Database for mRNA half-life of 19 977 genes obtained by DNA microarray analysis of pluripotent and differentiating mouse embryonic stem cells

SARS-CoV-2 Infected Pediatric Cerebral Cortical Neurons: Transcriptomic Analysis and Potential Role of Toll-like Receptors in Pathogenesis

Different mechanisms were proposed as responsible for COVID-19 neurological symptoms but a clear one has not been established yet. In this work we aimed to study SARS-CoV-2 capacity to infect pediatric human cortical neuronal HCN-2 cells, studying the changes in the transcriptomic profile by next generation sequencing. SARS-CoV-2 was able to replicate in HCN-2 cells, that did not express ACE2, confirmed also with Western blot, and TMPRSS2. Looking for pattern recognition receptor expression, we found the deregulation of scavenger receptors, such as SR-B1, and the downregulation of genes encoding for Nod-like receptors. On the other hand, TLR1, TLR4 and TLR6 encoding for Toll-like receptors (TLRs) were upregulated. We also found the upregulation of genes encoding for ERK, JNK, NF-κB and Caspase 8 in our transcriptomic analysis. Regarding the expression of known receptors for viral RNA, only RIG-1 showed an increased expression; downstream RIG-1, the genes encoding for TRAF3, IKKε and IRF3 were downregulated. We also found the upregulation of genes encoding for chemokines and accordingly we found an increase in cytokine/chemokine levels in the medium. According to our results, it is possible to speculate that additionally to ACE2 and TMPRSS2, also other receptors may interact with SARS-CoV-2 proteins and mediate its entry or pathogenesis in pediatric cortical neurons infected with SARS-CoV-2. In particular, TLRs signaling could be crucial for the neurological involvement related to SARS-CoV-2 infection.

A DNA repair pathway can regulate transcriptional noise to promote cell fate transitions

Stochastic fluctuations in gene expression ("noise") are often considered detrimental, but fluctuations can also be exploited for benefit (e.g., dither). We show here that DNA base excision repair amplifies transcriptional noise to facilitate cellular reprogramming. Specifically, the DNA repair protein Apex1, which recognizes both naturally occurring and unnatural base modifications, amplifies expression noise while homeostatically maintaining mean expression levels. This amplified expression noise originates from shorter-duration, higher-intensity transcriptional bursts generated by Apex1-mediated DNA supercoiling. The remodeling of DNA topology first impedes and then accelerates transcription to maintain mean levels. This mechanism, which we refer to as "discordant transcription through repair" ("DiThR," which is pronounced "dither"), potentiates cellular reprogramming and differentiation. Our study reveals a potential functional role for transcriptional fluctuations mediated by DNA base modifications in embryonic development and disease.

Neural and Molecular Mechanisms of Biological Embedding of Social Interactions

Animals operate in complex environments, and salient social information is encoded in the nervous system and then processed to initiate adaptive behavior. This encoding involves biological embedding, the process by which social experience affects the brain to influence future behavior. Biological embedding is an important conceptual framework for understanding social decision-making in the brain, as it encompasses multiple levels of organization that regulate how information is encoded and used to modify behavior. The framework we emphasize here is that social stimuli provoke short-term changes in neural activity that lead to changes in gene expression on longer timescales. This process, simplified-neurons are for today and genes are for tomorrow-enables the assessment of the valence of a social interaction, an appropriate and rapid response, and subsequent modification of neural circuitry to change future behavioral inclinations in anticipation of environmental changes. We review recent research on the neural and molecular basis of biological embedding in the context of social interactions, with a special focus on the honeybee.

Control of tissue development and cell diversity by cell cycle-dependent transcriptional filtering

Cell cycle duration changes dramatically during development, starting out fast to generate cells quickly and slowing down over time as the organism matures. The cell cycle can also act as a transcriptional filter to control the expression of long gene transcripts, which are partially transcribed in short cycles. Using mathematical simulations of cell proliferation, we identify an emergent property that this filter can act as a tuning knob to control gene transcript expression, cell diversity, and the number and proportion of different cell types in a tissue. Our predictions are supported by comparison to single-cell RNA-seq data captured over embryonic development. Additionally, evolutionary genome analysis shows that fast-developing organisms have a narrow genomic distribution of gene lengths while slower developers have an expanded number of long genes. Our results support the idea that cell cycle dynamics may be important across multicellular animals for controlling gene transcript expression and cell fate.

Nucleoside-modified messenger RNA COVID-19 vaccine platform

On March 11, 2020, the World Health Organization declared coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) a pandemic; from that date, the vaccine race has begun, and many technology platforms to develop a specific and effective COVID-19 vaccine have been launched in several clinical trials (protein subunit, RNA-based, DNA-based, replicating viral vector, nonreplicating viral vector, inactivated virus, live attenuated virus, and virus-like particle). Among the next-generation strategies, nucleoside-modified messenger RNA vaccines appear the most attractive, not only to counteract emerging pathogens but also for the possible applications in regenerative medicine and cancer therapy. However, exactly as all innovative drugs, they deserve careful pharmacovigilance in the short and long term.

Galectin-3 is modulated in pancreatic cancer cells under hypoxia and nutrient deprivation

Pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma is one of the most aggressive tumors with a microenvironment marked by hypoxia and starvation. Galectin-3 has been evaluated in solid tumors and seems to present both pro/anti-tumor effects. So, this study aims to characterize the expression of Galectin-3 from pancreatic tumor cells and analyze its influence for cell survive and motility in mimetic microenvironment. For this, cell cycle and cell death were accessed through flow cytometry. Characterization of inside and outside Galectin-3 was performed through Real-Time Quantitative Reverse Transcription PCR (qRT-PCR), immunofluorescence, Western blot, and ELISA. Consequences of Galectin-3 extracellular inhibition were investigated using cell death and scratch assays. PANC-1 showed increased Galectin-3 mRNA expression when cultivated in hypoxia for 24 and 48 h. After 24 h in simultaneously hypoxic/deprived incubation, PANC-1 shows increased Galectin-3 protein and secreted levels. For Mia PaCa-2, cultivation in deprivation was determinant for the increasing in Galectin-3 mRNA expression. When cultivated in simultaneously hypoxic/deprived condition, Mia PaCa-2 also presented increasing for the Galectin-3 secreted levels. Treatment of PANC-1 cells with lactose increased the death rate when cells were incubated simultaneously hypoxic/deprived condition. Therefore, it is possible to conclude that the microenvironmental conditions modulate the Galectin-3 expression on the transcriptional and translational levels for pancreatic cancer cells.

P23 Acts as Functional RBP in the Macrophage Inflammation Response

Macrophages exert the primary cellular immune response. Pathogen components like bacterial lipopolysaccharides (LPS) stimulate macrophage migration, phagocytotic activity and cytokine expression. Previously, we identified the poly(A)⁺ RNA interactome of RAW 264.7 macrophages. Of the 402 RNA-binding proteins (RBPs), 32 were classified as unique in macrophages, including nineteen not reported to interact with nucleic acids before. Remarkably, P23 a HSP90 co-chaperone, also known as cytosolic prostaglandin E2 synthase (PTGES3), exhibited differential poly(A)⁺ RNA binding in untreated and LPS-induced macrophages. To identify mRNAs bound by P23 and to elucidate potential regulatory RBP functions in macrophages, we immunoprecipitated P23 from cytoplasmic extracts of cross-linked untreated and LPS-induced cells. RNAseq revealed that enrichment of 44 mRNAs was reduced in response to LPS. Kif15 mRNA, which encodes kinesin family member 15 (KIF15), a motor protein implicated in cytoskeletal reorganization and cell mobility was selected for further analysis. Noteworthy, phagocytic activity of LPS-induced macrophages was enhanced by P23 depletion. Specifically, in untreated RAW 264.7 macrophages, decreased P23 results in Kif15 mRNA destabilization, diminished KIF15 expression and accelerated macrophage migration. We show that the unexpected RBP function of P23 contributes to the regulation of macrophage phagocytotic activity and migration.

