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Müller GJ, Stadelmann C, Bastholm L, Elling F, Lassmann H, Johansen FF. Ischemia leads to apoptosis--and necrosis-like neuron death in the ischemic rat hippocampus. Brain Pathol 2005; 14:415-24. [PMID: 15605989 PMCID: PMC8095808 DOI: 10.1111/j.1750-3639.2004.tb00085.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/30/2023] Open
Abstract
Morphological evidence of apoptosis in transient forebrain ischemia is controversial. We therefore investigated the time sequence of apoptosis-related antigens by immunohistochemistry and correlated it with emerging nuclear patterns of cell death in a model of transient forebrain ischemia in CA1 pyramidal cells of the rat hippocampus. The earliest ischemic changes were found on day 2 and 3, reflected by an upregulation of phospho-c-Jun in a proportion of morphologically intact CA1 neurons, which matched the number of neurons that succumbed to ischemia at later time points. At day 3 and later 3 ischemic cell death morphologies became apparent: pyknosis, apoptosis-like cell death and necrosis-like cell death, which were confirmed by electron microscopy. Activated caspase-3 was present in the vast majority of cells with apoptosis-like morphology as well as in a small subset of cells undergoing necrosis; its expression peaked on days 3 to 4. Silver staining for nucleoli, which are a substrate for caspase-3, revealed a profound loss of nucleoli in cells with apoptosis-like morphology, whereas cells with necrosis-like morphology showed intact nucleoli. Overall, cells with apoptosis-like morphology and/or caspase-3 expression represented a minor fraction (<10%) of ischemic neurons, while the vast majority followed a necrosis-like pathway. Our studies suggest that CA1 pyramidal cell death following transient forebrain ischemia may be initiated through c-Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK) pathway activation, which then either follows an apoptosis-like cell death pathway or leads to secondary necrosis.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Lone Bastholm
- Institute of Molecular Pathology, University of Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Folmer Elling
- Institute of Molecular Pathology, University of Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Hans Lassmann
- Brain Research Institute, Medical University of Vienna, Austria
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102
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Linton SD, Aja T, Allegrini PR, Deckwerth TL, Diaz JL, Hengerer B, Herrmann J, Jahangiri KG, Kallen J, Karanewsky DS, Meduna SP, Nalley K, Robinson ED, Roggo S, Rovelli G, Sauter A, Sayers RO, Schmitz A, Smidt R, Ternansky RJ, Tomaselli KJ, Ullman BR, Wiessner C, Wu JC. Oxamyl dipeptide caspase inhibitors developed for the treatment of stroke. Bioorg Med Chem Lett 2004; 14:2685-91. [PMID: 15109679 DOI: 10.1016/j.bmcl.2003.12.106] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/09/2003] [Accepted: 12/23/2003] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
Structural modifications were made to a previously described acyl dipeptide caspase inhibitor, leading to the oxamyl dipeptide series. Subsequent SAR studies directed toward the warhead, P2, and P4 regions of this novel peptidomimetic are described herein.
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Affiliation(s)
- Steven D Linton
- Idun Pharmaceuticals, Inc., 9380 Judicial Drive, San Diego, CA 92121, USA.
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103
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Anwar S, Ambros RA, Jennings TA, Ross JS, Beza A, Mian B, Nazeer T. Expression of cysteine protease protein 32 in prostatic adenocarcinoma correlates with tumor grade. Arch Pathol Lab Med 2004; 128:649-52. [PMID: 15163235 DOI: 10.5858/2004-128-649-eocppi] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Abstract
CONTEXT Controlled cell death is mediated by apoptosis-specific genes, tumor suppressor genes, and oncogenes. The caspase family is a group of at least 15 known cysteine proteases that serve as initiator and effector molecules of the apoptosis pathway. On activation, caspases cause cell shrinkage, condensation of chromatin, fragmentation of DNA, and the formation of blebs in the cytoplasmic membrane. OBJECTIVES The patterns of cysteine protease protein (CCP) 32 (caspase-3) expression have been determined in normal human tissues and a variety of tumors, and have been shown to correlate with the outcome in breast cancer and linked to resistance to chemotherapy in other tumors. This study was performed to determine whether CPP32 is expressed in prostatic adenocarcinoma and to define its relationship with outcome variables. DESIGN Formalin-fixed, paraffin-embedded radical prostatectomy specimens from 211 patients with prostatic adenocarcinoma were evaluated for CPP32 expression by immunohistochemistry. Hematoxylin-eosin-stained slides were reviewed, and tumors were graded based on the Gleason grading system. Tumors were scored for CPP32 expression semiquantitatively, based on the staining intensity and distribution patterns. These results were compared with Gleason grade and clinical and pathologic stages. RESULTS One hundred thirty-three (63%) of 211 cases showed high expression of CPP32, whereas expression was low in 78 (37%) cases. One hundred three (49%) of 211 cases had a high Gleason score (7 and above). Of 103 cases with a high Gleason score, 74 (72%) showed high CPP32 expression. Strong cytoplasmic staining for CPP32 in high-grade tumors was statistically significant (P =.01). Also, by linear regression analysis a significant correlation was seen between the Gleason score and the cytoplasmic CPP32 expression (P =.001). Expression of CPP32 did not correlate with either clinical stage (P =.28) or pathologic stage (P =.60); however, this study included very few patients with stage IV disease. CONCLUSION The correlation between CPP32 and high tumor grade suggests a CPP32-related high turnover rate in high-grade prostatic adenocarcinoma. Moreover, strong correlation with Gleason grade, a powerful predictor of disease progression and overall survival, suggests potential usefulness of CPP32 as a prognostic factor, especially in limited biopsy samples.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shahgul Anwar
