Structure and sequence analysis of Yersinia YadA and Moraxella UspAs reveal a novel class of adhesins

Strategies of exploitation of mammalian reservoirs by Bartonella species

Numerous mammal species, including domestic and wild animals such as ruminants, dogs, cats and rodents, as well as humans, serve as reservoir hosts for various Bartonella species. Some of those species that exploit non-human mammals as reservoir hosts have zoonotic potential. Our understanding of interactions between bartonellae and reservoir hosts has been greatly improved by the development of animal models for infection and the use of molecular tools allowing large scale mutagenesis of Bartonella species. By reviewing and combining the results of these and other approaches we can obtain a comprehensive insight into the molecular interactions that underlie the exploitation of reservoir hosts by Bartonella species, particularly the well-studied interactions with vascular endothelial cells and erythrocytes.

Molecular characterization of the EhaG and UpaG trimeric autotransporter proteins from pathogenic Escherichia coli

Trimeric autotransporter proteins (TAAs) are important virulence factors of many Gram-negative bacterial pathogens. A common feature of most TAAs is the ability to mediate adherence to eukaryotic cells or extracellular matrix (ECM) proteins via a cell surface-exposed passenger domain. Here we describe the characterization of EhaG, a TAA identified from enterohemorrhagic Escherichia coli (EHEC) O157:H7. EhaG is a positional orthologue of the recently characterized UpaG TAA from uropathogenic E. coli (UPEC). Similarly to UpaG, EhaG localized at the bacterial cell surface and promoted cell aggregation, biofilm formation, and adherence to a range of ECM proteins. However, the two orthologues display differential cellular binding: EhaG mediates specific adhesion to colorectal epithelial cells while UpaG promotes specific binding to bladder epithelial cells. The EhaG and UpaG TAAs contain extensive sequence divergence in their respective passenger domains that could account for these differences. Indeed, sequence analyses of UpaG and EhaG homologues from several E. coli genomes revealed grouping of the proteins in clades almost exclusively represented by distinct E. coli pathotypes. The expression of EhaG (in EHEC) and UpaG (in UPEC) was also investigated and shown to be significantly enhanced in an hns isogenic mutant, suggesting that H-NS acts as a negative regulator of both TAAs. Thus, while the EhaG and UpaG TAAs contain some conserved binding and regulatory features, they also possess important differences that correlate with the distinct pathogenic lifestyles of EHEC and UPEC.

Endosialidases: Versatile Tools for the Study of Polysialic Acid

Polysialic acid is an α2,8-linked N-acetylneuraminic acid polymer found on the surface of both bacterial and eukaryotic cells. Endosialidases are bacteriophage-borne glycosyl hydrolases that specifically cleave polysialic acid. The crystal structure of an endosialidase reveals a trimeric mushroom-shaped molecule which, in addition to the active site, harbors two additional polysialic acid binding sites. Folding of the protein crucially depends on an intramolecular C-terminal chaperone domain that is proteolytically released in an intramolecular reaction. Based on structural data and previous considerations, an updated catalytic mechanism is discussed. Endosialidases degrade polysialic acid in a processive mode of action, and a model for its mechanism is suggested. The review summarizes the structural and biochemical elucidations of the last decade and the importance of endosialidases in biochemical and medical applications. Active endosialidases are important tools in studies on the biological roles of polysialic acid, such as the pathogenesis of septicemia and meningitis by polysialic acid-encapsulated bacteria, or its role as a modulator of the adhesion and interactions of neural and other cells. Endosialidase mutants that have lost their polysialic acid cleaving activity while retaining their polysialic acid binding capability have been fused to green fluorescent protein to provide an efficient tool for the specific detection of polysialic acid.

Intruders below the radar: molecular pathogenesis of Bartonella spp

Bartonella spp. are facultative intracellular pathogens that employ a unique stealth infection strategy comprising immune evasion and modulation, intimate interaction with nucleated cells, and intraerythrocytic persistence. Infections with Bartonella are ubiquitous among mammals, and many species can infect humans either as their natural host or incidentally as zoonotic pathogens. Upon inoculation into a naive host, the bartonellae first colonize a primary niche that is widely accepted to involve the manipulation of nucleated host cells, e.g., in the microvasculature. Consistently, in vitro research showed that Bartonella harbors an ample arsenal of virulence factors to modulate the response of such cells, gain entrance, and establish an intracellular niche. Subsequently, the bacteria are seeded into the bloodstream where they invade erythrocytes and give rise to a typically asymptomatic intraerythrocytic bacteremia. While this course of infection is characteristic for natural hosts, zoonotic infections or the infection of immunocompromised patients may alter the path of Bartonella and result in considerable morbidity. In this review we compile current knowledge on the molecular processes underlying both the infection strategy and pathogenesis of Bartonella and discuss their connection to the clinical presentation of human patients, which ranges from minor complaints to life-threatening disease.

In vivo-induced InvA-like autotransporters Ifp and InvC of Yersinia pseudotuberculosis promote interactions with intestinal epithelial cells and contribute to virulence

The Yersinia pseudotuberculosis Ifp and InvC molecules are putative autotransporter proteins with a high homology to the invasin (InvA) protein. To characterize the function of these surface proteins, we expressed both factors in Escherichia coli K-12 and demonstrated the attachment of Ifp- and InvC-expressing bacteria to human-, mouse-, and pig-derived intestinal epithelial cells. Ifp also was found to mediate microcolony formation and internalization into polarized human enterocytes. The ifp and invC genes were not expressed under in vitro conditions but were found to be induced in the Peyer's patches of the mouse intestinal tract. In a murine coinfection model, the colonization of the Peyer's patches and the mesenteric lymph nodes of mice by the ifp-deficient strain was significantly reduced, and considerably fewer bacteria reached liver and spleen. The absence of InvC did not have a severe influence on bacterial colonization in the murine infection model, and it resulted in only a slightly reduced number of invC mutants in the Peyer's patches. The analysis of the host immune response demonstrated that the presence of Ifp and InvC reduced the recruitment of professional phagocytes, especially neutrophils, in the Peyer's patches. These findings support a role for the adhesins in modulating host-pathogen interactions that are important for immune defense.

The translocation domain in trimeric autotransporter adhesins is necessary and sufficient for trimerization and autotransportation

Trimeric autotransporter adhesins (TAAs) comprise one of the secretion pathways of the type V secretion system. The mechanism of their translocation across the outer membrane remains unclear, but it most probably occurs by the formation of a hairpin inside the β-barrel translocation unit, leading to transportation of the passenger domain from the C terminus to the N terminus through the lumen of the β-barrel. We further investigated the phenomenon of autotransportation and the rules that govern it. We showed by coexpressing different Escherichia coli immunoglobulin-binding (Eib) proteins that highly similar TAAs could form stochastically mixed structures (heterotrimers). We further investigated this phenomenon by coexpressing two more distantly related TAAs, EibA and YadA. These, however, did not form heterotrimers; indeed, coexpression was lethal to the cells, leading to elimination of one or another of the genes. However, substituting in either protein the barrel of the other one so that the barrels were identical led to formation of heterotrimers as for Eibs. Our work shows that trimerization of the β-barrel, but not the passenger domain, is necessary and sufficient for TAA secretion while the passenger domain is not.