Commonalities of optic nerve injury and glaucoma-induced neurodegeneration: Insights from transcriptome-wide studies

Glaucoma is a collection of diseases that lead to an irreversible vision loss due to damage of retinal ganglion cells (RGCs). Although the underlying events leading to RGC death are not fully understood, recent research efforts are beginning to define the genetic changes that play a critical role in the initiation and progression of glaucomatous injury and RGC death. Several genetic and experimental animal models have been developed to mimic glaucomatous neurodegeneration. These models differ in many respects but all result in the loss of RGCs. Assessing transcriptional changes across different models could provide a more complete perspective on the molecular drivers of RGC degeneration. For the past several decades, changes in the retinal transcriptome during neurodegeneration process were defined using microarray methods, RNA sequencing and now single cell RNA sequencing. It is understood that these methods have strengths and weaknesses due to technical differences and variations in the analytical tools used. In this review, we focus on the use of transcriptome-wide expression profiling of the changes occurring as RGCs are lost across different glaucoma models. Commonalities of optic nerve crush and glaucoma-induced neurodegeneration are identified and discussed.

Poly(U)-specific endoribonuclease ENDOU promotes translation of human CHOP mRNA by releasing uORF element-mediated inhibition

Upstream open reading frames (uORFs) are known to negatively affect translation of the downstream ORF. The regulatory proteins involved in relieving this inhibition are however poorly characterized. In response to cellular stress, eIF2α phosphorylation leads to an inhibition of global protein synthesis, while translation of specific factors such as CHOP is induced. We analyzed a 105‐nt inhibitory uORF in the transcript of human CHOP (huORF^chop) and found that overexpression of the zebrafish or human ENDOU poly(U)‐endoribonuclease (Endouc or ENDOU‐1, respectively) increases CHOP mRNA translation also in the absence of stress. We also found that Endouc/ENDOU‐1 binds and cleaves the huORF^chop transcript at position 80G‐81U, which induces CHOP translation independently of phosphorylated eIF2α. However, both ENDOU and phospho‐eIF2α are nonetheless required for maximal translation of CHOP mRNA. Increased levels of ENDOU shift a huORF^chop reporter as well as endogenous CHOP transcripts from the monosome to polysome fraction, indicating an increase in translation. Furthermore, we found that the uncapped truncated huORF^chop‐69‐105‐nt transcript contains an internal ribosome entry site (IRES), facilitating translation of the cleaved transcript. Therefore, we propose a model where ENDOU‐mediated transcript cleavage positively regulates CHOP translation resulting in increased CHOP protein levels upon stress. Specifically, CHOP transcript cleavage changes the configuration of huORF^chop thereby releasing its inhibition and allowing the stalled ribosomes to resume translation of the downstream ORF.

Predicting mRNA Abundance Directly from Genomic Sequence Using Deep Convolutional Neural Networks

Algorithms that accurately predict gene structure from primary sequence alone were transformative for annotating the human genome. Can we also predict the expression levels of genes based solely on genome sequence? Here, we sought to apply deep convolutional neural networks toward that goal. Surprisingly, a model that includes only promoter sequences and features associated with mRNA stability explains 59% and 71% of variation in steady-state mRNA levels in human and mouse, respectively. This model, termed Xpresso, more than doubles the accuracy of alternative sequence-based models and isolates rules as predictive as models relying on chromatic immunoprecipitation sequencing (ChIP-seq) data. Xpresso recapitulates genome-wide patterns of transcriptional activity, and its residuals can be used to quantify the influence of enhancers, heterochromatic domains, and microRNAs. Model interpretation reveals that promoter-proximal CpG dinucleotides strongly predict transcriptional activity. Looking forward, we propose cell-type-specific gene-expression predictions based solely on primary sequences as a grand challenge for the field.

Ribosome-Profiling Reveals Restricted Post Transcriptional Expression of Antiviral Cytokines and Transcription Factors during SARS-CoV-2 Infection

The global COVID-19 pandemic caused by SARS-CoV-2 has resulted in over 2.2 million deaths. Disease outcomes range from asymptomatic to severe with, so far, minimal genotypic change to the virus so understanding the host response is paramount. Transcriptomics has become incredibly important in understanding host-pathogen interactions; however, post-transcriptional regulation plays an important role in infection and immunity through translation and mRNA stability, allowing tight control over potent host responses by both the host and the invading virus. Here, we apply ribosome profiling to assess post-transcriptional regulation of host genes during SARS-CoV-2 infection of a human lung epithelial cell line (Calu-3). We have identified numerous transcription factors (JUN, ZBTB20, ATF3, HIVEP2 and EGR1) as well as select antiviral cytokine genes, namely IFNB1, IFNL1,2 and 3, IL-6 and CCL5, that are restricted at the post-transcriptional level by SARS-CoV-2 infection and discuss the impact this would have on the host response to infection. This early phase restriction of antiviral transcripts in the lungs may allow high viral load and consequent immune dysregulation typically seen in SARS-CoV-2 infection.

Complementary phase responses via functional differentiation of dual negative feedback loops

Multiple feedback loops are often found in gene regulations for various cellular functions. In mammalian circadian clocks, oscillations of Period1 (Per1) and Period2 (Per2) expression are caused by interacting negative feedback loops (NFLs) whose protein products with similar molecular functions repress each other. However, Per1 expression peaks earlier than Per2 in the pacemaker tissue, raising the question of whether the peak time difference reflects their different dynamical functions. Here, we address this question by analyzing phase responses of the circadian clock caused by light-induced transcription of both Per1 and Per2 mRNAs. Through mathematical analyses of dual NFLs, we show that phase advance is mainly driven by light inputs to the repressor with an earlier expression peak as Per1, whereas phase delay is driven by the other repressor with a later peak as Per2. Due to the complementary contributions to phase responses, the ratio of light-induced transcription rates between Per1 and Per2 determines the magnitude and direction of phase shifts at each time of day. Specifically, stronger Per1 light induction than Per2 results in a phase response curve (PRC) with a larger phase advance zone than delay zone as observed in rats and hamsters, whereas stronger Per2 induction causes a larger delay zone as observed in mice. Furthermore, the ratio of light-induced transcription rates required for entrainment is determined by the relation between the circadian and light-dark periods. Namely, if the autonomous period of a circadian clock is longer than the light-dark period, a larger light-induced transcription rate of Per1 than Per2 is required for entrainment, and vice versa. In short, the time difference between Per1 and Per2 expression peaks can differentiate their dynamical functions. The resultant complementary contributions to phase responses can determine entrainability of the circadian clock to the light-dark cycle.