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, Albany Medical College, Albany, NY 12208, USA
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104
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Wang X, Zhu C, Wang X, Hagberg H, Korhonen L, Sandberg M, Lindholm D, Blomgren K. X-linked inhibitor of apoptosis (XIAP) protein protects against caspase activation and tissue loss after neonatal hypoxia–ischemia. Neurobiol Dis 2004; 16:179-89. [PMID: 15207275 DOI: 10.1016/j.nbd.2004.01.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 82] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/10/2003] [Revised: 01/19/2004] [Accepted: 01/26/2004] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Nine-day-old transgenic XIAP overexpressing (TG-XIAP) and wild-type mice were subjected to left carotid artery ligation and 10% O(2) for 60 min, leading to widespread infarctions in the ipsilateral hemisphere during reperfusion. The activation of caspase-3 and -9 seen in wild-type animals was virtually abolished in TG-XIAP mice. Tissue loss was significantly reduced from 54.4 +/- 4.1 mm(3) (mean +/- SEM) in wild-type mice to 33.1 +/- 2.1 mm(3) in the TG-XIAP mice. Injured neurons displayed stronger XIAP staining during reperfusion, particularly in the nuclei. XIAP was colocalized with XAF-1, Smac, and HtrA2 in injured neurons after hypoxia-ischemia (HI). XIAP was cleaved after HI, and Smac immunoprecipitation co-precipitated a 25-kDa C-terminal fragment of XIAP, indicating that Smac preferentially bound to cleaved XIAP. These findings provide the first evidence that increased XIAP levels protect the neonatal brain against HI.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaoyang Wang
- Department of Neuroscience, Neurobiology, Uppsala University, Uppsala, SE 751 23, Sweden
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105
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Méthot N, Vaillancourt JP, Huang J, Colucci J, Han Y, Ménard S, Zamboni R, Toulmond S, Nicholson DW, Roy S. A caspase active site probe reveals high fractional inhibition needed to block DNA fragmentation. J Biol Chem 2004; 279:27905-14. [PMID: 15067000 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m400247200] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Apoptotic markers consist of either caspase substrate cleavage products or phenotypic changes that manifest themselves as a consequence of caspase-mediated substrate cleavage. We have shown recently that pharmacological inhibitors of caspase activity prevent the appearance of two such apoptotic manifestations, alphaII-spectrin cleavage and DNA fragmentation, but that blockade of the latter required a significantly higher concentration of inhibitor. We investigated this phenomenon through the use of a novel radiolabeled caspase inhibitor, [(125)I]M808, which acts as a caspase active site probe. [(125)I]M808 bound to active caspases irreversibly and with high sensitivity in apoptotic cell extracts, in tissue extracts from several commonly used animal models of cellular injury, and in living cells. Moreover, [(125)I]M808 detected active caspases in septic mice when injected intravenously. Using this caspase probe, an active site occupancy assay was developed and used to measure the fractional inhibition required to block apoptosis-induced DNA fragmentation. In thymocytes, occupancy of up to 40% of caspase active sites had no effect on DNA fragmentation, whereas inhibition of half of the DNA cleaving activity required between 65 and 75% of active site occupancy. These results suggest that a high and persistent fractional inhibition will be required for successful caspase inhibition-based therapies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nathalie Méthot
- Merck Frosst Centre for Therapeutic Research, Merck Research Laboratories, Montréal, Québec H9H 3L1, Canada
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106
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Takuma K, Baba A, Matsuda T. Astrocyte apoptosis: implications for neuroprotection. Prog Neurobiol 2004; 72:111-27. [PMID: 15063528 DOI: 10.1016/j.pneurobio.2004.02.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 350] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/27/2003] [Accepted: 02/04/2004] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Astrocytes, the most abundant glial cell types in the brain, provide metabolic and trophic support to neurons and modulate synaptic activity. Accordingly, impairment in these astrocyte functions can critically influence neuronal survival. Recent studies show that astrocyte apoptosis may contribute to pathogenesis of many acute and chronic neurodegenerative disorders, such as cerebral ischemia, Alzheimer's disease and Parkinson's disease. We found that incubation of cultured rat astrocytes in a Ca(2+)-containing medium after exposure to a Ca(2+)-free medium causes an increase in intracellular Ca(2+) concentration followed by apoptosis, and that NF-kappa B, reactive oxygen species, and enzymes such as calpain, xanthine oxidase, calcineurin and caspase-3 are involved in reperfusion-induced