Correlation of the amino-acid sequence and the 3D structure of the functional domain of EmaA from Aggregatibacter actinomycetemcomitans

Adhesion to collagen is an important virulence determinant for the periodontal pathogen Aggregatibacter actinomycetemcomitans. Binding to collagen is mediated by the extracellular-matrix protein adhesin-A (EmaA). EmaA is a homotrimeric autotransporter protein that forms flexible antenna-like appendages on the bacterium surface. An ellipsoidal structure at the distal end of the appendage, composed of three subdomains, contains the functional domain of the molecule. A correlation between amino-acid sequence and subdomain structure (SI and SII) was proposed based on an analysis of the volume/molecular weight ratio. EmaA from three mutant strains (deletions of amino-acids 70-206 and 70-386 and a substitution mutation G162S) has been studied by electron microscopy to test this hypothesis. 3D structures were analyzed using single-axis tilt tomography of negatively stained preparations of bacteria combined with subvolume averaging. Additionally, a large number of 2D images of the apical domain of the adhesins from the mutants were extracted from micrographs of the bacterial surface, aligned and classified. The combined data showed that amino-acids 70-206 localize to subdomain SI and 70-386 comprise subdomains SI and SII. Moreover, we showed that the substitution mutation G162S, which abolishes collagen binding activity, does not affect the overall structural integrity of the functional domain. However, the structure of subdomain SI in this mutant is slightly altered with respect to the wild-type strain. These data also have allowed us to interpret the architectural features of each subdomain of EmaA in more detail and to correlate the 3D structure of the functional domain of EmaA with the amino-acid sequence.

Haemophilus influenzae protein E binds to the extracellular matrix by concurrently interacting with laminin and vitronectin

Nontypeable Haemophilus influenzae (NTHi) causes otitis media and is commonly found in patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD). Adhesins are important for bacterial attachment and colonization. Protein E (PE) is a recently characterized ubiquitous 16 kDa adhesin with vitronectin-binding capacity that results in increased survival in serum. In addition to PE, NTHi utilizes Haemophilus adhesion protein (Hap) that binds to the basement-membrane glycoprotein laminin. We show that most clinical isolates bind laminin and that both Hap and PE are crucial for the NTHi-dependent interaction with laminin as revealed with different mutants. The laminin-binding region is located at the N-terminus of PE, and PE binds to the heparin-binding C-terminal globular domain of laminin. PE simultaneously attracts vitronectin and laminin at separate binding sites, proving the multifunctional nature of the adhesin. This previously unknown PE-dependent interaction with laminin may contribute to NTHi colonization, particularly in smokers with COPD.

Horizontal gene transfer in Histophilus somni and its role in the evolution of pathogenic strain 2336, as determined by comparative genomic analyses

BACKGROUND

Pneumonia and myocarditis are the most commonly reported diseases due to Histophilus somni, an opportunistic pathogen of the reproductive and respiratory tracts of cattle. Thus far only a few genes involved in metabolic and virulence functions have been identified and characterized in H. somni using traditional methods. Analyses of the genome sequences of several Pasteurellaceae species have provided insights into their biology and evolution. In view of the economic and ecological importance of H. somni, the genome sequence of pneumonia strain 2336 has been determined and compared to that of commensal strain 129Pt and other members of the Pasteurellaceae.

RESULTS

The chromosome of strain 2336 (2,263,857 bp) contained 1,980 protein coding genes, whereas the chromosome of strain 129Pt (2,007,700 bp) contained only 1,792 protein coding genes. Although the chromosomes of the two strains differ in size, their average GC content, gene density (total number of genes predicted on the chromosome), and percentage of sequence (number of genes) that encodes proteins were similar. The chromosomes of these strains also contained a number of discrete prophage regions and genomic islands. One of the genomic islands in strain 2336 contained genes putatively involved in copper, zinc, and tetracycline resistance. Using the genome sequence data and comparative analyses with other members of the Pasteurellaceae, several H. somni genes that may encode proteins involved in virulence (e.g., filamentous haemaggutinins, adhesins, and polysaccharide biosynthesis/modification enzymes) were identified. The two strains contained a total of 17 ORFs that encode putative glycosyltransferases and some of these ORFs had characteristic simple sequence repeats within them. Most of the genes/loci common to both the strains were located in different regions of the two chromosomes and occurred in opposite orientations, indicating genome rearrangement since their divergence from a common ancestor.

CONCLUSIONS

Since the genome of strain 129Pt was ~256,000 bp smaller than that of strain 2336, these genomes provide yet another paradigm for studying evolutionary gene loss and/or gain in regard to virulence repertoire and pathogenic ability. Analyses of the complete genome sequences revealed that bacteriophage- and transposon-mediated horizontal gene transfer had occurred at several loci in the chromosomes of strains 2336 and 129Pt. It appears that these mobile genetic elements have played a major role in creating genomic diversity and phenotypic variability among the two H. somni strains.

Analysis of the BadA stalk from Bartonella henselae reveals domain-specific and domain-overlapping functions in the host cell infection process

Human pathogenic Bartonella henselae cause cat scratch disease and vasculoproliferative disorders. An important pathogenicity factor of B. henselae is the trimeric autotransporter adhesin Bartonella adhesin A (BadA) which is modularly constructed and consists of a head, a long and repetitive neck-stalk module with 22 repetitive neck/stalk repeats and a membrane anchor. The BadA head is crucial for bacterial adherence to host cells, binding to several extracellular matrix proteins and for the induction of vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) secretion. Here, we analysed the biological role of the BadA stalk in the infection process in greater detail. For this purpose, BadA head-bearing and headless deletion mutants with different lengths (containing one or four neck/stalk repeats in the neck-stalk module) were produced and functionally analysed for their ability to bind to fibronectin, collagen and endothelial cells and to induce VEGF secretion. Whereas a head-bearing short version (one neck/stalk element) of BadA lacks exclusively fibronectin binding, a substantially truncated headless BadA mutant was deficient for all of these biological functions. The expression of a longer headless BadA mutant (four neck/stalk repeats) restored fibronectin and collagen binding, adherence to host cells and the induction of VEGF secretion. Our data suggest that (i) the stalk of BadA is exclusively responsible for fibronectin binding and that (ii) both the head and stalk of BadA mediate adherence to collagen and host cells and the induction of VEGF secretion. This indicates overlapping functions of the BadA head and stalk.

The structure of E. coli IgG-binding protein D suggests a general model for bending and binding in trimeric autotransporter adhesins

The Escherichia coli Ig-binding (Eib) proteins are trimeric autotransporter adhesins (TAAs) and receptors for IgG Fc. We present the structure of a large fragment of the passenger domain of EibD, the first TAA structure to have both a YadA-like head domain and the entire coiled-coil stalk. The stalk begins as a right-handed superhelix, but switches handedness halfway down. An unexpected β-minidomain joins the two and inserts a ∼120° rotation such that there is no net twist between the beginning and end of the stalk. This may be important in folding and autotransport. The surprisingly large cavities we found in EibD and other TAAs may explain how TAAs bend to bind their ligands. We identified how IgA and IgG bind and modeled the EibD-IgG Fc complex. We further show that EibD promotes autoagglutination and biofilm formation and forms a fibrillar layer covering the cell surface making zipper-like contacts between cells.