Different Functions of Recombinantly Expressed Domains of Tenascin-C in Glial Scar Formation

Extracellular matrix glycoprotein tenascin-C (TnC) is highly expressed in vertebrates during embryonic development and thereafter transiently in tissue niches undergoing extensive remodeling during regeneration after injury. TnC's different functions can be attributed to its multimodular structure represented by distinct domains and alternatively spliced isoforms. Upon central nervous system injury, TnC is upregulated and secreted into the extracellular matrix mainly by astrocytes. The goal of the present study was to elucidate the role of different TnC domains in events that take place after spinal cord injury (SCI). Astrocyte cultures prepared from TnC-deficient (TnC-/-) and wild-type (TnC+/+) mice were scratched and treated with different recombinantly generated TnC fragments. Gap closure, cell proliferation and expression of GFAP and cytokines were determined in these cultures. Gap closure in vitro was found to be delayed by TnC fragments, an effect mainly mediated by decreasing proliferation of astrocytes. The most potent effects were observed with fragments FnD, FnA and their combination. TnC-/- astrocyte cultures exhibited higher GFAP protein and mRNA expression levels, regardless of the type of fragment used for treatment. Application of TnC fragments induced also pro-inflammatory cytokine production by astrocytes in vitro. In vivo, however, the addition of FnD or Fn(D+A) led to a difference between the two genotypes, with higher levels of GFAP expression in TnC+/+ mice. FnD treatment of injured TnC-/- mice increased the density of activated microglia/macrophages in the injury region, while overall cell proliferation in the injury site was not affected. We suggest that altogether these results may explain how the reaction of astrocytes is delayed while their localization is restricted to the border of the injury site to allow microglia/macrophages to form a lesion core during the first stages of glial scar formation, as mediated by TnC and, in particular, the alternatively spliced FnD domain.

Characterization of the nuclear and cytosolic transcriptomes in human brain tissue reveals new insights into the subcellular distribution of RNA transcripts

Transcriptome analysis has mainly relied on analyzing RNA sequencing data from whole cells, overlooking the impact of subcellular RNA localization and its influence on our understanding of gene function, and interpretation of gene expression signatures in cells. Here, we separated cytosolic and nuclear RNA from human fetal and adult brain samples and performed a comprehensive analysis of cytosolic and nuclear transcriptomes. There are significant differences in RNA expression for protein-coding and lncRNA genes between cytosol and nucleus. We show that transcripts encoding the nuclear-encoded mitochondrial proteins are significantly enriched in the cytosol compared to the rest of protein-coding genes. Differential expression analysis between fetal and adult frontal cortex show that results obtained from the cytosolic RNA differ from results using nuclear RNA both at the level of transcript types and the number of differentially expressed genes. Our data provide a resource for the subcellular localization of thousands of RNA transcripts in the human brain and highlight differences in using the cytosolic or the nuclear transcriptomes for expression analysis.

Participation of TFIIIB Subunit Brf1 in Transcription Regulation in the Human Pathogen Leishmania major

In yeast and higher eukaryotes, transcription factor TFIIIB is required for accurate initiation of transcription by RNA Polymerase III (Pol III), which synthesizes transfer RNAs (tRNAs), 5S ribosomal RNA (rRNA), and other essential RNA molecules. TFIIIB is composed of three subunits: B double prime 1 (Bdp1), TATA-binding protein (TBP), and TFIIB-related factor 1 (Brf1). Here, we report the molecular characterization of Brf1 in Leishmania major (LmBrf1), a parasitic protozoan that shows distinctive transcription characteristics, including the apparent absence of Pol III general transcription factors TFIIIA and TFIIIC. Although single-knockout parasites of LmBrf1 were obtained, attempts to generate LmBrf1-null mutants were unsuccessful, which suggests that LmBrf1 is essential in promastigotes of L. major. Notably, Northern blot analyses showed that the half-lives of the messenger RNAs (mRNAs) from LmBrf1 and other components of the Pol III transcription machinery (Bdp1 and Pol III subunit RPC1) are very similar (~40 min). Stabilization of these transcripts was observed in stationary-phase parasites. Chromatin immunoprecipitation (ChIP) experiments showed that LmBrf1 binds to tRNA, small nuclear RNA (snRNA), and 5S rRNA genes. Unexpectedly, the results also indicated that LmBrf1 associates to the promoter region of the 18S rRNA genes and to three Pol II-dependent regions here analyzed. Tandem affinity purification and mass spectrometry analyses allowed the identification of a putative TFIIIC subunit. Moreover, several proteins involved in transcription by all three RNA polymerases co-purified with the tagged version of LmBrf1.

Characterizing RNA stability genome-wide through combined analysis of PRO-seq and RNA-seq data

BACKGROUND

The concentrations of distinct types of RNA in cells result from a dynamic equilibrium between RNA synthesis and decay. Despite the critical importance of RNA decay rates, current approaches for measuring them are generally labor-intensive, limited in sensitivity, and/or disruptive to normal cellular processes. Here, we introduce a simple method for estimating relative RNA half-lives that is based on two standard and widely available high-throughput assays: Precision Run-On sequencing (PRO-seq) and RNA sequencing (RNA-seq).

RESULTS

Our method treats PRO-seq as a measure of transcription rate and RNA-seq as a measure of RNA concentration, and estimates the rate of RNA decay required for a steady-state equilibrium. We show that this approach can be used to assay relative RNA half-lives genome-wide, with good accuracy and sensitivity for both coding and noncoding transcription units. Using a structural equation model (SEM), we test several features of transcription units, nearby DNA sequences, and nearby epigenomic marks for associations with RNA stability after controlling for their effects on transcription. We find that RNA splicing-related features are positively correlated with RNA stability, whereas features related to miRNA binding and DNA methylation are negatively correlated with RNA stability. Furthermore, we find that a measure based on U1 binding and polyadenylation sites distinguishes between unstable noncoding and stable coding transcripts but is not predictive of relative stability within the mRNA or lincRNA classes. We also identify several histone modifications that are associated with RNA stability.

CONCLUSION

We introduce an approach for estimating the relative half-lives of individual RNAs. Together, our estimation method and systematic analysis shed light on the pervasive impacts of RNA stability on cellular RNA concentrations.

Persistence of Hepatitis A Virus RNA in Water, on Non-porous Surfaces, and on Blueberries

Enteric viruses, such as human norovirus and hepatitis A virus (HAV), are the leading cause of transmissible foodborne illness. Fresh produce such as berries are often contaminated by infected food handlers, soiled water, or food contact surfaces. The gold-standard method for virus detection throughout the food chain is RT-qPCR, which detects portions of genomes including non-infectious viral particles and naked viral RNA. The aim of this study was to evaluate the persistence of heat-inactivated HAV in water, phosphate-buffered saline, on stainless steel and polyvinyl chloride, and on blueberries at −80°C, −20°C, 4°C, and room temperature. In water and phosphate-buffered saline, viral RNA could be detected for up to 90 days regardless of temperature when the initial load was 2.5 × 10⁴ or 2.5 × 10⁶ genome copies. It was detected on polyvinyl chloride and blueberries under most conditions. On stainless steel, the large initial load persisted for 90 days, while the medium-level load was detected only up to 16 days at room temperature or 60 days at 4°C. The detection of non-infectious viral RNA can confound investigations of gastroenteritis outbreaks. Pretreatments that discriminate between naked RNA, non-infectious virions and infectious virions need to be included in the RT-qPCR method in order to reduce the risk of positive results associated with non-infectious viral particles.

RNA-biology ruling cancer progression? Focus on 3'UTRs and splicing

The protein-coding regions of mRNAs have the information to make proteins and hence have been at the center of attention for understanding altered protein functions in disease states, including cancer. Indeed, the discovery of genomic alterations and driver mutations that change protein levels and/or activity has been pivotal in our understanding of cancer biology. However, to better understand complex molecular mechanisms that are deregulated in cancers, we also need to look at non-coding parts of mRNAs, including 3'UTRs (untranslated regions), which control mRNA stability, localization, and translation efficiency. Recently, these rather overlooked regions of mRNAs are gaining attention as mounting evidence provides functional links between 3'UTRs, protein functions, and cancer-related molecular mechanisms. Here, roles of 3'UTRs in cancer biology and mechanisms that result in cancer-specific 3'-end isoform variants will be reviewed. An increased appreciation of 3'UTRs may help the discovery of new ways to explain as of yet unknown oncogene activation and tumor suppressor inactivation cases in cancers, and provide new avenues for diagnostic and therapeutic applications.

