from January 2000 through December 2005 from a national private health network (HealthCore), and Arkansas (AR) Medicaid were used to identify ambulatory adult enrollees who had 90 days of opioids supplied. Recipients were followed until they discontinued opioid prescription fills or disenrolled. Kaplan Meier survival models and Cox proportional hazards models were estimated to identify factors associated with time until opioid discontinuation.

RESULTS

There were 23,419 and 6,848 chronic opioid recipients followed for a mean of 1.9 and 2.3 years in the HealthCore and AR Medicaid samples. Over a maximum follow up of 4.8 years, 67.0% of HealthCore and 64.9% AR Medicaid recipients remained on opioids. Recipients on high daily opioid dose (greater than 120 milligrams morphine equivalent (MED)) were less likely to discontinue than recipients taking lower doses: HealthCore hazard ratio (HR) = 0.66 (95%CI: 0.57-0.76), AR Medicaid HR = 0.66 (95%CI: 0.50-0.82). Recipients with possible opioid misuse were also less likely to discontinue: HealthCore HR = 0.83 (95%CI: 0.78-0.89), AR Medicaid HR = 0.78 (95%CI: 0.67-0.90).

CONCLUSIONS

Over half of persons receiving 90 days of continuous opioid therapy remain on opioids years later. Factors most strongly associated with continuation were intermittent prior opioid exposure, daily opioid dose ≥ 120 mg MED, and possible opioid misuse. Since high dose and opioid misuse have been shown to increase the risk of adverse outcomes special caution is warranted when prescribing more than 90 days of opioid therapy in these patients.

Effectiveness and safety of morphine sulfate extended-release capsules in patients with chronic, moderate-to-severe pain in a primary care setting

Background

The purpose of this study was to determine the effectiveness and safety of morphine sulfate extended-release capsules among primary care patients with chronic, moderate-to-severe pain using a universal precautions approach that assessed and monitored risk for opioid misuse and abuse.

Methods

This open-label, uncontrolled, multicenter, prospective study was conducted in primary care centers (n = 281) and included opioid-naïve and opioid-experienced patients with either a pain score ≥4 (0 = no pain, 10 = pain as bad as you can imagine), or with unacceptable side effects while taking opioids. The patients were treated with morphine sulfate extendedrelease capsules for up to four months. Patient-rated pain intensity (worst, least, average) over the past 24 hours (0–10 scale), pain interference with seven activities of daily living (0 = no interference, 10 = completely interferes), and adverse events were recorded.

Results

Of 1487 patients who filled at least one prescription, 561 (38%) completed the study. Patients were primarily white (87%) and female (57%); 92% had pain for more than one year; and 79% were opioid-experienced. Median age was 52 years. Decreases in mean (± standard deviation) average pain scores (baseline 6.2 ± 2.3) were −0.8 ± 2.2 at visit 2 (5–14 days later), and −1.6 ± 2.3 and −1.7 ± 2.2 at visits 3 and 4 (spaced 3–4 weeks apart), respectively, and −1.1 ± 2.4 at visit 5 (included patients withdrawn from the study who were no longer taking the study drug). A similar trend was observed for worst pain and least pain scores and for pain interference with activities. Fifty-one percent of the safety population patients and 81% in the completer population reported being satisfied or very satisfied with the study treatment. Most common adverse events were typical of opioids, ie, constipation (14%), nausea (11%), vomiting (5%), and somnolence (5%).

Conclusion

The results suggest that pain outcomes improved in patients with chronic, moderate-to-severe pain receiving morphine sulfate extended-release capsules within the context of a structured universal precautions approach in the primary care setting.

Characteristics of chronic pain patients in a rural teaching practice

OBJECTIVE

To describe the characteristics of chronic noncancer pain (CNCP) patients taking oxycodone or its derivatives in a rural teaching practice.

DESIGN

Characteristics of CNCP patients taking oxycodone over a 5-year period (September 2003 to September 2008) were compared with those of patients not taking opioid medications using a retrospective chart audit.

SETTING

A rural teaching practice in southwestern Ontario.

PARTICIPANTS

A total of 103 patients taking chronic oxycodone therapy for CNCP and a random sample of 104 patients not taking opioid medication.

MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES

Number of visits, health problems, sex, and previous history of addiction and mental illness.

RESULTS

Patients with CNCP taking oxycodone had significantly more health problems (P < .001), including drug and tobacco addictions. They had more than 3 times as many clinic visits during the same period of time as patients not taking opioid medication (mean of 39.0 vs 12.8 visits, P < .001).