Protein domain of unknown function 3233 is a translocation domain of autotransporter secretory mechanism in gamma proteobacteria

Vibrio cholerae, the enteropathogenic gram negative bacteria is one of the main causative agents of waterborne diseases like cholera. About 1/3^rd of the organism's genome is uncharacterised with many protein coding genes lacking structure and functional information. These proteins form significant fraction of the genome and are crucial in understanding the organism's complete functional makeup. In this study we report the general structure and function of a family of hypothetical proteins, Domain of Unknown Function 3233 (DUF3233), which are conserved across gram negative gammaproteobacteria (especially in Vibrio sp. and similar bacteria). Profile and HMM based sequence search methods were used to screen homologues of DUF3233. The I-TASSER fold recognition method was used to build a three dimensional structural model of the domain. The structure resembles the transmembrane beta-barrel with an axial N-terminal helix and twelve antiparallel beta-strands. Using a combination of amphipathy and discrimination analysis we analysed the potential transmembrane beta-barrel forming properties of DUF3233. Sequence, structure and phylogenetic analysis of DUF3233 indicates that this gram negative bacterial hypothetical protein resembles the beta-barrel translocation unit of autotransporter Va secretory mechanism with a gene organisation that differs from the conventional Va system.

The soluble recombinant Neisseria meningitidis adhesin NadA(Δ351-405) stimulates human monocytes by binding to extracellular Hsp90

The adhesin NadA favors cell adhesion/invasion by hypervirulent Neisseria meningitidis B (MenB). Its recombinant form NadA(Δ351-405,) devoid of the outer membrane domain, is an immunogenic candidate for an anti-MenB vaccine able to stimulate monocytes, macrophages and dendritic cells. In this study we investigated the molecular mechanism of NadA(Δ351-405) cellular effects in monocytes. We show that NadA(Δ351-405) (against which we obtained polyclonal antibodies in rabbits), binds to hsp90, but not to other extracellular homologous heat shock proteins grp94 and hsp70, in vitro and on the surface of monocytes, in a temperature dependent way. Pre-incubation of monocytes with the MenB soluble adhesin interfered with the binding of anti-hsp90 and anti-hsp70 antibodies to hsp90 and hsp70 at 37°C, a condition in which specific cell-binding occurs, but not at 0°C, a condition in which specific cell-binding is very diminished. Conversely, pre-incubation of monocytes with anti-hsp90 and anti-hsp70 antibodies did not affected NadA(Δ351-405) cell binding in any temperature condition, indicating that it associates to another receptor on their plasma membrane and then laterally diffuses to encounter hsp90. Consistently, polymixin B interfered with NadA(Δ351-405) /hsp90 association, abrogated the decrease of anti-hsp90 antibodies binding to the cell surface due to NadA(Δ351-405) and inhibited adhesin-induced cytokine/chemokine secretion without affecting monocyte-adhesin binding. Co-stimulation of monocytes with anti-hsp90 antibodies and NadA(Δ351-405) determined a stronger but polymixin B insensitive cell activation. This indicated that the formation of a recombinant NadA/hsp90/hsp70 complex, although essential for full monocyte stimulation, can be replaced by anti-hsp90 antibody/hsp90 binding. Finally, the activation of monocytes by NadA(Δ351-405) alone or in the presence of anti-hsp90 antibodies were both inhibited by neutralizing anti-TLR4 antibodies, but not by anti-TLR2 antibodies. We propose that hsp90-dependent recruitment into an hsp90/hsp70/TLR4 transducing signal complex is necessary for the immune-stimulating activity of NadA(Δ351-405) anti-MenB vaccine candidate.

Correlation of in situ mechanosensitive responses of the Moraxella catarrhalis adhesin UspA1 with fibronectin and receptor CEACAM1 binding

Bacterial cell surfaces are commonly decorated with a layer formed from multiple copies of adhesin proteins whose binding interactions initiate colonization and infection processes. In this study, we investigate the physical deformability of the UspA1 adhesin protein from Moraxella catarrhalis, a causative agent of middle-ear infections in humans. UspA1 binds a range of extracellular proteins including fibronectin, and the epithelial cellular receptor carcinoembryonic antigen-related cell adhesion molecule 1 (CEACAM1). Electron microscopy indicates that unliganded UspA1 is densely packed at, and extends about 800 Å from, the Moraxella surface. Using a modified atomic force microscope, we show that the adhesive properties and thickness of the UspA1 layer at the cell surface varies on addition of either fibronectin or CEACAM1. This in situ analysis is then correlated with the molecular structure of UspA1. To provide an overall model for UspA1, we have determined crystal structures for two N-terminal fragments which are then combined with a previous structure of the CEACAM1-binding site. We show that the UspA1-fibronectin complex is formed between UspA1 head region and the 13th type-III domain of fibronectin and, using X-ray scattering, that the complex involves an angular association between these two proteins. In combination with a previous study, which showed that the CEACAM1-UspA1 complex is distinctively bent in solution, we correlate these observations on isolated fragments of UspA1 with its in situ response on the cell surface. This study therefore provides a rare direct demonstration of protein conformational change at the cell surface.

A naturally occurring single-residue mutation in the translocator domain of Neisseria meningitidis NhhA affects trimerization, surface localization, and adhesive capabilities

Neisseria meningitidis NhhA (Neisseria hia/hsf homologue A) is an oligomeric outer membrane protein belonging to the family of trimeric autotransporter adhesins. NhhA mediates the interaction of N. meningitidis with human epithelial cells and components of the extracellular matrix. The recombinant protein is able to induce bactericidal antibodies and hence has also been considered a potential vaccine candidate. In this study, we analyzed the production of NhhA in a large panel of N. meningitidis strains belonging to different serogroups and clonal complexes. We found that trimeric NhhA was produced at different levels by the various strains tested. In some strains belonging to the clonal complex ST41/44, the protein is detectable only as a monomer. Sequencing of the nhhA gene and generation of complementing strains in different genetic backgrounds have proved that a single mutation (Gly to Asp) in the translocator domain affected both trimerization and surface localization of NhhA. In vitro infection assays showed that this mutation impairs meningococcal NhhA-mediated adhesion, suggesting that strains carrying the mutation may rely on different strategies or molecules to mediate interaction with host cells. Finally, we demonstrated that N. meningitidis ST41/44 strains producing the mutated form did not induce killing mediated by NhhA-specific bactericidal antibodies. Our data help to elucidate the secretion mechanisms of trimeric autotransporters and to understand the contribution of NhhA in the evolutionary process of host-Neisseria interactions. Also, they might have important implications for the evaluation of NhhA as a vaccine candidate.

Unique cell adhesion and invasion properties of Yersinia enterocolitica O:3, the most frequent cause of human Yersiniosis

Many enteric pathogens are equipped with multiple cell adhesion factors which are important for host tissue colonization and virulence. Y. enterocolitica, a common food-borne pathogen with invasive properties, uses the surface proteins invasin and YadA for host cell binding and entry. In this study, we demonstrate unique cell adhesion and invasion properties of Y. enterocolitica serotype O:3 strains, the most frequent cause of human yersiniosis, and show that these differences are mainly attributable to variations affecting the function and expression of invasin in response to temperature. In contrast to other enteric Yersinia strains, invasin production in O:3 strains is constitutive and largely enhanced compared to other Y. enterocolitica serotypes, in which invA expression is temperature-regulated and significantly reduced at 37°C. Increase of invasin levels is caused by (i) an IS1667 insertion into the invA promoter region, which includes an additional promoter and RovA and H-NS binding sites, and (ii) a P98S substitution in the invA activator protein RovA rendering the regulator less susceptible to proteolysis. Both variations were shown to influence bacterial colonization in a murine infection model. Furthermore, we found that co-expression of YadA and down-regulation of the O-antigen at 37°C is required to allow efficient internalization by the InvA protein. We conclude that even small variations in the expression of virulence factors can provoke a major difference in the virulence properties of closely related pathogens which may confer better survival or a higher pathogenic potential in a certain host or host environment.