Relative mRNA and protein stability of epigenetic regulators in musculoskeletal cell culture models

Control of gene expression by epigenetic regulators is fundamental to tissue development and homeostasis. Loss-of-function (LOF) studies using siRNAs for epigenetic regulators require that RNA interference rapidly reduces the cellular levels of the corresponding mRNAs and/or proteins. The most abundant chromatin structural proteins (i.e., the core histones H2A, H2B, H3 and H4) have relatively long half-lives and do not turn over rapidly, although their mRNAs are labile. The question arises whether epigenetic regulatory enzymes (e.g., Ezh2) or proteins that interact with histones via selective modifications (e.g., Cbx1 to Cbx8, Brd4) are stable or unstable. Therefore, we performed classical α-amanitin and cycloheximide inhibition assays that block, respectively, mRNA transcription and protein translation in mouse MC3T3 osteoblasts, ATDC5 chondrocytes and C2C12 myoblasts. We find that mRNA levels of Cbx proteins and Ezh2 were significantly depleted after 24 hrs, while their corresponding proteins remained relatively stable. As positive control, the half-life of the labile cyclin D1 protein was found to be less than 1 hr. Our study suggests that histone code readers and writers are relatively stable chromatin-related proteins, which is consistent with their long-term activities in maintaining chromatin organization and phenotype identity. These findings have conceptual ramifications for the interpretation of RNAi experiments that reduce the mRNA but not protein levels of epiregulatory proteins. We propose that siRNAs for at least some epigenetic regulatory proteins may exert their biological effects by blocking translation and new protein synthesis rather than by decreasing pre-existing protein pools.

Potential Transcriptional Biomarkers to Guide Glucocorticoid Replacement in Autoimmune Addison's Disease

Background

No reliable biomarkers exist to guide glucocorticoid (GC) replacement treatment in autoimmune Addison's disease (AAD), leading to overtreatment with alarming and persistent side effects or undertreatment, which could be fatal.

Objective

To explore changes in gene expression following different GC replacement doses as a means of identifying candidate transcriptional biomarkers to guide GC replacement in AAD.

Methods

Step 1: Global microarray expression analysis on RNA from whole blood before and after intravenous infusion of 100 mg hydrocortisone (HC) in 10 patients with AAD. In 3 of the most highly upregulated genes, we performed real-time PCR (rt-PCR) to compare gene expression levels before and 3, 4, and 6 hours after the HC infusion. Step 2: Rt-PCR to compare expression levels of 93 GC-regulated genes in normal versus very low morning cortisol levels in 27 patients with AAD.

Results

Step 1: Two hours after infusion of 100 mg HC, there was a marked increase in FKBP5, MMP9, and DSIPI expression levels. MMP9 and DSIPI expression levels correlated with serum cortisol. Step 2: Expression levels of CEBPB, DDIT4, FKBP5, DSIPI, and VDR were increased and levels of ADARB1, ARIDB5, and POU2F1 decreased in normal versus very low morning cortisol. Normal serum cortisol levels positively correlated with DSIPI, DDIT4, and FKBP5 expression.

Conclusions

We introduce gene expression as a novel approach to guide GC replacement in AAD. We suggest that gene expression of DSIPI, DDIT4, and FKBP5 are particularly promising candidate biomarkers of GC replacement, followed by MMP9, CEBPB, VDR, ADARB1, ARID5B, and POU2F1.

Role of PUM RNA-Binding Proteins in Cancer

Simple Summary

PUM1 and PUM2 are RNA-binding Pumilio proteins controlling the accessibility of hundreds of mRNAs for translation in a variety of human tissues. As a result, PUMs exemplify one of the mechanisms safeguarding the cellular proteome. PUM expression is disturbed in cancer, resulting in dysregulation of their target mRNAs. These targets encode factors responsible for processes usually affected in cancer, such as proliferation, apoptosis, and the cell cycle. This review describes PUM1 and PUM2 ribonucleoprotein networks and highlights the mechanisms underlying the regulatory role of PUM proteins and, most importantly, the emerging impact of PUM dysregulation in cancer. It also emphasizes the importance of upcoming studies on PUM proteins in the context of cancer, as they may provide new therapeutic targets in the future.

Abstract

Until recently, post-transcriptional gene regulation (PTGR), in contrast to transcriptional regulation, was not extensively explored in cancer, even though it seems to be highly important. PUM proteins are well described in the PTGR of several organisms and contain the PUF RNA-binding domain that recognizes the UGUANAUA motif, located mostly in the 3′ untranslated region (3′UTR) of target mRNAs. Depending on the protein cofactors recruited by PUM proteins, target mRNAs are directed towards translation, repression, activation, degradation, or specific localization. Abnormal profiles of PUM expression have been shown in several types of cancer, in some of them being different for PUM1 and PUM2. This review summarizes the dysregulation of PUM1 and PUM2 expression in several cancer tissues. It also describes the regulatory mechanisms behind the activity of PUMs, including cooperation with microRNA and non-coding RNA machineries, as well as the alternative polyadenylation pathway. It also emphasizes the importance of future studies to gain a more complete picture of the role of PUM proteins in different types of cancer. Such studies may result in identification of novel targets for future cancer therapies.

Nanoparticles as Adjuvants and Nanodelivery Systems for mRNA-Based Vaccines

Messenger RNA (mRNA)-based vaccines have shown promise against infectious diseases and several types of cancer in the last two decades. Their promise can be attributed to their safety profiles, high potency, and ability to be rapidly and affordably manufactured. Now, many RNA-based vaccines are being evaluated in clinical trials as prophylactic and therapeutic vaccines. However, until recently, their development has been limited by their instability and inefficient in vivo transfection. The nanodelivery system plays a dual function in RNA-based vaccination by acting as a carrier system and as an adjuvant. That is due to its similarity to microorganisms structurally and size-wise; the nanodelivery system can augment the response by the immune system via simulating the natural infection process. Nanodelivery systems allow non-invasive mucosal administration, targeted immune cell delivery, and controlled delivery, reducing the need for multiple administrations. They also allow co-encapsulating with immunostimulators to improve the overall adjuvant capacity. The aim of this review is to discuss the recent developments and applications of biodegradable nanodelivery systems that improve RNA-based vaccine delivery and enhance the immunological response against targeted diseases.

Dynamic global analysis of transcription reveals the role of miRNAs in synergistic stabilization of gene expression

Buffering exogenous perturbation is crucial to maintain transcriptional homeostasis during development. While miRNAs have been speculated to play a role in stability maintenance, previous studies seeking to check this conjecture focused on measurements of transcript levels at steady state or involved individual miRNA targets. We measured whole-genome expression dynamics by introducing a transient perturbation and establishing a perturbation and recovery system in Drosophila larvae. We inhibited all transcription and assayed transcriptomes at several time points during recovery from inhibition. We performed these experiments in the wild type and miRNA-deficient genetic backgrounds. Consistent with theories about miRNAs' function in stabilizing the transcriptome, we find that attenuating miRNA expression leads to weak impairment in degradation of targets but strong destabilization of target genes when transcription is re-activated. We further fitted a model that captures the essential aspects of transcription dynamics in our experiments and found that the miRNA target transcripts uniformly overshoot the original steady state as they recover from a general inhibition of transcription if global miRNA levels are reduced. Collectively, our results provide experimental evidence for the idea that miRNAs act cumulatively to stabilize the transcriptional regulatory network. We therefore found a promising approach to assess the effect of these molecules on transcription dynamics.