CONCLUSION

Patients with CNCP in this rural teaching practice had significantly more health issues (P < .001) and were more likely to have a history of addiction than other patients were. They created more work with significantly more visits over the same period compared with the comparison group.

An examination of the observed placebo effect associated with the treatment of low back pain - a systematic review

OBJECTIVE

To determine whether the nonspecific effects that occur following the use of sham interventions to treat nonspecific low back pain (LBP) are large enough to be considered clinically meaningful.

DESIGN

Electronic databases were searched systematically for randomized placebo-controlled trials of interventions for LBP that used sham ultrasound, sham laser or sham drug therapy as the placebo control. Study selection was accomplished via independent evaluation of scientific admissibility by three reviewers and final decisions of inclusion were based on consensus.

RESULTS

None of the studies using sham ultrasound as the placebo control in the treatment of LBP were acceptable for inclusion. Twelve studies were included in the present evaluation of the placebo effect - eight trials that met the strict inclusion criteria for best evidence (three using sham laser placebo and five using sham medication placebo) and four sham medication studies that 'just missed' the inclusion criteria for best evidence. Although the evidence from studies using sham laser was inconclusive, the present review did find a clinically meaningful change in LBP scores following the use of sham oral medications.

CONCLUSIONS

The present best-evidence review found a clinically meaningful change in pain scores following the use of sham oral medications for the treatment of nonspecific LBP. This finding suggests that further clinical research is warranted to identify which patient subgroups could benefit most from such treatment and to distinguish the true contribution of the placebo effect from other nonspecific effects.

Prescription opioid use among patients seeking treatment for opioid dependence

OBJECTIVE

This study was designed to assess non-medical prescription opioid use among a sample of opioid dependent participants.

METHODS

A cross-sectional survey was conducted with a convenience sample of patients hospitalized for medical management of opioid withdrawal. We collected data related to participant demographics, socio-economic characteristics, the age of first opioid use, types of opioids preferred, and routes of administration. We also asked participants to describe how they first began using opioids and how their use progressed over time.

RESULTS

Among the 75 participants, the mean age was 32 years (SD: +/- 11, range: 18-70), 49 (65%) were men, 58 (77%) considered themselves to be "white," 55 (74%) had a high school diploma or equivalent, and 39 (52%) were unemployed. All of these participants considered themselves to be "addicted." Thirty-one (41%) felt that their addiction began with "legitimate prescriptions," 24 (32%) with diverted prescription medications, and 20 (27%) with "street drugs" from illicit sources; however, 69 (92%) had reported purchasing opioids "off the street" at some point in time. Thirty-seven (49%) considered heroin to be their current preferred drug, and 43 (57%) had used drugs intravenously.

CONCLUSIONS

We found that many treatment-seeking opioid dependent patients first began using licit prescription drugs before obtaining opioids from illicit sources. Later, they purchased heroin, which they would come to prefer because it was less expensive and more effective than prescription drugs.

Adherence to clinical guidelines for opioid therapy for chronic pain in patients with substance use disorder

BACKGROUND

Patients with chronic non-cancer pain (CNCP) have high rates of substance use disorders (SUD). SUD complicates pain treatment and may lead to worse outcomes. However, little information is available describing adherence to opioid treatment guidelines for CNCP generally, or guideline adherence for patients with comorbid SUD.

OBJECTIVE

Examine adherence to clinical guidelines for opioid therapy over 12 months, comparing patients with SUD diagnoses made during the prior year to patients without SUD.

DESIGN

Cohort study.

PARTICIPANTS

Administrative data were collected from veterans with CNCP receiving treatment within a Veterans Affairs regional healthcare network who were prescribed chronic opioid therapy in 2008 (n = 5814).

KEY RESULTS

Twenty percent of CNCP patients prescribed chronic opioid therapy had a prior-year diagnosis of SUD. Patients with SUD were more likely to have pain diagnoses and psychiatric comorbidities. In adjusted analyses, patients with SUD were more likely than those without SUD to have had a mental health appointment (29.7% versus 17.2%, OR = 1.49, 95% CI = 1.26-1.77) and a urine drug screen (UDS) (47.0% versus 18.2%, OR = 3.53, 95% CI = 3.06-4.06) over 12 months. There were no significant differences between groups on receiving more intensive treatment in primary care (63.4% versus 61.0%), long-acting opioids (26.9% versus 26.0%), prescriptions for antidepressants (88.2% versus 85.8%, among patients with depression), or participating in physical therapy (30.6% versus 28.6%). Only 35% of patients with SUD received substance abuse treatment.