Trimeric autotransporter adhesin-dependent adherence of Bartonella henselae, Bartonella quintana, and Yersinia enterocolitica to matrix components and endothelial cells under static and dynamic flow conditions

Trimeric autotransporter adhesins (TAAs) are important virulence factors of Gram-negative bacteria responsible for adherence to extracellular matrix (ECM) and host cells. Here, we analyzed three different TAAs (Bartonella adhesin A [BadA] of Bartonella henselae, variably expressed outer membrane proteins [Vomps] of Bartonella quintana, and Yersinia adhesin A [YadA] of Yersinia enterocolitica) for mediating bacterial adherence to ECM and endothelial cells. Using static (cell culture vials) and dynamic (capillary flow chambers) experimental settings, adherence of wild-type bacteria and of the respective TAA-negative strains was analyzed. Under static conditions, ECM adherence of B. henselae, B. quintana, and Y. enterocolitica was strongly dependent on the expression of their particular TAAs. YadA of Y. enterocolitica did not mediate bacterial binding to plasma or cellular fibronectin under either static or dynamic conditions. TAA-dependent host cell adherence appeared more significant under dynamic conditions although the total number of bound bacteria was diminished compared to the number under static conditions. Dynamic models expand the methodology to perform bacterial adherence experiments under more realistic, bloodstream-like conditions and allow dissection of the biological role of TAAs in ECM and host cell adherence under static and dynamic conditions.

Gut proteases target Yersinia invasin in vivo

BACKGROUND

Yersinia enterocolitica is a common cause of food borne gastrointestinal disease. After oral uptake, yersiniae invade Peyer's patches of the distal ileum. This is accomplished by the binding of the Yersinia invasin to β1 integrins on the apical surface of M cells which overlie follicle associated lymphoid tissue. The gut represents a barrier that severely limits yersiniae from reaching deeper tissues such as Peyer's patches. We wondered if gut protease attack on invasion factors could contribute to the low number of yersiniae invading Peyer's patches.

FINDINGS

Here we show that invasin is rapidly degraded in vivo by gut proteases in the mouse infection model. In vivo proteolytic degradation is due to proteolysis by several gut proteases such as trypsin, α-chymotrypsin, pancreatic elastase, and pepsin. Protease treated yersiniae are shown to be less invasive in a cell culture model. YadA, another surface adhesin is cleaved by similar concentrations of gut proteases but Myf was not cleaved, showing that not all surface proteins are equally susceptible to degradation by gut proteases.

CONCLUSIONS

We demonstrate that gut proteases target important Yersinia virulence factors such as invasin and YadA in vivo. Since invasin is completely degraded within 2-3 h after reaching the small intestine of mice, it is no longer available to mediate invasion of Peyer's patches.

Adhesion and host cell modulation: critical pathogenicity determinants of Bartonella henselae

Bartonella henselae, the agent of cat scratch disease and the vasculoproliferative disorders bacillary angiomatosis and peliosis hepatis, contains to date two groups of described pathogenicity factors: adhesins and type IV secretion systems. Bartonella adhesin A (BadA), the Trw system and possibly filamentous hemagglutinin act as promiscous or specific adhesins, whereas the virulence locus (Vir)B/VirD4 type IV secretion system modulates a variety of host cell functions. BadA mediates bacterial adherence to endothelial cells and extracellular matrix proteins and triggers the induction of angiogenic gene programming. The VirB/VirD4 type IV secretion system is responsible for, e.g., inhibition of host cell apoptosis, bacterial persistence in erythrocytes, and endothelial sprouting. The Trw-conjugation system of Bartonella spp. mediates host-specific adherence to erythrocytes. Filamentous hemagglutinins represent additional potential pathogenicity factors which are not yet characterized. The exact molecular functions of these pathogenicity factors and their contribution to an orchestral interplay need to be analyzed to understand B. henselae pathogenicity in detail.

Neisseria meningitidis adhesin NadA targets beta1 integrins: functional similarity to Yersinia invasin

Meningococci are facultative-pathogenic bacteria endowed with a set of adhesins allowing colonization of the human upper respiratory tract, leading to fulminant meningitis and septicemia. The Neisseria adhesin NadA was identified in about 50% of N. meningitidis isolates and is closely related to the Yersinia adhesin YadA, the prototype of the oligomeric coiled-coil adhesin (Oca) family. NadA is known to be involved in cell adhesion, invasion, and induction of proinflammatory cytokines. Because of the enormous diversity of neisserial cell adhesins the analysis of the specific contribution of NadA in meningococcal host interactions is limited. Therefore, we used a non-invasive Y. enterocolitica mutant as carrier to study the role of NadA in host cell interaction. NadA was shown to be efficiently produced and localized in its oligomeric form on the bacterial surface of Y. enterocolitica. Additionally, NadA mediated a β1 integrin-dependent adherence with subsequent internalization of yersiniae by a β1 integrin-positive cell line. Using recombinant NadA(24-210) protein and human and murine β1 integrin-expressing cell lines we could demonstrate the role of the β1 integrin subunit as putative receptor for NadA. Subsequent inhibition assays revealed specific interaction of NadA(24-210) with the human β1 integrin subunit. Cumulatively, these results indicate that Y. enterocolitica is a suitable toolbox system for analysis of the adhesive properties of NadA, revealing strong evidence that β1 integrins are important receptors for NadA. Thus, this study demonstrated for the first time a direct interaction between the Oca-family member NadA and human β1 integrins.

Mitochondria can recognize and assemble fragments of a beta-barrel structure

The signal that directs newly synthesized mitochondrial β-barrel proteins from the cytosol to the organelle is poorly defined. The findings of this study demonstrate that, rather than a linear sequence, the structural information in four β-strands is sufficient for the mitochondria to recognize and assemble β-barrel protein.

β-barrel proteins are found in the outer membranes of eukaryotic organelles of endosymbiotic origin as well as in the outer membrane of Gram-negative bacteria. Precursors of mitochondrial β-barrel proteins are synthesized in the cytosol and have to be targeted to the organelle. Currently, the signal that assures their specific targeting to mitochondria is poorly defined. To characterize the structural features needed for specific mitochondrial targeting and to test whether a full β-barrel structure is required, we expressed in yeast cells the β-barrel domain of the trimeric autotransporter Yersinia adhesin A (YadA). Trimeric autotransporters are found only in prokaryotes, where they are anchored to the outer membrane by a single 12-stranded β-barrel structure to which each monomer is contributing four β-strands. Importantly, we found that YadA is solely localized to the mitochondrial outer membrane, where it exists in a native trimeric conformation. These findings demonstrate that, rather than a linear sequence or a complete β-barrel structure, four β-strands are sufficient for the mitochondria to recognize and assemble a β-barrel protein. Remarkably, the evolutionary origin of mitochondria from bacteria enables them to import and assemble even proteins belonging to a class that is absent in eukaryotes.