Tribbles-1 Expression and Its Function to Control Inflammatory Cytokines, Including Interleukin-8 Levels are Regulated by miRNAs in Macrophages and Prostate Cancer Cells

The pseudokinase TRIB1 controls cell function in a range of contexts, by regulating MAP kinase activation and mediating protein degradation via the COP1 ubiquitin ligase. TRIB1 regulates polarization of macrophages and dysregulated Trib1 expression in murine models has been shown to alter atherosclerosis burden and adipose homeostasis. Recently, TRIB1 has also been implicated in the pathogenesis of prostate cancer, where it is often overexpressed, even in the absence of genetic amplification. Well described TRIB1 effectors include MAP kinases and C/EBP transcription factors, both in immune cells and in carcinogenesis. However, the mechanisms that regulate TRIB1 itself remain elusive. Here, we show that the long and conserved 3’untranslated region (3’UTR) of TRIB1 is targeted by miRNAs in macrophage and prostate cancer models. By using a systematic in silico analysis, we identified multiple “high confidence” miRNAs potentially binding to the 3’UTR of TRIB1 and report that miR-101-3p and miR-132-3p are direct regulators of TRIB1 expression and function. Binding of miR-101-3p and miR-132-3p to the 3’UTR of TRIB1 mRNA leads to an increased transcription and secretion of interleukin-8. Our data demonstrate that modulation of TRIB1 by miRNAs alters the inflammatory profile of both human macrophages and prostate cancer cells.

Principles of mRNA control by human PUM proteins elucidated from multimodal experiments and integrative data analysis

The human PUF-family proteins, PUM1 and PUM2, posttranscriptionally regulate gene expression by binding to a PUM recognition element (PRE) in the 3'-UTR of target mRNAs. Hundreds of PUM1/2 targets have been identified from changes in steady-state RNA levels; however, prior studies could not differentiate between the contributions of changes in transcription and RNA decay rates. We applied metabolic labeling to measure changes in RNA turnover in response to depletion of PUM1/2, showing that human PUM proteins regulate expression almost exclusively by changing RNA stability. We also applied an in vitro selection workflow to precisely identify the binding preferences of PUM1 and PUM2. By integrating our results with prior knowledge, we developed a "rulebook" of key contextual features that differentiate functional versus nonfunctional PREs, allowing us to train machine learning models that accurately predict the functional regulation of RNA targets by the human PUM proteins.

A lead candidate functional single nucleotide polymorphism within the WARS2 gene associated with waist-hip-ratio does not alter RNA stability

We have prioritised a single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) rs2645294 as one candidate functional SNP in the TBX15-WARS2 waist-hip-ratio locus using posterior probability analysis. This SNP is located in the 3' untranslated region of the WARS2 (tryptophanyl tRNA synthetase 2, mitochondrial) gene with which it has an expression quantitative trait in subcutaneous white adipose tissue. We show that transcripts of the WARS2 gene in a human white adipose cell line, heterozygous for the rs2645294 SNP, showed allelic imbalance. We tested whether the rs2645294 SNP altered WARS2 RNA stability using three different methods: actinomycin-D inhibition and RNA decay, mature and nascent RNA analysis and luciferase reporter assays. We found no evidence of a difference in RNA stability between the rs2645294 alleles indicating that the allelic expression imbalance was likely due to transcriptional regulation.

Modeling the intracellular dynamics of the dengue viral infection and the innate immune response

The interplay between the dengue virus and the innate immune response is not fully understood. Here, we use deterministic and stochastic approaches to investigate the dynamics of the interaction between the interferon-mediated innate immune response and the dengue virus. We aim to develop a quantitative representation of these complex interactions and predict their system-level dynamics. Our simulation results predict bimodal and bistable dynamics that represent viral clearance and virus-producing states. Under normal conditions, we determined that the viral infection outcome is modulated by the innate immune response and the positive-strand viral RNA concentration. Additionally, we tested system perturbations by external stimulation, such as the direct induction of the innate immune response by interferon, and a therapeutic intervention consisting of the direct application of mRNA encoding for several interferon-stimulated genes. Our simulation results suggest optimal regimes for the studied intervention approaches.

Alterations of GABA B receptors in the APP/PS1 mouse model of Alzheimer's disease

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a neurodegenerative disorder characterized by the progressive decline of memory and cognitive function. The disease is characterized by the presence of amyloid plaques, tau tangles, altered inflammatory signaling, and alterations in numerous neurotransmitter signaling systems, including γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA). Given the extensive role of GABA in regulating neuronal activity, a careful investigation of GABA-related changes is needed. Further, given persistent inflammation has been demonstrated to drive AD pathology, the presence of GABA B receptor expressed on glia that serve a role regulation of the immune response adds to potential implications of altered GABA in AD. There has not previously been a systematic evaluation of GABA-related changes in an amyloid model of AD that specifically focuses on examining changes in GABA B receptors. In the present study, we examined alterations in several GABA-specific targets in the APP/PS1 mouse model at different ages. In the 4-month-old cohort, no significant deficits in spatial learning and memory or alterations in any of the GABAergic targets were observed compared with wild-type controls. However, we identified significant alterations in several GABA-related targets in the 6-month-old cohort that exhibited spatial learning deficits that include changes in glutamic acid decarboxylase 65, GABA transporter type 3, and GABA B receptors protein and mRNA levels. This was the same cohort at which learning and memory deficits and significant amyloid pathology was observed. Overall, our study provides evidence of altered GABAergic signaling in an amyloid model of AD at a time point consistent with AD-related deficits.

Signaling pathways have an inherent need for noise to acquire information

BACKGROUND

All living systems acquire information about their environment. At the cellular level, they do so through signaling pathways. Such pathways rely on reversible binding interactions between molecules that detect and transmit the presence of an extracellular cue or signal to the cell's interior. These interactions are inherently stochastic and thus noisy. On the one hand, noise can cause a signaling pathway to produce the same response for different stimuli, which reduces the amount of information a pathway acquires. On the other hand, in processes such as stochastic resonance, noise can improve the detection of weak stimuli and thus the acquisition of information. It is not clear whether the kinetic parameters that determine a pathway's operation cause noise to reduce or increase the acquisition of information.

RESULTS

We analyze how the kinetic properties of the reversible binding interactions used by signaling pathways affect the relationship between noise, the response to a signal, and information acquisition. Our results show that, under a wide range of biologically sensible parameter values, a noisy dynamic of reversible binding interactions is necessary to produce distinct responses to different stimuli. As a consequence, noise is indispensable for the acquisition of information in signaling pathways.

CONCLUSIONS

Our observations go beyond previous work by showing that noise plays a positive role in signaling pathways, demonstrating that noise is essential when such pathways acquire information.

Functional role of Tet-mediated RNA hydroxymethylcytosine in mouse ES cells and during differentiation

Tet-enzyme-mediated 5-hydroxymethylation of cytosines in DNA plays a crucial role in mouse embryonic stem cells (ESCs). In RNA also, 5-hydroxymethylcytosine (5hmC) has recently been evidenced, but its physiological roles are still largely unknown. Here we show the contribution and function of this mark in mouse ESCs and differentiating embryoid bodies. Transcriptome-wide mapping in ESCs reveals hundreds of messenger RNAs marked by 5hmC at sites characterized by a defined unique consensus sequence and particular features. During differentiation a large number of transcripts, including many encoding key pluripotency-related factors (such as Eed and Jarid2), show decreased cytosine hydroxymethylation. Using Tet-knockout ESCs, we find Tet enzymes to be partly responsible for deposition of 5hmC in mRNA. A transcriptome-wide search further reveals mRNA targets to which Tet1 and Tet2 bind, at sites showing a topology similar to that of 5hmC sites. Tet-mediated RNA hydroxymethylation is found to reduce the stability of crucial pluripotency-promoting transcripts. We propose that RNA cytosine 5-hydroxymethylation by Tets is a mark of transcriptome flexibility, inextricably linked to the balance between pluripotency and lineage commitment.