CONCLUSIONS

CNCP patients with SUD were more likely to have mental health appointments and receive UDS monitoring, but not more likely to participate in other aspects of pain care compared to those without SUD. Given data suggesting patients with comorbid SUD may need more intensive treatment to achieve improvements in pain-related function, SUD patients may be at high risk for poor outcomes.

Low use of opioid risk reduction strategies in primary care even for high risk patients with chronic pain

BACKGROUND/OBJECTIVE

Experts recommend close oversight of patients receiving opioid analgesics for chronic non-cancer pain (CNCP), especially those at increased risk of misuse. We hypothesized that physicians employ opioid risk reduction strategies more frequently in higher risk patients.

DESIGN

Retrospective cohort using electronic medical records.

PARTICIPANTS

Patients on long-term opioids (≥3 monthly prescriptions in 6 months) treated for CNCP in eight primary care practices.

METHODS

We examined three risk reduction strategies: (1) any urine drug test; (2) regular office visits (at least once per 6 months and within 30 days of modifying opioid treatment); and (3) restricted early refills (one or fewer opioid refills more than a week early). Risk factors for opioid misuse included: age <45 years old, drug or alcohol use disorder, tobacco use, or mental health disorder. Associations of risk factors with each outcome were assessed in non-linear mixed effects models adjusting for patient clustering within physicians, demographics and clinical factors.

MAIN RESULTS

Of 1,612 patients, 8.0% had urine drug testing, 49.8% visited the office regularly, and 76.6% received restricted (one or fewer) early refills. Patient risk factors were: age <45 (29%), drug use disorder (7.6%), alcohol use disorder (4.5%), tobacco use (16.1%), and mental health disorder (48.4%). Adjusted odds ratios (AOR) of urine drug testing were significantly increased for patients with a drug use disorder (3.18; CI 1.94, 5.21) or a mental health disorder (1.73; CI 1.14, 2.65). However, the AOR for restricted early refills was significantly decreased for patients with a drug use disorder (0.56; CI 0.34, 0.92). After adjustment, no risk factor was significantly associated with regular office visits. An increasing number of risk factors was positively associated with urine drug testing (p < 0.001), but negatively associated with restricted early refills (p = 0.009).

CONCLUSION

Primary care physicians' adoption of opioid risk reduction strategies is limited, even among patients at increased risk of misuse.

Primary care providers' perspective on prescribing opioids to older adults with chronic non-cancer pain: a qualitative study

BACKGROUND

The use of opioid medications as treatment for chronic non-cancer pain remains controversial. Little information is currently available regarding healthcare providers' attitudes and beliefs about this practice among older adults. This study aimed to describe primary care providers' experiences and attitudes towards, as well as perceived barriers and facilitators to prescribing opioids as a treatment for chronic pain among older adults.

METHODS

Six focus groups were conducted with a total of 23 physicians and three nurse practitioners from two academically affiliated primary care practices and three community health centers located in New York City. Focus groups were audiotape recorded and transcribed. The data were analyzed using directed content analysis; NVivo software was used to assist in the quantification of identified themes.

RESULTS

Most participants (96%) employed opioids as therapy for some of their older patients with chronic pain, although not as first-line therapy. Providers cited multiple barriers, including fear of causing harm, the subjectivity of pain, lack of education, problems converting between opioids, and stigma. New barriers included patient/family member reluctance to try an opioid and concerns about opioid abuse by family members/caregivers. Studies confirming treatment benefit, validated tools for assessing risk and/or dosing for comorbidities, improved conversion methods, patient education, and peer support could facilitate opioid prescribing. Participants voiced greater comfort using opioids in the setting of delivering palliative or hospice care versus care of patients with chronic pain, and expressed substantial frustration managing chronic pain.

CONCLUSIONS

Providers perceive multiple barriers to prescribing opioids to older adults with chronic pain, and use these medications cautiously. Establishing the long-term safety and efficacy of these medications, generating improved prescribing methods, and implementing provider and patient educational interventions could help to improve the management of chronic pain in later life.

Prescription drug abuse: epidemiology, regulatory issues, chronic pain management with narcotic analgesics

The epidemic of prescription drug abuse has reached a critical level, which has received national attention. This article provides insight into the epidemiology of prescription drug abuse, explains regulatory issues, and provides guidelines for the assessment and management of pain, particularly with long-term opioid therapy. Using informed consent forms, treatment agreements, and risk documentation tools and regularly monitoring the 4 A's help to educate patients and guide management based on treatment goals. By using universal precautions, and being aware of aberrant behaviors, physicians may feel more confident in identifying and addressing problematic behaviors.