apoptosis. Furthermore, we demonstrated that heat shock protein, mitogen-activated protein/extracellular signal-regulated kinase, phosphatidylinositol-3 kinase and cyclic GMP phosphodiesterase are target molecules for anti-apoptotic drugs. This review summarizes (1) astrocytic functions in neuroprotection, (2) current evidence of astrocyte apoptosis in both in vitro and in vivo studies including its molecular pathways such as Ca(2+) overload, oxidative stress, NF-kappa B activation, mitochondrial dysfunction, endoplasmic reticulum stress, and protease activation, and (3) several drugs preventing astrocyte apoptosis. As a whole, this article provides new insights into the potential role of astrocytes as targets for neuroprotection. In addition, the advance in the knowledge of molecular mechanisms of astrocyte apoptosis may lead to the development of novel therapeutic strategies for neurodegenerative disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kazuhiro Takuma
- Department of Analytical Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences and High Technology Research Center, Kobe Gakuin University, Kobe 651-2180, Japan
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107
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Derrick M, Luo NL, Bregman JC, Jilling T, Ji X, Fisher K, Gladson CL, Beardsley DJ, Murdoch G, Back SA, Tan S. Preterm fetal hypoxia-ischemia causes hypertonia and motor deficits in the neonatal rabbit: a model for human cerebral palsy? J Neurosci 2004; 24:24-34. [PMID: 14715934 PMCID: PMC6729589 DOI: 10.1523/jneurosci.2816-03.2004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 154] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Prenatal hypoxia-ischemia to the developing brain has been strongly implicated in the subsequent development of the hypertonic motor deficits of cerebral palsy (CP) in premature and full-term infants who present with neonatal encephalopathy. Despite the enormous impact of CP, there is no animal model that reproduces the hypertonia and motor disturbances of this disorder. We report a rabbit model of in utero placental insufficiency, in which hypertonia is accompanied by marked abnormalities in motor control. Preterm fetuses (67-70% gestation) were subjected to sustained global hypoxia. The dams survived and gave spontaneous birth. At postnatal day 1, the pups that survived were subjected to a battery of neurobehavioral tests developed specifically for these animals, and the tests were videotaped and scored in a masked manner. Newborn pups of hypoxic groups displayed significant impairment in multiple tests of spontaneous locomotion, reflex motor activity, and the coordination of suck and swallow. Increased tone of the limbs at rest and with active flexion and extension were observed in the survivors of the preterm insult. Histopathological studies identified a distinct pattern of acute injury to subcortical motor pathways that involved the basal ganglia and thalamus. Persistent injury to the caudate putamen and thalamus at P1 was significantly correlated with hypertonic motor deficits in the hypoxic group. Antenatal hypoxia-ischemia at preterm gestation results in hypertonia and abnormalities in motor control. These findings provide a unique behavioral model to define mechanisms and sequelae of perinatal brain injury from antenatal hypoxia-ischemia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matthew Derrick
- Department of Pediatrics, Northwestern University, and Evanston Northwestern Healthcare, Evanston, Illinois 60201, USA
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108
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Toulmond S, Tang K, Bureau Y, Ashdown H, Degen S, O'Donnell R, Tam J, Han Y, Colucci J, Giroux A, Zhu Y, Boucher M, Pikounis B, Xanthoudakis S, Roy S, Rigby M, Zamboni R, Robertson GS, Ng GYK, Nicholson DW, Flückiger JP. Neuroprotective effects of M826, a reversible caspase-3 inhibitor, in the rat malonate model of Huntington's disease. Br J Pharmacol 2004; 141:689-97. [PMID: 14744804 PMCID: PMC1574244 DOI: 10.1038/sj.bjp.0705662] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/08/2023] Open
Abstract
1. Caspases, key enzymes in the apoptosis pathway, have been detected in the brain of HD patients and in animal models of the disease. In the present study, we investigated the neuroprotective properties of a new, reversible, caspase-3-specific inhibitor, M826 (3-([(2S)-2-[5-tert-butyl-3-[[(4-methyl-1,2,5-oxadiazol-3-yl)methyl]amino]-2-oxopyrazin-1(2H)-yl]butanoyl]amino)-5-[hexyl(methyl)amino]-4-oxopentanoic acid), in a rat malonate model of HD. 2. Pharmacokinetic and autoradiography studies after intrastriatal (i.str.) injection of 1.5 nmol of M826 or its tritiated analogue [(3)H]M826 indicated that the compound diffused within the entire striatum. The elimination half-life (T(1/2)) of M826 in the rat striatum was 3 h. 3. I.str. injection of 1.5 nmol of M826 10 min after malonate infusion induced a significant reduction (66%) in the number of neurones expressing active caspase-3 in the ipsilateral striatum. 4. Inhibition of active caspase-3 translated into a significant but moderate reduction (39%) of the lesion volume, and of cell death (24%), 24 h after injury. The efficacy of M826 at inhibiting cell death was comparable to that of the noncompetitive NMDA receptor antagonist MK801. 5. These data provide in vivo proof-of-concept of the neuroprotective effects of reversible caspase-3 inhibitors in a model of malonate-induced striatal injury in the adult rat.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sylvie Toulmond
- Department of Pharmacology, Merck Frosst Centre for Therapeutic Research, 16711 Trans Canada Highway, Kirkland, Quebec, H9H 3L1, Canada.