TET mediated RNA-hydroxymethylation (5hmC) has been detected in mammals, but its physiological role remains unclear. Here the authors map 5hmC during embryonic stem cell (ESC) differentiation and find that Tet-mediated RNA hydroxymethylation reduces the stability of crucial pluripotency related transcripts.

Concentration-dependent splicing is enabled by Rbfox motifs of intermediate affinity

The Rbfox family of splicing factors regulate alternative splicing during animal development and in disease, impacting thousands of exons in the maturing brain, heart, and muscle. Rbfox proteins have long been known to bind to the RNA sequence GCAUG with high affinity, but just half of Rbfox binding sites contain a GCAUG motif in vivo. We incubated recombinant RBFOX2 with over 60,000 mouse and human transcriptomic sequences to reveal substantial binding to several moderate-affinity, non-GCAYG sites at a physiologically relevant range of RBFOX concentrations. We find that many of these “secondary motifs” bind Rbfox robustly in cells and that several together can exert regulation comparable to GCAUG in a trichromatic splicing reporter assay. Furthermore, secondary motifs regulate RNA splicing in neuronal development and in neuronal subtypes where cellular Rbfox concentrations are highest, enabling a second wave of splicing changes as Rbfox levels increase.

PKR kinase directly regulates tau expression and Alzheimer's disease-related tau phosphorylation

Deposition of extensively hyperphosphorylated tau in specific brain cells is a clear pathological hallmark in Alzheimer's disease and a number of other neurodegenerative disorders, collectively termed the tauopathies. Furthermore, hyperphosphorylation of tau prevents it from fulfilling its physiological role as a microtubule‐stabilizing protein and leaves it increasingly vulnerable to self‐assembly, suggestive of a central underlying role of hyperphosphorylation as a contributing factor in the etiology of these diseases. Via in vitro phosphorylation and regulation of kinase activity within cells and acute brain tissue, we reveal that the inflammation associated kinase, protein kinase R (PKR), directly phosphorylates numerous abnormal and disease‐modifying residues within tau including Thr181, Ser199/202, Thr231, Ser262, Ser396, Ser404 and Ser409. Similar to disease processes, these PKR‐mediated phosphorylations actively displace tau from microtubules in cells. In addition, PKR overexpression and knockdown, respectively, increase and decrease tau protein and mRNA levels in cells. This regulation occurs independent of noncoding transcriptional elements, suggesting an underlying mechanism involving intra‐exonic regulation of the tau‐encoding microtubule‐associated protein tau (MAPT) gene. Finally, acute encephalopathy in wild type mice, induced by intracranial Langat virus infection, results in robust inflammation and PKR upregulation accompanied by abnormally phosphorylated full‐length‐ and truncated tau. These findings indicate that PKR, independent of other kinases and upon acute brain inflammation, is capable of triggering pathological modulation of tau, which, in turn, might form the initial pathologic seed in several tauopathies such as Alzheimer's disease and Chronic traumatic encephalopathy where inflammation is severe.

Dynamics in protein translation sustaining T cell preparedness

In response to pathogenic threats, naive T cells rapidly transition from a quiescent to an activated state, yet the underlying mechanisms are incompletely understood. Using a pulsed SILAC approach, we investigated the dynamics of mRNA translation kinetics and protein turnover in human naive and activated T cells. Our datasets uncovered that transcription factors maintaining T cell quiescence had constitutively high turnover, which facilitated their depletion following activation. Furthermore, naive T cells maintained a surprisingly large number of idling ribosomes as well as 242 repressed mRNA species and a reservoir of glycolytic enzymes. These components were rapidly engaged following stimulation, promoting an immediate translational and glycolytic switch to ramp up the T cell activation program. Our data elucidate new insights into how T cells maintain a prepared state to mount a rapid immune response, and provide a resource of protein turnover, absolute translation kinetics and protein synthesis rates in T cells ( https://www.immunomics.ch ).

Extracellular matrix mechanics regulate transfection and SOX9-directed differentiation of mesenchymal stem cells

Gene delivery within hydrogel matrices can potentially direct mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) towards a chondrogenic fate to promote regeneration of cartilage. Here, we investigated whether the mechanical properties of the hydrogel containing the gene delivery systems could enhance transfection and chondrogenic programming of primary human bone marrow-derived MSCs. We developed collagen-I-alginate interpenetrating polymer network hydrogels with tunable stiffness and adhesion properties. The hydrogels were activated with nanocomplexed SOX9 polynucleotides to direct chondrogenic differentiation of MSCs. MSCs transfected within the hydrogels showed higher expression of chondrogenic markers compared to MSCs transfected in 2D prior to encapsulation. The nanocomplex uptake and resulting expression of transfected SOX9 were jointly enhanced by increased stiffness and cell-adhesion ligand density in the hydrogels. Further, transfection of SOX9 effectively induced MSCs chondrogenesis and reduced markers of hypertrophy compared to control matrices. These findings highlight the importance of matrix stiffness and adhesion as design parameters in gene-activated matrices for regenerative medicine. STATEMENT OF SIGNIFICANCE: Gene-activated matrices (GAMs) are biodegradable polymer networks integrating gene therapies, and they are promising technologies for supporting tissue regeneration. Despite this interest, there is still limited information on how to rationally design these systems. Here, we provide a systematic study of the effect of matrix stiffness and cell adhesion ligands on gene transfer efficiency. We show that high stiffness and the presence of cell-binding sites promote transfection efficiency and that this result is related to more efficient internalization and trafficking of the gene therapies. GAMs with optimized mechanical properties can induce cartilage formation and result in tissues with better characteristics for articular cartilage tissue engineering as compared to previously described standard methods.

Mathematical Modeling of RNA Virus Sensing Pathways Reveals Paracrine Signaling as the Primary Factor Regulating Excessive Cytokine Production

RNA viruses, such as influenza and Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome (SARS), invoke excessive immune responses; however, the kinetics that regulate inflammatory responses within infected cells remain unresolved. Here, we develop a mathematical model of the RNA virus sensing pathways, to determine the intracellular events that primarily regulate interferon, an important protein for the activation and management of inflammation. Within the ordinary differential equation (ODE) model, we incorporate viral replication, cell death, interferon stimulated genes’ antagonistic effects on viral replication, and virus sensor protein (TLR and RIG-I) kinetics. The model is parameterized to influenza infection data using Markov chain Monte Carlo and then validated against infection data from an NS1 knockout strain of influenza, demonstrating that RIG-I antagonism significantly alters cytokine signaling trajectory. Global sensitivity analysis suggests that paracrine signaling is responsible for the majority of cytokine production, suggesting that rapid cytokine production may be best managed by influencing extracellular cytokine levels. As most of the model kinetics are host cell specific and not virus specific, the model presented provides an important step to modeling the intracellular immune dynamics of many RNA viruses, including the viruses responsible for SARS, Middle East Respiratory Syndrome (MERS), and Coronavirus Disease (COVID-19).

Genome-wide kinetic properties of transcriptional bursting in mouse embryonic stem cells

Transcriptional bursting is the stochastic activation and inactivation of promoters, contributing to cell-to-cell heterogeneity in gene expression. However, the mechanism underlying the regulation of transcriptional bursting kinetics (burst size and frequency) in mammalian cells remains elusive. In this study, we performed single-cell RNA sequencing to analyze the intrinsic noise and mRNA levels for elucidating the transcriptional bursting kinetics in mouse embryonic stem cells. Informatics analyses and functional assays revealed that transcriptional bursting kinetics was regulated by a combination of promoter- and gene body-binding proteins, including the polycomb repressive complex 2 and transcription elongation factors. Furthermore, large-scale CRISPR-Cas9-based screening identified that the Akt/MAPK signaling pathway regulated bursting kinetics by modulating transcription elongation efficiency. These results uncovered the key molecular mechanisms underlying transcriptional bursting and cell-to-cell gene expression noise in mammalian cells.