An adhesion protein of Salmonella enterica serovar Typhi is required for pathogenesis and potential target for vaccine development

More than half of all Salmonella enterica serovar Typhi genes still remain unannotated. Although pathogenesis of S. Typhi is incompletely understood, treatment of typhoid fever is complicated by the emergence of drug resistance. Effectiveness of the currently available vaccines is also limited. In search of novel virulence proteins, we have identified several putative adhesins of S. Typhi through computational approaches. Our experiment shows that a 27-kDa outer membrane protein (T2544) plays a major role in bacterial adhesion to the host through high-affinity binding to laminin. Its role in bacterial pathogenesis is underscored by reduced systemic invasion and a 10-fold higher LD(50) of the mutant bacteria in mice. T2544 is strongly immunogenic as revealed by the detection of sustained high titers of serum IgG and intestinal secretory IgA in the immunized mice. In vitro, T2544 antiserum enhanced uptake and clearance of Salmonella by macrophages and augmented complement-mediated lysis, indicating a contribution of T2544-specific antibodies to the killing process. This correlates well with the observed protection of mice immunized with recombinant T2544 or passively immunized with T2544 antiserum against subsequent bacterial challenge, suggesting that T2544-specific antibodies are involved in protection. The present study describes an adhesion protein of S. Typhi that contributes to bacterial pathogenesis. Protective antibodies in mice, rapid seroconversion of naturally infected individuals with increasing titers of anti-T2544 IgG from acute to convalescent sera suggesting antibody response in humans, and wide distribution and conservation of the cell-surface adhesin in the clinical isolates of different Salmonella serovars make T2544 a potential vaccine candidate.

Neisseria meningitidis has two independent modes of recognizing its human receptor CEACAM1

BACKGROUND

Several human-restricted gram-negative bacteria exploit carcinoembryonic antigen-related cell adhesion molecules (CEACAMs) for host colonization. For example, Neisseria meningitidis engages these human receptors via outer membrane proteins of the colony opacity-associated (Opa) protein family triggering internalization into non-phagocytic cells.

PRINCIPAL FINDINGS

We report that a non-opaque strain of N. meningitidis selectively interacts with CEACAM1, but not other CEACAM family members. Using functional assays of bacterial adhesion and internalisation, microscopic analysis, and a panel of CEACAM1 deletion mutants we demonstrate that the engagement of CEACAM1 by non-opaque meningococci occurs in a manner distinct from Opa protein-mediated association. In particular, the amino-terminal domain of CEACAM1 is necessary, but not sufficient for Opa protein-independent binding, which requires multiple extracellular domains of the human receptor in a cellular context. Knock-down of CEACAM1 interferes with binding to lung epithelial cells, whereas chemical or pharmacological disruption of host protein glycosylation does not abrogate CEACAM1 recognition by non-opaque meningococci. The previously characterized meningococcal invasins NadA or Opc do not operate in a CEACAM1-dependent manner.

CONCLUSIONS

The results demonstrate a mechanistically distinct, Opa protein-independent interaction between N. meningitidis and human CEACAM1. Our functional investigations suggest the presence of a second CEACAM1-binding invasin on the meningococcal surface that associates with the protein backbone and not the carbohydrate structures of CEACAM1. The redundancy in meningococcal CEACAM1-binding factors further highlights the important role of CEACAM recognition in the biology of this human-adapted pathogen.

Immune evasion of Moraxella catarrhalis involves ubiquitous surface protein A-dependent C3d binding

The complement system plays an important role in eliminating invading pathogens. Activation of complement results in C3b deposition (opsonization), phagocytosis, anaphylatoxin (C3a, C5a) release, and consequently cell lysis. Moraxella catarrhalis is a human respiratory pathogen commonly found in children with otitis media and in adults with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. The species has evolved multiple complement evasion strategies, which among others involves the ubiquitous surface protein (Usp) family consisting of UspA1, A2, and A2 hybrid. In the present study, we found that the ability of M. catarrhalis to bind C3 correlated with UspA expression and that C3 binding contributed to serum resistance in a large number of clinical isolates. Recombinantly expressed UspA1 and A2 inhibit both the alternative and classical pathways, C3b deposition, and C3a generation when bound to the C3 molecule. We also revealed that the M. catarrhalis UspA-binding domain on C3b was located to C3d and that the major bacterial C3d-binding domains were within UspA1(299-452) and UspA2(165-318). The interaction with C3 was not species specific since UspA-expressing M. catarrhalis also bound mouse C3 that resulted in inhibition of the alternative pathway of mouse complement. Taken together, the binding of C3 to UspAs is an efficient strategy of Moraxella to block the activation of complement and to inhibit C3a-mediated inflammation.

Adhesion mechanisms of plant-pathogenic Xanthomonadaceae

The family Xanthomonadaceae is a wide-spread family of bacteria belonging to the gamma subdivision of the Gram-negative proteobacteria, including the two plant-pathogenic genera Xanthomonas and Xylella, and the related genus Stenotrophomonas. Adhesion is a widely conserved virulence mechanism among Gram-negative bacteria, no matter whether they are human, animal or plant pathogens, since attachment to the host tissue is one of the key early steps of the bacterial infection process. Bacterial attachment to surfaces is mediated by surface structures that are anchored in the bacterial outer membrane and cover a broad group of fimbrial and non-fimbrial structures, commonly known as adhesins. In this chapter, we discuss recent findings on candidate adhesins of plant-pathogenic Xanthomonadaceae, including polysaccharidic (lipopolysaccharides, exopolysaccharides) and proteineous structures (chaperone/usher pili, type IV pili, autotransporters, two-partner-secreted and other outer membrane adhesins), their involvement in the formation of biofilms and their mode of regulation via quorum sensing. We then compare the arsenals of adhesins among different Xanthomonas strains and evaluate their mode of selection. Finally, we summarize the sparse knowledge on specific adhesin receptors in plants and the possible role of RGD motifs in binding to integrin-like plant molecules.

Adhesins of Bartonella spp

Adhesion to host cells represents the first step in the infection process and one of the decisive features in the pathogenicity of Bartonella spp. B. henselae and B. quintana are considered to be the most important human pathogenic species, responsible for cat scratch disease, bacillary angiomatosis, trench fever and other diseases. The ability to cause vasculoproliferative disorders and intraerythrocytic bacteraemia are unique features of the genus Bartonella. Consequently, the interaction with endothelial cells and erythrocytes is a focus in Bartonella research. The genus harbours a variety of trimeric autotransporter adhesins (TAAs) such as the Bartonella adhesin A (BadA) of B. henselae and the variably expressed outer-membrane proteins (Vomps) of B. quintana, which display remarkable variations in length and modular construction. These adhesins mediate many of the biologically-important properties of Bartonella spp. such as adherence to endothelial cells and extracellular matrix proteins and induction of angiogenic gene programming. There is also significant evidence that the laterally acquired Trw-conjugation systems of Bartonella spp. mediate host-specific adherence to erythrocytes. Other potential adhesins are the filamentous haemagglutinins and several outer membrane proteins. The exact molecular functions of these adhesins and their interplay with other pathogenicity factors (e.g., the VirB/D4 type 4 secretion system) need to be analysed in detail to understand how these pathogens adapt to their mammalian hosts.