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109
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Ullman BR, Aja T, Deckwerth TL, Diaz JL, Herrmann J, Kalish VJ, Karanewsky DS, Meduna SP, Nalley K, Robinson ED, Roggo SP, Sayers RO, Schmitz A, Ternansky RJ, Tomaselli KJ, Wu JC. Structure-activity relationships within a series of caspase inhibitors: effect of leaving group modifications. Bioorg Med Chem Lett 2004; 13:3623-6. [PMID: 14505683 DOI: 10.1016/s0960-894x(03)00755-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/15/2023]
Abstract
Various aryloxy methyl ketones of the 1-naphthyloxyacetyl-Val-Asp backbone have been prepared. A systematic study of their structure-activity relationship (SAR) related to caspases 1, 3, 6, and 8 is reported. Highly potent irreversible broad-spectrum caspase inhibitors have been identified. Their efficacy in cellular models of cell death and inflammation are also discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brett R Ullman
- Idun Pharmaceuticals, Inc., 9380 Judicial Drive, San Diego, CA 92121, USA.
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110
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Méthot N, Huang J, Coulombe N, Vaillancourt JP, Rasper D, Tam J, Han Y, Colucci J, Zamboni R, Xanthoudakis S, Toulmond S, Nicholson DW, Roy S. Differential efficacy of caspase inhibitors on apoptosis markers during sepsis in rats and implication for fractional inhibition requirements for therapeutics. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2004; 199:199-207. [PMID: 14718517 PMCID: PMC2211770 DOI: 10.1084/jem.20031791] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/04/2022]
Abstract
A rodent model of sepsis was used to establish the relationship between caspase inhibition and inhibition of apoptotic cell death in vivo. In this model, thymocyte cell death was blocked by Bcl-2 transgene, indicating that apoptosis was predominantly dependent on the mitochondrial pathway that culminates in caspase-3 activation. Caspase inhibitors, including the selective caspase-3 inhibitor M867, were able to block apoptotic manifestations both in vitro and in vivo but with strikingly different efficacy for different cell death markers. Inhibition of DNA fragmentation required substantially higher levels of caspase-3 attenuation than that required for blockade of other apoptotic events such as spectrin proteolysis and phosphatidylserine externalization. These data indicate a direct relationship between caspase inhibition and some apoptotic manifestations but that small quantities of uninhibited caspase-3 suffice to initiate genomic DNA breakdown, presumably through the escape of catalytic quantities of caspase-activated DNase. These findings suggest that putative caspase-independent apoptosis may be overestimated in some systems since blockade of spectrin proteolysis and other cell death markers does not accurately reflect the high degrees of caspase-3 inhibition needed to prevent DNA fragmentation. Furthermore, this requirement presents substantial therapeutic challenges owing to the need for persistent and complete caspase blockade.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nathalie Méthot
- Merck Frosst Centre for Therapeutic Research, Merck Research Laboratories, Montreal, Quebec, Canada H9H 3L1.
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111
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Ayala-Grosso C, Tam J, Xanthoudakis S, Bureau Y, Roy S, Nicholson DW, Robertson GS. Effects of fimbria-fornix transection on calpain and choline acetyl transferase activities in the septohippocampal pathway. Neuroscience 2004; 126:927-40. [PMID: 15207327 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2004.04.048] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/22/2003] [Revised: 03/28/2004] [Accepted: 04/22/2004] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Abstract
The ability of fimbria-fornix bilateral axotomy to elicit calpain and caspase-3 activation in the rat septohippocampal pathway was determined using antibodies that selectively recognize either calpain- or caspase-cleaved products of the cytoskeletal protein alphaII-spectrin. Radioenzymatically determined choline acetyl transferase (ChAT) activity was elevated in the septum at day 5, but reduced in the dorsal hippocampus at days 3, 5 and 7, after axotomy. Prominent accumulation of calpain-, but not caspase-3-, cleaved spectrin proteolytic fragments was observed in both the septum and dorsal hippocampus 1-7 days after axotomy. ChAT-positive neuronal cell bodies in the septum also displayed calpain-cleaved spectrin indicating that calpain activation occurred in cholinergic septal neurons as a consequence of transection of the septohippocampal pathway. Calpain-cleaved alphaII-spectrin immunoreactivity was observed in cholinergic fibers coursing through the fimbria-fornix, but not in pyramidal neurons of the dorsal hippocampus, suggesting that degenerating cholinergic nerve terminals were the source of calpain activity in the dorsal hippocampus following axotomy. Accumulation of calpain-cleaved spectrin proteolytic fragments in the dorsal hippocampus and septum at day 5 after axotomy was reduced by i.c.v. administration of two calpain inhibitors. Calpain inhibition partially reduced the elevation of ChAT activity in the septum produced by transection but failed to decrease the loss of ChAT activity in the dorsal hippocampus following axotomy. These findings suggest that calpain activation contributes to the cholinergic cell body response and hippocampal axonal cytoskeletal degradation produced by transection of the septohippocampal pathway.