Comparative genomic analysis of the 3' UTR of human MDM2 identifies multiple transposable elements, an RLP24 pseudogene and a cluster of novel repeat sequences that arose during primate evolution

The MDM2 oncogene is a negative regulator of the p53 tumour suppressor. This relationship appears to have originated over a billion years ago. The human MDM2 gene encodes a variety of mRNAs with exceptionally long 3'UTRs (up to 5.7 kb); however, it was unclear whether MDM2 3'UTRs from other species are similarly long or conserved at the sequence level. Here, we report that all but one of the primate species most closely related to humans (greater and lesser apes) have similarly long 3'UTRs with high sequence similarity across their entire length. More distantly related species (Old world monkeys and new world monkeys) tend to have shorter MDM2 3'UTRs homologous to the corresponding position of the human MDM2 3'UTR while non-primate species exhibit little similarity at all. Remarkably, DNA sequences downstream of the shorter primate 3'UTRs are syntenic with distal regions in the human and other ape MDM2 3'UTRs. These homologous non-transcribed intergenic and transcribed 3'UTR-encoding regions are comprised of a variety of transposable elements, an RLP24 pseudogene and a cluster of novel repeat sequences suggestive of another unknown transposable element. Our analysis suggests that the primary difference between long and short MDM2 3'UTRs is a switch in polyA site usage to include conserved transposable elements that remain intergenic in more distantly related primates. It will be important to determine the relative contribution of these elements to post-transcriptional and translational regulation of MDM2 and hence p53-mediated tumour suppression.

Short Residence Times of DNA-Bound Transcription Factors Can Reduce Gene Expression Noise and Increase the Transmission of Information in a Gene Regulation System

Gene expression noise is not just ubiquitous but also variable, and we still do not understand some of the most elementary factors that affect it. Among them is the residence time of a transcription factor (TF) on DNA, the mean time that a DNA-bound TF remains bound. Here, we use a stochastic model of transcriptional regulation to study how residence time affects the gene expression noise that arises when a TF induces gene expression. We find that the effect of residence time on gene expression noise depends on the TF’s concentration and its affinity to DNA, which determine the level of induction of the gene. At high levels of induction, residence time has no effect on gene expression noise. However, as the level of induction decreases, short residence times reduce gene expression noise. The reason is that fast on-off TF binding dynamics prevent long periods where proteins are predominantly synthesized or degraded, which can cause excessive fluctuations in gene expression. As a consequence, short residence times can help a gene regulation system acquire information about the cellular environment it operates in. Our predictions are consistent with the observation that experimentally measured residence times are usually modest and lie between seconds to minutes.

Single-cell transcriptional diversity is a hallmark of developmental potential

Single-cell RNA sequencing (scRNA-seq) is a powerful approach for reconstructing cellular differentiation trajectories. However, inferring both the state and direction of differentiation is challenging. Here, we demonstrate a simple, yet robust, determinant of developmental potential-the number of expressed genes per cell-and leverage this measure of transcriptional diversity to develop a computational framework (CytoTRACE) for predicting differentiation states from scRNA-seq data. When applied to diverse tissue types and organisms, CytoTRACE outperformed previous methods and nearly 19,000 annotated gene sets for resolving 52 experimentally determined developmental trajectories. Additionally, it facilitated the identification of quiescent stem cells and revealed genes that contribute to breast tumorigenesis. This study thus establishes a key RNA-based feature of developmental potential and a platform for delineation of cellular hierarchies.

Advanced Single-Cell Mapping Reveals that in hESC Cardiomyocytes Contraction Kinetics and Action Potential Are Independent of Myosin Isoform

Human pluripotent stem cell-derived cardiomyocytes (hPSC-CMs) represent an attractive model to investigate CM function and disease mechanisms. One characteristic marker of ventricular specificity of human CMs is expression of the ventricular, slow β-myosin heavy chain (MyHC), as opposed to the atrial, fast α-MyHC. The main aim of this study was to investigate at the single-cell level whether contraction kinetics and electrical activity of hESC-CMs are influenced by the relative expression of α-MyHC versus β-MyHC. For effective assignment of functional parameters to the expression of both MyHC isoforms at protein and mRNA levels in the very same hESC-CMs, we developed a single-cell mapping technique. Surprisingly, α- versus β-MyHC was not related to specific contractile or electrophysiological properties of the same cells. The multiparametric cell-by-cell analysis suggests that in hESC-CMs the expression of genes associated with electrical activity, contraction, calcium handling, and MyHCs is independently regulated.

CDK12 inhibition mediates DNA damage and is synergistic with sorafenib treatment in hepatocellular carcinoma

OBJECTIVES

Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is one of the most frequent malignancies and a major leading cause of cancer-related deaths worldwide. Several therapeutic options like sorafenib and regorafenib provide only modest survival benefit to patients with HCC. This study aims to identify novel druggable candidate genes for patients with HCC.

DESIGN

A non-biased CRISPR (clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats) loss-of-function genetic screen targeting all known human kinases was performed to identify vulnerabilities of HCC cells. Whole-transcriptome sequencing (RNA-Seq) and bioinformatics analyses were performed to explore the mechanisms of the action of a cyclin-dependent kinase 12 (CDK12) inhibitor in HCC cells. Multiple in vitro and in vivo assays were used to study the synergistic effects of the combination of CDK12 inhibition and sorafenib.

RESULTS

We identify CDK12 as critically required for most HCC cell lines. Suppression of CDK12 using short hairpin RNAs (shRNAs) or its inhibition by the covalent small molecule inhibitor THZ531 leads to robust proliferation inhibition. THZ531 preferentially suppresses the expression of DNA repair-related genes and induces strong DNA damage response in HCC cell lines. The combination of THZ531 and sorafenib shows striking synergy by inducing apoptosis or senescence in HCC cells. The synergy between THZ531 and sorafenib may derive from the notion that THZ531 impairs the adaptive responses of HCC cells induced by sorafenib treatment.

CONCLUSION

Our data highlight the potential of CDK12 as a drug target for patients with HCC. The striking synergy of THZ531 and sorafenib suggests a potential combination therapy for this difficult to treat cancer.

The CCR4-NOT complex maintains liver homeostasis through mRNA deadenylation

The biological significance of deadenylation in global gene expression is not fully understood. Here, we show that the CCR4-NOT deadenylase complex maintains expression of mRNAs, such as those encoding transcription factors, cell cycle regulators, DNA damage response-related proteins, and metabolic enzymes, at appropriate levels in the liver. Liver-specific disruption of Cnot1, encoding a scaffold subunit of the CCR4-NOT complex, leads to increased levels of mRNAs for transcription factors, cell cycle regulators, and DNA damage response-related proteins because of reduced deadenylation and stabilization of these mRNAs. CNOT1 suppression also results in an increase of immature, unspliced mRNAs (pre-mRNAs) for apoptosis-related and inflammation-related genes and promotes RNA polymerase II loading on their promoter regions. In contrast, mRNAs encoding metabolic enzymes become less abundant, concomitant with decreased levels of these pre-mRNAs. Lethal hepatitis develops concomitantly with abnormal mRNA expression. Mechanistically, the CCR4-NOT complex targets and destabilizes mRNAs mainly through its association with Argonaute 2 (AGO2) and butyrate response factor 1 (BRF1) in the liver. Therefore, the CCR4-NOT complex contributes to liver homeostasis by modulating the liver transcriptome through mRNA deadenylation.