Adhesins of human pathogens from the genus Yersinia

Bacteria of the Gram-negative genus Yersinia are environmentally ubiquitous. Three species are of medical importance: the intestinal pathogens Y. enterocolitica and Y. pseudotuberculosis, and the plague bacillus Y. pestis. The two former species, spread by contaminated food or water, cause a range of gastrointestinal symptoms and, rarely, sepsis. On occasion, the primary infection is followed by autoimmune sequelae such as reactive arthritis. Plague is a systemic disease with high mortality. It is a zoonosis spread by fleas, or more rarely by droplets from individuals suffering from pneumonic plague. Y. pestis is one of the most virulent of bacteria, and recent findings of antibiotic-resistant strains together with its potential use as a bioweapon have increased interest in the species. In addition to being significant pathogens in their own right, the yersiniae have been used as model systems for a number of aspects of pathogenicity. This chapter reviews the molecular mechanisms of adhesion in yersiniae. The enteropathogenic species share three adhesins: invasin, YadA and Ail. Invasin is the first adhesin required for enteric infection; it binds to β(1) integrins on microfold cells in the distal ileum, leading to the ingestion of the bacteria and allows them to cross the intestinal epithelium. YadA is the major adhesin in host tissues. It is a multifunctional protein, conferring adherence to cells and extracellular matrix components, serum and phagocytosis resistance, and the ability to autoagglutinate. Ail has a minor role in adhesion and serum resistance. Y. pestis lacks both invasin and YadA, but expresses several other adhesins. These include the pH 6 antigen and autotransporter adhesins. Also the plasminogen activator of Y. pestis can mediate adherence to host cells. Although the adhesins of the pathogenic yersiniae have been studied extensively, their exact roles in the biology of infection remain elusive.

Oligomeric coiled-coil adhesin YadA is a double-edged sword

Yersinia adhesin A (YadA) is an essential virulence factor for the food-borne pathogens Yersinia enterocolitica and Yersinia pseudotuberculosis. Surprisingly, it is a pseudogene in Yersinia pestis. Even more intriguing, the introduction of a functional yadA gene in Y. pestis EV76 was shown to correlate with a decrease in virulence in a mouse model. Here, we report that wild type (wt) Y. enterocolitica E40, as well as YadA-deprived E40 induced the synthesis of neutrophil extracellular traps (NETs) upon contact with neutrophils, but only YadA-expressing Y. enterocolitica adhered to NETs and were killed. As binding seemed to be a prerequisite for killing, we searched for YadA-binding substrates and detected the presence of collagen within NETs. E40 bacteria expressing V98D,N99A mutant YadA with a severely reduced ability to bind collagen were found to be more resistant to killing, suggesting that collagen binding contributes significantly to sensitivity to NETs. Wt Y. pestis EV76 were resistant to killing by NETs, while recombinant EV76 expressing YadA from either Y. pseudotuberculosis or Y. enterocolitica were sensitive to killing by NETs, outlining the importance of YadA for susceptibility to NET-dependent killing. Recombinant EV76 endowed with YadA from Y. enterocolitica were also less virulent for the mouse than wt EV76, as shown before. In addition, EV76 carrying wt YadA were less virulent for the mouse than EV76 expressing YadA(V₉₈D,N₉₉A). The observation that YadA makes Yersinia sensitive to NETs provides an explanation as for why evolution selected for the inactivation of yadA in the flea-borne Y. pestis and clarifies an old enigma. Since YadA imposes the same cost to the food-borne Yersinia but was nevertheless conserved by evolution, this observation also illustrates the duality of some virulence functions.

Adhesive activity of the haemophilus cryptic genospecies cha autotransporter is modulated by variation in tandem Peptide repeats

The Haemophilus cryptic genospecies is an important cause of maternal genital tract and neonatal systemic infections and initiates infection by colonizing the genital or respiratory epithelium. In recent work, we identified a unique Haemophilus cryptic genospecies protein called Cha, which mediates efficient adherence to genital and respiratory epithelia. The Cha adhesin belongs to the trimeric autotransporter family and contains an N-terminal signal peptide, an internal passenger domain that harbors adhesive activity, and a C-terminal membrane anchor domain. The passenger domain in Cha contains clusters of YadA-like head domains and neck motifs as well as a series of tandem 28-amino-acid peptide repeats. In the current study, we report that variation in peptide repeat number gradually modulates Cha adhesive activity, associated with a direct effect on the length of Cha fibers on the bacterial cell surface. The N-terminal 404 residues of the Cha passenger domain mediate binding to host cells and also facilitate bacterial aggregation through intermolecular Cha-Cha binding. As the tandem peptide repeats expand, the Cha fiber becomes longer and Cha adherence activity decreases. The expansion and contraction of peptide repeats represent a novel mechanism for modulating adhesive capacity, potentially balancing the need of the organism to colonize the genital and respiratory tracts with the ability to attach to alternative substrates, disperse within the host, or evade the host immune system.

Mapping of the Neisseria meningitidis NadA cell-binding site: relevance of predicted {alpha}-helices in the NH2-terminal and dimeric coiled-coil regions

NadA is a trimeric autotransporter protein of Neisseria meningitidis belonging to the group of oligomeric coiled-coil adhesins. It is implicated in the colonization of the human upper respiratory tract by hypervirulent serogroup B N. meningitidis strains and is part of a multiantigen anti-serogroup B vaccine. Structure prediction indicates that NadA is made by a COOH-terminal membrane anchor (also necessary for autotranslocation to the bacterial surface), an intermediate elongated coiled-coil-rich stalk, and an NH(2)-terminal region involved in cell interaction. Electron microscopy analysis and structure prediction suggest that the apical region of NadA forms a compact and globular domain. Deletion studies proved that the NH(2)-terminal sequence (residues 24 to 87) is necessary for cell adhesion. In this study, to better define the NadA cell binding site, we exploited (i) a panel of NadA mutants lacking sequences along the coiled-coil stalk and (ii) several oligoclonal rabbit antibodies, and their relative Fab fragments, directed to linear epitopes distributed along the NadA ectodomain. We identified two critical regions for the NadA-cell receptor interaction with Chang cells: the NH(2) globular head domain and the NH(2) dimeric intrachain coiled-coil α-helices stemming from the stalk. This raises the importance of different modules within the predicted NadA structure. The identification of linear epitopes involved in receptor binding that are able to induce interfering antibodies reinforces the importance of NadA as a vaccine antigen.

Identification of Burkholderia mallei and Burkholderia pseudomallei adhesins for human respiratory epithelial cells

Background

Burkholderia pseudomallei and Burkholderia mallei cause the diseases melioidosis and glanders, respectively. A well-studied aspect of pathogenesis by these closely-related bacteria is their ability to invade and multiply within eukaryotic cells. In contrast, the means by which B. pseudomallei and B. mallei adhere to cells are poorly defined. The purpose of this study was to identify adherence factors expressed by these organisms.

Results

Comparative sequence analyses identified a gene product in the published genome of B. mallei strain ATCC23344 (locus # BMAA0649) that resembles the well-characterized Yersinia enterocolitica autotransporter adhesin YadA. The gene encoding this B. mallei protein, designated boaA, was expressed in Escherichia coli and shown to significantly increase adherence to human epithelial cell lines, specifically HEp2 (laryngeal cells) and A549 (type II pneumocytes), as well as to cultures of normal human bronchial epithelium (NHBE). Consistent with these findings, disruption of the boaA gene in B. mallei ATCC23344 reduced adherence to all three cell types by ~50%. The genomes of the B. pseudomallei strains K96243 and DD503 were also found to contain boaA and inactivation of the gene in DD503 considerably decreased binding to monolayers of HEp2 and A549 cells and to NHBE cultures.

A second YadA-like gene product highly similar to BoaA (65% identity) was identified in the published genomic sequence of B. pseudomallei strain K96243 (locus # BPSL1705). The gene specifying this protein, termed boaB, appears to be B. pseudomallei-specific. Quantitative attachment assays demonstrated that recombinant E. coli expressing BoaB displayed greater binding to A549 pneumocytes, HEp2 cells and NHBE cultures. Moreover, a boaB mutant of B. pseudomallei DD503 showed decreased adherence to these respiratory cells. Additionally, a B. pseudomallei strain lacking expression of both boaA and boaB was impaired in its ability to thrive inside J774A.1 murine macrophages, suggesting a possible role for these proteins in survival within professional phagocytic cells.