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Affiliation(s)
- C Ayala-Grosso
- Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics, McGill University, McIntyre Medical Sciences Building, 3655 Promenade Sir-William-Osler, Montreal, Canada H3G 1Y6
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112
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Joly LM, Mucignat V, Mariani J, Plotkine M, Charriaut-Marlangue C. Caspase inhibition after neonatal ischemia in the rat brain. J Cereb Blood Flow Metab 2004; 24:124-31. [PMID: 14688624 DOI: 10.1097/01.wcb.0000100061.36077.5f] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
Caspase-3 has been identified as a key protease in the execution of apoptosis and appears to be an important downstream event after hypoxia-ischemia in the immature brain. The efficacy of a pan-caspase inhibitor, boc-aspartyl-(Ome)-fluoromethyl-ketone (BAF), was tested in a model of unilateral focal ischemia with reperfusion in 7-day-old rats. The BAF inhibitor was given intraperitoneally 5 minutes before reperfusion via the carotid artery. This procedure reduced the activity of caspase-3 by 79% but did not induce a significant reduction in infarct volume (23.8 +/- 7.5% versus 30.1 +/- 6.4%). Animals were distributed in two populations. One population exhibited an infarct, whereas the other appeared to be fully protected. BAF-treated animals exhibiting an infarct mostly displayed necrotic cell death, whereas apoptotic nuclei were observed in untreated or vehicle-treated animals. Repeated dose of BAF (5 minutes before and 9 hours after reperfusion) did not also provide benefit after neonatal ischemia, although a general trend to reduce lesion was observed (20.5 +/- 3.7% versus 34.4 +/- 5.9%). These findings raise critical questions about the use of peptide ketone apoptotic inhibitors in improving histopathologic outcomes after neonatal stroke.
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Affiliation(s)
- Luc-Marie Joly
- UMR-CNRS 7102, Laboratoire Developpement et Vieillissement du Système Nerveux, Paris, France
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113
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Zhu C, Wang X, Cheng X, Qiu L, Xu F, Simbruner G, Blomgren K. Post-ischemic hypothermia-induced tissue protection and diminished apoptosis after neonatal cerebral hypoxia–ischemia. Brain Res 2004; 996:67-75. [PMID: 14670632 DOI: 10.1016/j.brainres.2003.10.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 66] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Abstract
Hypothermia is possibly the single most effective method of neuroprotection developed to date. However, the mechanisms are not completely understood. The aim of this study was to investigate the effects of post-ischemic hypothermia on brain injury and apoptotic neuronal cell death as well as related biochemical changes after neonatal hypoxia-ischemia (HI). Seven-day-old rats were subjected to left common carotid artery ligation and hypoxia (7.8%) for 1 h. Systemic hypothermia was induced immediately after hypoxia-ischemia, and body temperature was maintained at 30 degrees C for 10 h. The normothermic group was kept at 36 degrees C. Brain infarct volumes and neuronal loss in the CA1 area of the hippocampus were significantly reduced at 72 h post-HI in the hypothermia group. Cytochrome c release and activation of caspase-3 and -2 at 24 h post-HI were significantly diminished by hypothermia. The numbers of cytochrome c- and TUNEL-positive cells in the cortex and dentate gyrus of the hippocampus were significantly reduced in the hypothermia group compared with the normothermia group at 72 h post-HI. These results indicate that hypothermia may, at least partially, act through inhibition of the intrinsic pathway of caspase activation in the neonatal brain, thereby preventing apoptotic cell death.
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Affiliation(s)
- Changlian Zhu
- Department of Pediatrics, The Third Affiliated Hospital of Zhengzhou University, 450052, Zhengzhou, PR China.
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114
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Xu W, Chi L, Row BW, Xu R, Ke Y, Xu B, Luo C, Kheirandish L, Gozal D, Liu R. Increased oxidative stress is associated with chronic intermittent hypoxia-mediated brain cortical neuronal cell apoptosis in a mouse model of sleep apnea. Neuroscience 2004; 126:313-23. [PMID: 15207349 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2004.03.055] [Citation(s) in RCA: 290] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 03/15/2004] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
Chronic intermittent hypoxia (CIH), as occurs in obstructive sleep apnea (SA), is associated with substantial cortico-hippocampal damage leading to impairments of neurocognitive, respiratory and cardiovascular functions. Previous studies in a rat model have shown that CIH increases brain cortical neuronal cell death. However, the molecular events leading to CIH-mediated neuronal cell death remain largely undefined. The oscillation of O2 concentrations during CIH remarkably mimics the processes of ischemia/re-oxygenation and could therefore increase cellular production of reactive oxygen species (ROS). We extended the CIH paradigm to a mouse model of SA to identify the molecular mechanisms underlying cortical neuronal cell death. A significant increase of ROS production in mouse brain cortex and cortical neuronal cells was detected by fluorescent oxidation assays upon exposure of mice to CIH, followed by increased expression of oxidative stress response markers, c-Fos, c-Jun and NF-kappaB in mouse brain cortex, as revealed by immunohistochemical and LacZ reporter assays respectively. Long-term exposure of mice to CIH increased the levels of protein oxidation, lipid peroxidation and nucleic acid oxidation in mouse brain cortex. Furthermore, exposure of mice to CIH induced caspase-3 activation and increased some cortical neuronal cell apoptosis. On the other hand, transgenic mice overexpressing Cu,Zn-superoxide dismutase exposed to CIH conditions had a lower level of steady-state ROS production and reduced neuronal apoptosis in brain cortex compared with that of normal control mice. Taken together, these findings suggest that the increased ROS production and oxidative stress propagation contribute, at least partially, to CIH-mediated cortical neuronal apoptosis and neurocognitive dysfunction.