The translational landscape of ground state pluripotency

Translational control plays a central role in regulation of gene expression and can lead to significant divergence between mRNA- and protein-abundance. Here, we used genome-wide approaches combined with time-course analysis to measure the mRNA-abundance, mRNA-translation rate and protein expression during the transition of naïve-to-primed mouse embryonic stem cells (ESCs). We find that the ground state ESCs cultured with GSK3-, MEK-inhibitors and LIF (2iL) display higher ribosome density on a selective set of mRNAs. This set of mRNAs undergo strong translational buffering to maintain stable protein expression levels in 2iL-ESCs. Importantly, we show that the global alteration of cellular proteome during the transition of naïve-to-primed pluripotency is largely accompanied by transcriptional rewiring. Thus, we provide a comprehensive and detailed overview of the global changes in gene expression in different states of ESCs and dissect the relative contributions of mRNA-transcription, translation and regulation of protein stability in controlling protein abundance.

Translational control of gene expression can lead to significant divergence between mRNA and protein abundance. Here, the authors describe transcriptional rewiring and translational buffering during transition from naïve to primed pluripotency through quantitation of mRNA-abundance, translation rate and protein expression.

Pumilio response and AU-rich elements drive rapid decay of Pnrc2-regulated cyclic gene transcripts

Vertebrate segmentation is regulated by the segmentation clock, a biological oscillator that controls periodic formation of somites, or embryonic segments, which give rise to many mesodermal tissue types. This molecular oscillator generates cyclic gene expression with the same periodicity as somite formation in the presomitic mesoderm (PSM), an area of mesenchymal cells that give rise to mature somites. Molecular components of the clock include the Hes/her family of genes that encode transcriptional repressors, but additional genes cycle. Cyclic gene transcripts are cleared rapidly, and clearance depends upon the pnrc2 (proline-rich nuclear receptor co-activator 2) gene that encodes an mRNA decay adaptor. Previously, we showed that the her1 3'UTR confers instability to otherwise stable transcripts in a Pnrc2-dependent manner, however, the molecular mechanism(s) by which cyclic gene transcripts are cleared remained largely unknown. To identify features of the her1 3'UTR that are critical for Pnrc2-mediated decay, we developed an array of transgenic inducible reporter lines carrying different regions of the 3'UTR. We find that the terminal 179 nucleotides (nts) of the her1 3'UTR are necessary and sufficient to confer rapid instability. Additionally, we show that the 3'UTR of another cyclic gene, deltaC (dlc), also confers Pnrc2-dependent instability. Motif analysis reveals that both her1 and dlc 3'UTRs contain terminally-located Pumilio response elements (PREs) and AU-rich elements (AREs), and we show that the PRE and ARE in the last 179 ​nts of the her1 3'UTR drive rapid turnover of reporter mRNA. Finally, we show that mutation of Pnrc2 residues and domains that are known to facilitate interaction of human PNRC2 with decay factors DCP1A and UPF1 reduce the ability of Pnrc2 to restore normal cyclic gene expression in pnrc2 mutant embryos. Our findings suggest that Pnrc2 interacts with decay machinery components and cooperates with Pumilio (Pum) proteins and ARE-binding proteins to promote rapid turnover of cyclic gene transcripts during somitogenesis.

Connections between 3' end processing and DNA damage response: Ten years later

Ten years ago we reviewed how the cellular DNA damage response (DDR) is controlled by changes in the functional and structural properties of nuclear proteins, resulting in a timely coordinated control of gene expression that allows DNA repair. Expression of genes that play a role in DDR is regulated not only at transcriptional level during mRNA biosynthesis but also by changing steady-state levels due to turnover of the transcripts. The 3' end processing machinery, which is important in the regulation of mRNA stability, is involved in these gene-specific responses to DNA damage. Here, we review the latest mechanistic connections described between 3' end processing and DDR, with a special emphasis on alternative polyadenylation, microRNA and RNA binding proteins-mediated deadenylation, and discuss the implications of deregulation of these steps in DDR and human disease. This article is categorized under: RNA Processing > 3' End Processing RNA-Based Catalysis > Miscellaneous RNA-Catalyzed Reactions RNA in Disease and Development > RNA in Disease.

Thioguanosine Conversion Enables mRNA-Lifetime Evaluation by RNA Sequencing Using Double Metabolic Labeling (TUC-seq DUAL)

Temporal information about cellular RNA populations is essential to understand the functional roles of RNA. We have developed the hydrazine/NH₄ Cl/OsO₄ -based conversion of 6-thioguanosine (6sG) into A', where A' constitutes a 6-hydrazino purine derivative. A' retains the Watson-Crick base-pair mode and is efficiently decoded as adenosine in primer extension assays and in RNA sequencing. Because 6sG is applicable to metabolic labeling of freshly synthesized RNA and because the conversion chemistry is fully compatible with the conversion of the frequently used metabolic label 4-thiouridine (4sU) into C, the combination of both modified nucleosides in dual-labeling setups enables high accuracy measurements of RNA decay. This approach, termed TUC-seq DUAL, uses the two modified nucleosides in subsequent pulses and their simultaneous detection, enabling mRNA-lifetime evaluation with unprecedented precision.

A Protocol for Transcriptome-Wide Inference of RNA Metabolic Rates in Mouse Embryonic Stem Cells

The relative ease of mouse Embryonic Stem Cells (mESCs) culture and the potential of these cells to differentiate into any of the three primary germ layers: ectoderm, endoderm and mesoderm (pluripotency), makes them an ideal and frequently used ex vivo system to dissect how gene expression changes impact cell state and differentiation. These efforts are further supported by the large number of constitutive and inducible mESC mutants established with the aim of assessing the contributions of different pathways and genes to cell homeostasis and gene regulation. Gene product abundance is controlled by the modulation of the rates of RNA synthesis, processing, and degradation. The ability to determine the relative contribution of these different RNA metabolic rates to gene expression control using standard RNA-sequencing approaches, which only capture steady state abundance of transcripts, is limited. In contrast, metabolic labeling of RNA with 4-thiouridine (4sU) coupled with RNA-sequencing, allows simultaneous and reproducible inference of transcriptome wide synthesis, processing, and degradation rates. Here we describe, a detailed protocol for 4sU metabolic labeling in mESCs that requires short 4sU labeling times at low concentration and minimally impacts cellular homeostasis. This approach presents a versatile method for in-depth characterization of the gene regulatory strategies governing gene steady state abundance in mESC.

Regulation of Proteins in Human Skeletal Muscle: The Role of Transcription

Regular low intensity aerobic exercise (aerobic training) provides effective protection against various metabolic disorders. Here, the roles played by transient transcriptome responses to acute exercise and by changes in baseline gene expression during up-regulation of protein content in human skeletal muscle were investigated after 2 months of aerobic training. Seven untrained males were involved in a 2 month aerobic cycling training program. Mass-spectrometry and RNA sequencing were used to evaluate proteome and transcriptome responses to training and acute exercise. We found that proteins with different functions are regulated differently at the transcriptional level; for example, a training-induced increase in the content of extracellular matrix-related proteins is regulated at the transcriptional level, while an increase in the content of mitochondrial proteins is not. An increase in the skeletal muscle content of several proteins (including mitochondrial proteins) was associated with increased protein stability, which is related to a chaperone-dependent mechanism and/or reduced regulation by proteolysis. These findings increase our understanding of the molecular mechanisms underlying regulation of protein expression in human skeletal muscle subjected to repeated stress (long term aerobic training) and may provide an opportunity to control the expression of specific proteins (e.g., extracellular matrix-related proteins, mitochondrial proteins) through physiological and/or pharmacological approaches.