Conclusions

The boaA and boaB genes specify adhesins that mediate adherence to epithelial cells of the human respiratory tract. The boaA gene product is shared by B. pseudomallei and B. mallei whereas BoaB appears to be a B. pseudomallei-specific adherence factor.

Structure of a Burkholderia pseudomallei trimeric autotransporter adhesin head

Background

Pathogenic bacteria adhere to the host cell surface using a family of outer membrane proteins called Trimeric Autotransporter Adhesins (TAAs). Although TAAs are highly divergent in sequence and domain structure, they are all conceptually comprised of a C-terminal membrane anchoring domain and an N-terminal passenger domain. Passenger domains consist of a secretion sequence, a head region that facilitates binding to the host cell surface, and a stalk region.

Methodology/Principal Findings

Pathogenic species of Burkholderia contain an overabundance of TAAs, some of which have been shown to elicit an immune response in the host. To understand the structural basis for host cell adhesion, we solved a 1.35 Å resolution crystal structure of a BpaA TAA head domain from Burkholderia pseudomallei, the pathogen that causes melioidosis. The structure reveals a novel fold of an intricately intertwined trimer. The BpaA head is composed of structural elements that have been observed in other TAA head structures as well as several elements of previously unknown structure predicted from low sequence homology between TAAs. These elements are typically up to 40 amino acids long and are not domains, but rather modular structural elements that may be duplicated or omitted through evolution, creating molecular diversity among TAAs.

Conclusions/Significance

The modular nature of BpaA, as demonstrated by its head domain crystal structure, and of TAAs in general provides insights into evolution of pathogen-host adhesion and may provide an avenue for diagnostics.

A conserved acetyl esterase domain targets diverse bacteriophages to the Vi capsular receptor of Salmonella enterica serovar Typhi

A number of bacteriophages have been identified that target the Vi capsular antigen of Salmonella enterica serovar Typhi. Here we show that these Vi phages represent a remarkably diverse set of phages belonging to three phage families, including Podoviridae and Myoviridae. Genome analysis facilitated the further classification of these phages and highlighted aspects of their independent evolution. Significantly, a conserved protein domain carrying an acetyl esterase was found to be associated with at least one tail fiber gene for all Vi phages, and the presence of this domain was confirmed in representative phage particles by mass spectrometric analysis. Thus, we provide a simple explanation and paradigm of how a diverse group of phages target a single key virulence antigen associated with this important human-restricted pathogen.

Tracing phylogenomic events leading to diversity of Haemophilus influenzae and the emergence of Brazilian Purpuric Fever (BPF)-associated clones

Here we report the use of a multi-genome DNA microarray to elucidate the genomic events associated with the emergence of the clonal variants of Haemophilus influenzae biogroup aegyptius causing Brazilian Purpuric Fever (BPF), an important pediatric disease with a high mortality rate. We performed directed genome sequencing of strain HK1212 unique loci to construct a species DNA microarray. Comparative genome hybridization using this microarray enabled us to determine and compare gene complements, and infer reliable phylogenomic relationships among members of the species. The higher genomic variability observed in the genomes of BPF-related strains (clones) and their close relatives may be characterized by significant gene flux related to a subset of functional role categories. We found that the acquisition of a large number of virulence determinants featuring numerous cell membrane proteins coupled to the loss of genes involved in transport, central biosynthetic pathways and in particular, energy production pathways to be characteristics of the BPF genomic variants.

Expression of Xylella fastidiosa fimbrial and afimbrial proteins during biofilm formation

Complete sequencing of the Xylella fastidiosa genome revealed characteristics that have not been described previously for a phytopathogen. One characteristic of this genome was the abundance of genes encoding proteins with adhesion functions related to biofilm formation, an essential step for colonization of a plant host or an insect vector. We examined four of the proteins belonging to this class encoded by genes in the genome of X. fastidiosa: the PilA2 and PilC fimbrial proteins, which are components of the type IV pili, and XadA1 and XadA2, which are afimbrial adhesins. Polyclonal antibodies were raised against these four proteins, and their behavior during biofilm development was assessed by Western blotting and immunofluorescence assays. In addition, immunogold electron microscopy was used to detect these proteins in bacteria present in xylem vessels of three different hosts (citrus, periwinkle, and hibiscus). We verified that these proteins are present in X. fastidiosa biofilms but have differential regulation since the amounts varied temporally during biofilm formation, as well as spatially within the biofilms. The proteins were also detected in bacteria colonizing the xylem vessels of infected plants.

Autotransporters of Escherichia coli: a sequence-based characterization

Autotransporter (AT) proteins are found in all Escherichia coli pathotypes and are often associated with virulence. In this study we took advantage of the large number of available E. coli genome sequences to perform an in-depth bioinformatic analysis of AT-encoding genes. Twenty-eight E. coli genome sequences were probed using an iterative approach, which revealed a total of 215 AT-encoding sequences that represented three major groups of distinct domain architecture: (i) serine protease AT proteins, (ii) trimeric AT adhesins and (iii) AIDA-I-type AT proteins. A number of subgroups were identified within each broad category, and most subgroups contained at least one characterized AT protein; however, seven subgroups contained no previously described proteins. The AIDA-I-type AT proteins represented the largest and most diverse group, with up to 16 subgroups identified from sequence-based comparisons. Nine of the AIDA-I-type AT protein subgroups contained at least one protein that possessed functional properties associated with aggregation and/or biofilm formation, suggesting a high degree of redundancy for this phenotype. The Ag43, YfaL/EhaC, EhaB/UpaC and UpaG subgroups were found in nearly all E. coli strains. Among the remaining subgroups, there was a tendency for AT proteins to be associated with individual E. coli pathotypes, suggesting that they contribute to tissue tropism or symptoms specific to different disease outcomes.

First analysis of a bacterial collagen-binding protein with collagen Toolkits: promiscuous binding of YadA to collagens may explain how YadA interferes with host processes

The Yersinia adhesin YadA mediates the adhesion of the human enteropathogen Yersinia enterocolitica to collagens and other components of the extracellular matrix. Though YadA has been proposed to bind to a specific site in collagens, the exact binding determinants for YadA in native collagen have not previously been elucidated. We investigated the binding of YadA to collagen Toolkits, which are libraries of triple-helical peptides spanning the sequences of type II and III human collagens. YadA bound to many of them, in particular to peptides rich in hydroxyproline but with few charged residues. We were able to block the binding of YadA to collagen type IV with the triple-helical peptide (Pro-Hyp-Gly)(10), suggesting that the same site in YadA binds to triple-helical regions in network-forming collagens as well. We showed that a single Gly-Pro-Hyp triplet in a triple-helical peptide was sufficient to support YadA binding, but more than six triplets were required to form a tight YadA binding site. This is significantly longer than the case for eukaryotic collagen-binding proteins. YadA-expressing bacteria bound promiscuously to Toolkit peptides. Promiscuous binding could be advantageous for pathogenicity in Y. enterocolitica and, indeed, for other pathogenic bacteria. Many of the tightly binding peptides are also targets for eukaryotic collagen-binding proteins, and YadA was able to inhibit the interaction between selected Toolkit peptides and platelets. This leads to the intriguing possibility that YadA may interfere in vivo with host processes mediated by endogenous collagen-binding proteins.