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Affiliation(s)
- W Xu
- Kosair Children's Hospital Research Institute, Department of Pediatrics, 215 Baxter Building I, 570 South Preston Street, University of Louisville, Louisville, KY 40202, USA
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115
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Abstract
Caspases are a family of cysteine proteases that play important roles in regulating apoptosis. A decade of research has generated a wealth of information on the signal transduction pathways mediated by caspases, the distinct functions of individual caspases and the mechanisms by which caspases mediate apoptosis and a variety of physiological and pathological processes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexei Degterev
- Department of Cell Biology, Harvard Medical School, 240 Longwood Ave, Boston, MA 02115, USA
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116
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Hejmadi MV, Dajas-Bailador F, Barns SM, Jones B, Wonnacott S. Neuroprotection by nicotine against hypoxia-induced apoptosis in cortical cultures involves activation of multiple nicotinic acetylcholine receptor subtypes. Mol Cell Neurosci 2003; 24:779-86. [PMID: 14664825 DOI: 10.1016/s1044-7431(03)00244-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 79] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Activation of neuronal nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (nAChR) by nicotine has been suggested to protect neurons against a hypoxic insult. The objective of this study was to examine the nature of cell death induced by acute hypoxia in rat primary cortical cultures and the neuroprotective potential of nicotine in ameliorating these processes. Neuronal cell death induced by a 4-h exposure to hypoxia (0.1% O(2)) was apoptotic, as shown by TUNEL staining and assays monitoring DNA strand breaks and caspase-3/7 activity. The presence of nicotine (10 microM) during the hypoxic insult protected a subpopulation of susceptible neurones against DNA damage and apoptosis induced by oxygen deprivation. This protective effect of nicotine was prevented by a 30-min pre-incubation with either 100 nM alpha-bungarotoxin or 1 microM dihydro-beta-erythroidine, but not 1 microM atropine, suggesting that activation of at least two subtypes of nAChR, alpha7 and beta2* nAChR, is involved in mediating nicotine neuroprotection.
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Affiliation(s)
- M V Hejmadi
- Department of Biology and Biochemistry, University of Bath, Bath BA2 7AY, UK.
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117
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Yang W, Guastella J, Huang JC, Wang Y, Zhang L, Xue D, Tran M, Woodward R, Kasibhatla S, Tseng B, Drewe J, Cai SX. MX1013, a dipeptide caspase inhibitor with potent in vivo antiapoptotic activity. Br J Pharmacol 2003; 140:402-12. [PMID: 12970077 PMCID: PMC1574042 DOI: 10.1038/sj.bjp.0705450] [Citation(s) in RCA: 72] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/27/2022] Open
Abstract
1. Caspases play a critical role in apoptosis, and are considered to be key targets for the design of cytoprotective drugs. As part of our antiapoptotic drug-discovery effort, we have synthesized and characterized Z-VD-fmk, MX1013, as a potent, irreversible dipeptide caspase inhibitor. 2. MX1013 inhibits caspases 1, 3, 6, 7, 8, and 9, with IC50 values ranging from 5 to 20 nm. MX1013 is selective for caspases, and is a poor inhibitor of noncaspase proteases, such as cathepsin B, calpain I, or Factor Xa (IC50 values >10 microm). 3. In several cell culture models of apoptosis, including caspase 3 processing, PARP cleavage, and DNA fragmentation, MX1013 is more active than tetrapeptide- and tripeptide-based caspase inhibitors, and blocked apoptosis at concentrations as low as 0.5 microm. 