Prescription sharing, alcohol use, and street drug use to manage pain among veterans

CONTEXT

Efforts to promote awareness and management of chronic pain have been accompanied by a troubling increase in prescription medication abuse. At the same time, some patients may misuse substances in an effort to manage chronic pain.

OBJECTIVES

This study examines self-reported substance misuse for pain management among veterans and identifies the contributing factors.

METHODS

We analyzed cross-sectional data from the Help Veterans Experience Less Pain study.

RESULTS

Of 343 veterans, 35.3% reported an aberrant pain management behavior (24% reported using alcohol, 11.7% reported using street drugs, and 16.3% reported sharing prescriptions to manage pain). Poorer mental health, younger age, substance use disorders (SUDs), number of nonpain symptoms, and greater pain severity and interference were associated with aberrant pain management behaviors. In multivariate analysis, SUDs (odds ratio [OR]: 3.9, 95% confidence interval [CI]: 2.3-6.7, P<0.000) and poorer mental health (OR: 2.3, 95% CI: 1.3-4.3, P=0.006) were associated with using alcohol or street drugs to manage pain; SUDs (OR: 2.4, 95% CI: 1.3-4.4, P=0.006) and pain interference (OR: 1.1, 95% CI: 1.0-1.2, P=0.047) were associated with prescription sharing; and SUDs (OR: 3.6, 95% CI: 2.2-6.1, P<0.000) and number of nonpain symptoms (OR: 6.5, 95% CI: 1.2-35.4, P=0.031) were associated with any aberrant pain management behavior.

CONCLUSION

Veterans with a history of SUDs, greater pain interference, more nonpain symptoms, and mental health concerns should be carefully managed to deter substance misuse for pain management.

Prevalence and correlates of nonmedical use of prescription opioids in patients seen in a residential drug and alcohol treatment program

Population-based data indicate that rates of nonmedical use of prescription opioids (POs) have increased dramatically over the past decade. However, data are lacking on nonmedical use of POs in individuals seeking treatment for substance use disorders. Patients (N = 351) seeking treatment from a residential drug and alcohol treatment program were assessed for nonmedical use of POs prior to treatment entry. Approximately 68% (65% men and 78% women) of patients reported at least some nonmedical PO use in the 30 days prior to treatment. Our results indicate that nonmedical PO use was more common in those with higher levels of depressive symptoms and pain intensity and in those with lower physical functioning. Treatment programs should consider actively screening participants for nonmedical PO use and consider how nonmedical use of pain medications might influence their treatment planning for patients.

Primary care providers’ judgments of opioid analgesic misuse in a community-based cohort of HIV-infected indigent adults

BACKGROUND

Primary care providers (PCPs) must balance treatment of chronic non-cancer pain with opioid analgesics with concerns about opioid misuse.

OBJECTIVE

We co-enrolled community-based indigent adults and their PCPs to determine PCPs’ accuracy of estimating opioid analgesic misuse and illicit substance use.

DESIGN

Patient-provider dyad study.

PARTICIPANTS

HIV-infected, community-based indigent adults (‘patients’) and their PCPs.

MAIN MEASURES

Using structured interviews, we queried patients on use and misuse of opioid analgesics and illicit substances. PCPs completed patient- and provider-specific questionnaires. We calculated the sensitivity, specificity, and measures of agreement between PCPs’ judgments and patients’ reports of opioid misuse and illicit substance use. We examined factors associated with PCPs’ thinking that their patients had misused opioid analgesics and determined factors associated with patients’ misuse.

KEY RESULTS

We had 105 patient-provider dyads. Of the patients, 21 had misused opioids and 45 had used illicit substances in the past year. The sensitivity of PCPs’ judgments of opioid analgesic misuse was 61.9% and specificity, 53.6% (Kappa score 0.09, p = 0.10). The sensitivity of PCPs’ judgments of illicit substance use was 71.1% and specificity, 66.7% (Kappa score 0.37, p <0.001). PCPs were more likely to think that younger patients (Adjusted odds ratio (AOR) 0.89, 95% CI 0.84-0.97), African American patients (AOR 2.53, 95% CI 1.05-6.07) and those who had used illicit substances in the past year (AOR 3.33, 95% CI 1.35-8.20) had misused opioids. Younger (AOR 0.94, 95% CI 0.86-1.02) and African American (AOR 0.71, 95% CI 0.25-1.97) patients were not more likely to report misuse, whereas persons who had used illicit substances were (AOR 3.01, 95% CI 1.04-8.76).

CONCLUSION

PCPs’ impressions of misuse were discordant with patients’ self-reports of opioid analgesic misuse. PCPs incorrectly used age and race as predictors of misuse in this high-risk cohort.