CEACAM1 recognition by bacterial pathogens is species-specific

BACKGROUND

Carcinoembryonic antigen-related cell adhesion molecule 1 (CEACAM1), an immunoglobulin (Ig)-related glycoprotein, serves as cellular receptor for a variety of Gram-negative bacterial pathogens associated with the human mucosa. In particular, Neisseria gonorrhoeae, N. meningitidis, Moraxella catarrhalis, and Haemophilus influenzae possess well-characterized CEACAM1-binding adhesins. CEACAM1 is typically involved in cell-cell attachment, epithelial differentiation, neovascularisation and regulation of T-cell proliferation, and is one of the few CEACAM family members with homologues in different mammalian lineages. However, it is unknown whether bacterial adhesins of human pathogens can recognize CEACAM1 orthologues from other mammals.

RESULTS

Sequence comparisons of the amino-terminal Ig-variable-like domain of CEACAM1 reveal that the highest sequence divergence between human, murine, canine and bovine orthologues is found in the beta-strands comprising the bacteria-binding CC'FG-face of the Ig-fold. Using GFP-tagged, soluble amino-terminal domains of CEACAM1, we demonstrate that bacterial pathogens selectively associate with human, but not other mammalian CEACAM1 orthologues. Whereas full-length human CEACAM1 can mediate internalization of Neisseria gonorrhoeae in transfected cells, murine CEACAM1 fails to support bacterial internalization, demonstrating that the sequence divergence of CEACAM1 orthologues has functional consequences with regard to bacterial recognition and cellular invasion.

CONCLUSIONS

Our results establish the selective interaction of several human-restricted bacterial pathogens with human CEACAM1 and suggest that co-evolution of microbial adhesins with their corresponding receptors on mammalian cells contributes to the limited host range of these highly adapted infectious agents.

Genome-wide analysis of DNA repeats in Burkholderia cenocepacia J2315 identifies a novel adhesin-like gene unique to epidemic-associated strains of the ET-12 lineage

Members of the Burkholderia cepacia complex (Bcc) are respiratory pathogens in patients with cystic fibrosis (CF). Close repetitive DNA sequences often associate with surface antigens to promote genetic variability in pathogenic bacteria. The genome of Burkholderia cenocepacia J2315, a CF isolate belonging to the epidemic lineage Edinburgh–Toronto (ET-12), was analysed for the presence of close repetitive DNA sequences. Among the 422 DNA close repeats, 45 genes potentially involved in virulence were identified and grouped into 12 classes; of these, 13 genes were included in the antigens class. Two trimeric autotransporter adhesins (TAA) among the 13 putative antigens are absent from the other Burkholderia genomes and are clustered downstream of the cci island that is a marker for transmissible B. cenocepacia strains. This cluster contains four adhesins, one outer-membrane protein, one sensor histidine kinase and two transcriptional regulators. By using PCR, we analysed three genes among 47 Bcc isolates to determine whether the cluster was conserved. These three genes were present in the isolates of the ET-12 lineage but absent in all the other members. Furthermore, the BCAM0224 gene was exclusively detected in this epidemic lineage and may serve as a valuable new addition to the field of Bcc diagnostics. The BCAM0224 gene encodes a putative TAA that demonstrates adhesive properties to the extracellular matrix protein collagen type I. Quantitative real-time PCR analysis indicated that BCAM0224 gene expression occurred preferentially for cells grown under high osmolarity, oxygen-limited conditions and oxidative stress. Inactivation of BCAM0224 in B. cenocepacia attenuates the ability of the mutant to promote cell adherence in vitro and impairs the overall bacterial virulence against Galleria mellonella as a model of infection. Together, our data show that BCAM0224 from B. cenocepacia J2315 represents a new collagen-binding TAA with no bacterial orthologues which has an important role in cellular adhesion and virulence.

A transition from strong right-handed to canonical left-handed supercoiling in a conserved coiled-coil segment of trimeric autotransporter adhesins

Trimeric autotransporter adhesins (TAAs) represent an important class of pathogenicity factors in proteobacteria. Their defining feature is a conserved membrane anchor, which forms a 12-stranded beta-barrel through the outer membrane. The proteins are translocated through the pore of this barrel and, once export is complete, the pore is occluded by a three-stranded coiled coil with canonical heptad (7/2) sequence periodicity. In many TAAs this coiled coil is extended by a segment of varying length, which has pentadecad (15/4) periodicity. We used X-ray crystallography and biochemical methods to analyze the transition between these two periodicities in the coiled-coil stalk of the Yersinia adhesin YadA. Our results show how the strong right-handed supercoil of the 15/4-periodic part locally undergoes further over-winding to 19/5, before switching at a fairly constant rate over 14 residues to the canonical left-handed supercoil of the 7/2-periodic part. The transition region contains two YxD motifs, which are characteristic for right-handed coiled-coil segments of TAAs. This novel coiled-coil motif forms a defined network of inter- and intrahelical hydrogen bonds, thus serving as a structural determinant. Supercoil fluctuations have hitherto been described in coiled coils whose main sequence periodicity is disrupted locally by discontinuities. Here we present the first detailed analysis of two fundamentally different coiled-coil periodicities being accommodated in the same structure.

Interaction of Yersinia with the gut: mechanisms of pathogenesis and immune evasion

Yersinia entercolitica and Yersinia pseudotuberculosis are human foodborne pathogens that interact extensively with tissues of the gut and the host's immune system to cause disease. As part of their pathogenic strategies, the Yersinia have evolved numerous ways to invade host tissues, gain essential nutrients, and evade host immunity. Technological advances over the last 10 years have revolutionized our understanding of host-pathogen interactions. The application of these new technologies has also shown that even well-understood pathogens such as the Yersinia have many surprises waiting to be revealed. The complex interaction with the host has made Yersinia a paradigm for understanding bacterial pathogenesis and the host response to invasive bacterial infections. This review examines the mechanisms of immune evasion employed by the Yersinia and highlights recent advances in understanding the host-pathogen interaction.

Structural and functional changes in a synthetic S5 segment of KvLQT1 channel as a result of a conserved amino acid substitution that occurs in LQT1 syndrome of human

Mutations in various voltage gated cardiac ion channels are the cause of different forms of long QT syndrome (LQTS), which is an inherited arrhythmic disorder marked as a prolonged QT interval on electrocardiogram. Of these LQTS1 is associated with mutations in the gene encoding KCNQ1 (KvLQT1) channel. One responsible mutation, G269S, in the S5 segment of KvLQT1, that affects the proper expression and function of channel protein leads to LQTS1. Our objective was to study how G269S mutation interferes with the structure and function of a synthetic S5 segment of KvLQT1 channel. One wild type 22-residue peptide and another mutant peptide of the same length with G269S mutation, derived from the S5 segment were synthesized and labeled with fluorescent probes. The mutant peptide exhibited lower affinity towards phospholipid vesicles as compared to the wild type peptide and showed impaired assembly and localization onto the lipid vesicles as evidenced by membrane-binding, energy transfer and proteolytic cleavage experiments. Loss in the helical content of S5 mutant peptide in membrane-mimetic environments was observed. Furthermore, it was observed that G269S mutation significantly inhibited the ability of S5 peptide to permeabilize the lipid vesicles. The present studies show the basis of change in function of the selected S5 segment as a result of G269S mutation which is associated with LQT1 syndrome. We speculate that the structural and functional changes related to the glycine to serine amino acid substitution in the S5 segment may also influence the activity of the whole KvLQT1 channel.