4. MX1013 is more aqueous soluble than tripeptide-based caspase inhibitors such as Z-VAD-fmk. 5. At a dose of 1 mg kg-1 i.v., MX1013 prevented liver damage and the lethality caused by Fas death receptor activation in the anti-Fas mouse-liver apoptosis model, a widely used model of liver failure. 6. At a dose of 20 mg kg-1 (i.v. bolus) followed by i.v. infusion for 6 or 12 h, MX1013 reduced cortical damage by approximately 50% in a model of brain ischemia/reperfusion injury. 7. At a dose of 20 mg kg-1 (i.v. bolus) followed by i.v. infusion for 12 h, MX1013 reduced heart damage by approximately 50% in a model of acute myocardial infarction. 8. Based on these studies, we conclude that MX1013, a dipeptide pan-caspase inhibitor, has a good combination of in vitro and in vivo properties. It has the ability to protect cells from a variety of apoptotic insults, and is systemically active in three animal models of apoptosis, including brain ischemia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wu Yang
- Cytovia, Inc. (a subsidiary of Maxim Pharmaceuticals, Inc.), 6650 Nancy Ridge Drive, San Diego, CA 92121, U.S.A
| | - John Guastella
- Cytovia, Inc. (a subsidiary of Maxim Pharmaceuticals, Inc.), 6650 Nancy Ridge Drive, San Diego, CA 92121, U.S.A
| | - Jin-Cheng Huang
- CoCensys, Inc., 213 Technology Drive, Irvine, CA 92718, U.S.A
| | - Yan Wang
- Cytovia, Inc. (a subsidiary of Maxim Pharmaceuticals, Inc.), 6650 Nancy Ridge Drive, San Diego, CA 92121, U.S.A
| | - Li Zhang
- Cytovia, Inc. (a subsidiary of Maxim Pharmaceuticals, Inc.), 6650 Nancy Ridge Drive, San Diego, CA 92121, U.S.A
| | - Dong Xue
- CoCensys, Inc., 213 Technology Drive, Irvine, CA 92718, U.S.A
| | - Minhtam Tran
- Cytovia, Inc. (a subsidiary of Maxim Pharmaceuticals, Inc.), 6650 Nancy Ridge Drive, San Diego, CA 92121, U.S.A
| | | | - Shailaja Kasibhatla
- Cytovia, Inc. (a subsidiary of Maxim Pharmaceuticals, Inc.), 6650 Nancy Ridge Drive, San Diego, CA 92121, U.S.A
| | - Ben Tseng
- Cytovia, Inc. (a subsidiary of Maxim Pharmaceuticals, Inc.), 6650 Nancy Ridge Drive, San Diego, CA 92121, U.S.A
| | - John Drewe
- Cytovia, Inc. (a subsidiary of Maxim Pharmaceuticals, Inc.), 6650 Nancy Ridge Drive, San Diego, CA 92121, U.S.A
| | - Sui Xiong Cai
- Cytovia, Inc. (a subsidiary of Maxim Pharmaceuticals, Inc.), 6650 Nancy Ridge Drive, San Diego, CA 92121, U.S.A
- Author for correspondence:
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118
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Zhu C, Qiu L, Wang X, Hallin U, Candé C, Kroemer G, Hagberg H, Blomgren K. Involvement of apoptosis-inducing factor in neuronal death after hypoxia-ischemia in the neonatal rat brain. J Neurochem 2003; 86:306-17. [PMID: 12871572 DOI: 10.1046/j.1471-4159.2003.01832.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 187] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Apoptosis-inducing factor (AIF) triggers apoptosis in a caspase-independent manner. Here we report for the first time involvement of AIF in neuronal death induced by cerebral ischemia. Unilateral cerebral hypoxia-ischemia (HI) was induced in 7-day-old rats by ligation of the left carotid artery and hypoxia (7.7% O2) for 55 min. AIF release from mitochondria and AIF translocation to nuclei was detected immediately after HI, and only in damaged areas, as judged by the concurrent loss of MAP-2. AIF release was detected earlier than that of cytochrome c. Cells with AIF-positive nuclei displayed nuclear condensation and signs of DNA damage. The number of AIF-positive nuclei showed a positive correlation with the infarct volume 72 h post-HI, and this was not changed by treating the animals with boc-Asp-fmk (BAF), a multicaspase inhibitor. BAF treatment reduced the activity of caspase-3, -2 and -9 (78, 73 and 33%, respectively), and prevented caspase-dependent fodrin cleavage in vivo, but did not affect AIF release from mitochondria or the frequency of positive nuclear AIF or DNA damage 72 h post-HI, indicating that these processes occurred in a caspase-independent fashion. In summary, AIF-mediated cell death may be an important mechanism of HI-induced neuronal loss in the immature brain.
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Affiliation(s)
- Changlian Zhu
- Perinatal Center, Department of Physiology, Göteborg University, Göteborg, Sweden
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119
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Houde C, Roy S, Leung N, Nicholson DW, Beauchemin N. The cell adhesion molecule CEACAM1-L is a substrate of caspase-3-mediated cleavage in apoptotic mouse intestinal cells. J Biol Chem 2003; 278:16929-35. [PMID: 12637508 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m301842200] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/07/2023] Open
Abstract
The CEACAM1 cell adhesion molecule is a member of the carcinoembryonic antigen family. In the mouse, four distinct isoforms are generated by alternative splicing. These encode either two or four immunoglobulin domains linked through a transmembrane domain to a cytoplasmic domain that encompasses either a short 10-amino acid tail or a longer one of 73 amino acids. Inclusion of exon 7, well conserved in evolution, generates the long cytoplasmic domain. A potential caspase recognition site in mouse, rat, and human CEACAM1-L also becomes available within the peptide encoded by exon 7. We used CEACAM1-L-transfected mouse colon carcinoma CT51 cells treated with three different apoptotic agents to study its fate during cell death. We found that CEACAM1-L is cleaved resulting in rapid degradation of most of its 8-kDa cytoplasmic domain. Caspase-mediated cleavage was demonstrated using purified recombinant caspases. The long cytoplasmic domain was cleaved specifically by caspase-3 in vitro but not by caspase-7 or -8. Moreover cleavage of CEACAM1-L in apoptotic cells was blocked by addition of a selective caspase-3 inhibitor to the cultures. Using point and deletion mutants, the conserved DQRD motif in the membrane-proximal cytoplasmic domain was identified as a caspase cleavage site. We also show that once CEACAM1-L is caspase-cleaved it becomes a stronger adhesion molecule than both the shorter and the longer expressing isoforms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Caroline Houde
- McGill Cancer Centre, McGill University, Montreal, Quebec H3G 1Y6, Canada
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120
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Blomgren K, Zhu C, Hallin U, Hagberg H. Mitochondria and ischemic reperfusion damage in the adult and in the developing brain. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 2003; 304:551-9. [PMID: 12729590 DOI: 10.1016/s0006-291x(03)00628-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 109] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
The developing and the adult brain respond in similar ways to ischemia, but also display clear differences. For example, the relative contributions of necrosis and apoptosis to neuronal death may be different, such that apoptotic mechanisms would be more prevalent in the developing brain. During normal development, more than half of the neurons in some brain regions are removed through apoptosis, and effectors like caspase-3 are highly upregulated in the immature brain. Mitochondria are pivotal regulators of cell death through their role in energy production and calcium homeostasis, their capacity to release apoptogenic proteins and to produce reactive oxygen species. This review will summarize some of the current studies dealing with mitochondria-related mechanisms of ischemic brain damage, with special reference to developmental aspects.
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Affiliation(s)
- Klas Blomgren
- Department of Physiology, Perinatal Center, Göteborg University, P.O. Box 432, SE 405 30 Göteborg, Sweden.
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121
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Lo EH, Dalkara T, Moskowitz MA. Mechanisms, challenges and opportunities in stroke. Nat Rev Neurosci 2003; 4:399-415. [PMID: 12728267 DOI: 10.1038/nrn1106] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1286] [Impact Index Per Article: 61.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Eng H Lo
- Neuroprotection Research Laboratory, Department of Radiology, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Charlestown, Massachusetts 02129, USA
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122
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123
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Erlanson DA, Lam JW, Wiesmann C, Luong TN, Simmons RL, DeLano WL, Choong IC, Burdett MT, Flanagan WM, Lee D, Gordon EM, O'Brien T. In situ assembly of enzyme inhibitors using extended tethering. Nat Biotechnol 2003; 21:308-14. [PMID: 12563278 DOI: 10.1038/nbt786] [Citation(s) in RCA: 149] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/28/2002] [Accepted: 12/13/2002] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
Cysteine aspartyl protease-3 (caspase-3) is a mediator of apoptosis and a therapeutic target for a wide range of diseases. Using a dynamic combinatorial technology, 'extended tethering', we identified unique nonpeptidic inhibitors for this enzyme. Extended tethering allowed the identification of ligands that bind to discrete regions of caspase-3 and also helped direct the assembly of these ligands into small-molecule inhibitors. We first designed a small-molecule 'extender' that irreversibly alkylates the cysteine residue of caspase-3 and also contains a thiol group. The modified protein was then screened against a library of disulfide-containing small-molecule fragments. Mass-spectrometry was used to identify ligands that bind noncovalently to the protein and that also form a disulfide linkage with the extender. Linking the selected fragments with binding elements from the extenders generates reversible, tight-binding molecules that are druglike and distinct from known inhibitors. One molecule derived from this approach inhibited apoptosis in cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel A Erlanson
- Sunesis Pharmaceuticals, Inc., 341 Oyster Point Boulevard, South San Francisco, CA 94080, USA.
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124
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael A Moskowitz
- Neuroscience Center, Department of Radiology and Neurology, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Charlestown, Mass 02129, USA.
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125
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Martin AG, Fearnhead HO. Apocytochrome c blocks caspase-9 activation and Bax-induced apoptosis. J Biol Chem 2002; 277:50834-41. [PMID: 12393884 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m209369200] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Complex networks of signaling pathways control the apoptotic response and, therefore, cell survival. However, these networks converge on a common machinery, of which the caspase cysteine proteases are key components. Diverse apoptotic stimuli release holocytochrome c from mitochondria, allowing holocytochrome c to bind apoptotic protease activating factor-1 (Apaf-1), which in turn binds caspase-9 both activating this caspase and forming an Apaf-1/caspase-9 holoenzyme. Cytochrome c lacking heme (the apo form) cannot support caspase activation, although the reason for this has not been studied. Here we show that apocytochrome c still binds Apaf-1 and that it can block holo-dependent caspase activation in a cell-free system. In addition we show that overexpression of apocytochrome c blocks Bax-induced apoptosis in cells. Thus it is possible to modulate cell survival by interfering with the Apaf-1/cytochrome c interaction. Given the key role played by Apaf-1/cytochrome c in the apoptotic process, and the role of apoptosis in degenerative disease, this interaction may serve as a novel therapeutic target.
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Affiliation(s)
- Angel G Martin
- Apoptosis Section, Regulation of Cell Growth Laboratory, NCI, National Institutes of Health, Frederick, Maryland 21702, USA
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