101
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Celardo I, Martins LM, Gandhi S. Unravelling mitochondrial pathways to Parkinson's disease. Br J Pharmacol 2014; 171:1943-57. [PMID: 24117181 PMCID: PMC3976614 DOI: 10.1111/bph.12433] [Citation(s) in RCA: 72] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/08/2013] [Revised: 09/09/2013] [Accepted: 09/17/2013] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Mitochondria are essential for cellular function due to their role in ATP production, calcium homeostasis and apoptotic signalling. Neurons are heavily reliant on mitochondrial integrity for their complex signalling, plasticity and excitability properties, and to ensure cell survival over decades. The maintenance of a pool of healthy mitochondria that can meet the bioenergetic demands of a neuron, is therefore of critical importance; this is achieved by maintaining a careful balance between mitochondrial biogenesis, mitochondrial trafficking, mitochondrial dynamics and mitophagy. The molecular mechanisms that underlie these processes are gradually being elucidated. It is widely recognized that mitochondrial dysfunction occurs in many neurodegenerative diseases, including Parkinson's disease. Mitochondrial dysfunction in the form of reduced bioenergetic capacity, increased oxidative stress and reduced resistance to stress, is observed in several Parkinson's disease models. However, identification of the recessive genes implicated in Parkinson's disease has revealed a common pathway involving mitochondrial dynamics, transport, turnover and mitophagy. This body of work has led to the hypothesis that the homeostatic mechanisms that ensure a healthy mitochondrial pool are key to neuronal function and integrity. In this paradigm, impaired mitochondrial dynamics and clearance result in the accumulation of damaged and dysfunctional mitochondria, which may directly induce neuronal dysfunction and death. In this review, we consider the mechanisms by which mitochondrial dysfunction may lead to neurodegeneration. In particular, we focus on the mechanisms that underlie mitochondrial homeostasis, and discuss their importance in neuronal integrity and neurodegeneration in Parkinson's disease.
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102
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Gleave JA, Perri PD, Nash JE. Mitochondrial dysfunction in Parkinson’s disease: a possible target for neuroprotection. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2014. [DOI: 10.1007/s11515-014-1337-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
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103
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Hockey LN, Kilpatrick BS, Eden ER, Lin-Moshier Y, Brailoiu GC, Brailoiu E, Futter CE, Schapira AH, Marchant JS, Patel S. Dysregulation of lysosomal morphology by pathogenic LRRK2 is corrected by TPC2 inhibition. J Cell Sci 2014; 128:232-8. [PMID: 25416817 PMCID: PMC4294771 DOI: 10.1242/jcs.164152] [Citation(s) in RCA: 127] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Two-pore channels (TPCs) are endolysosomal ion channels implicated in Ca2+ signalling from acidic organelles. The relevance of these ubiquitous proteins for human disease, however, is unclear. Here, we report that lysosomes are enlarged and aggregated in fibroblasts from Parkinson disease patients with the common G2019S mutation in LRRK2. Defects were corrected by molecular silencing of TPC2, pharmacological inhibition of TPC regulators [Rab7, NAADP and PtdIns(3,5)P2] and buffering local Ca2+ increases. NAADP-evoked Ca2+ signals were exaggerated in diseased cells. TPC2 is thus a potential drug target within a pathogenic LRRK2 cascade that disrupts Ca2+-dependent trafficking in Parkinson disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Leanne N Hockey
- Department of Cell and Developmental Biology, University College London, Gower Street, London, WC1E 6BT, UK
| | - Bethan S Kilpatrick
- Department of Cell and Developmental Biology, University College London, Gower Street, London, WC1E 6BT, UK
| | - Emily R Eden
- Department of Cell Biology, Institute of Ophthalmology, University College London, London, EC1V 9EL, UK
| | - Yaping Lin-Moshier
- Department of Pharmacology, University of Minnesota Medical School, Minneapolis, Minnesota, 55455, USA
| | - G Cristina Brailoiu
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Thomas Jefferson University, Jefferson School of Pharmacy, Philadelphia, 19107, USA
| | - Eugen Brailoiu
- Department of Pharmacology and Center for Substance Abuse Research, Temple University School of Medicine, Philadelphia, 19140, USA
| | - Clare E Futter
- Department of Cell Biology, Institute of Ophthalmology, University College London, London, EC1V 9EL, UK
| | - Anthony H Schapira
- Department of Clinical Neurosciences, Institute of Neurology, University College London, London, NW3 2PF, UK
| | - Jonathan S Marchant
- Department of Pharmacology, University of Minnesota Medical School, Minneapolis, Minnesota, 55455, USA
| | - Sandip Patel
- Department of Cell and Developmental Biology, University College London, Gower Street, London, WC1E 6BT, UK
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104
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Wu K, Liu J, Zhuang N, Wang T. UCP4A protects against mitochondrial dysfunction and degeneration in pink1/parkin models of Parkinson's disease. FASEB J 2014; 28:5111-21. [PMID: 25145627 DOI: 10.1096/fj.14-255802] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Genetic mutations in parkin or pink1 are the most common causes of familial Parkinson's disease. PINK1 and Parkin are components of a mitochondrial quality control pathway that degrades dysfunctional mitochondria via autophagy. Using a candidate gene approach, we discovered that overexpression of uncoupling protein 4A (ucp4A) suppresses a range of pink1 mutant phenotypes, including male sterility, locomotor defects, and muscle degeneration that result from abnormal mitochondrial morphology and function. Furthermore, UCP4A overexpression in pink1 mutants rescued mitochondria-specific phenotypes associated with mitochondrial membrane potential, production of reactive oxygen species, resistance to oxidative stress, efficiency of the electron transport chain, and mitochondrial morphology. Consistent with its role in protecting mitochondria, UCP4A rescued mitochondrial phenotypes of parkin mutant flies, as well. Finally, the genetic deletion of ucp4A resulted in increased sensitivity to oxidative stress, a phenotype that was enhanced by the loss of PINK1. Taken together, these results indicate that UCP4A prevents mitochondrial dysfunction and that modulation of UCP activity protects cells in a situation relevant for human Parkinson's disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kai Wu
- National Institute of Biological Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Jia Liu
- National Institute of Biological Sciences, Beijing, China; College of Life Sciences, Beijing Normal University, Beijing, China; and
| | - Na Zhuang
- National Institute of Biological Sciences, Beijing, China; School of Life Sciences, Tsinghua University, Beijing, China
| | - Tao Wang
- National Institute of Biological Sciences, Beijing, China;
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105
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Abstract
Parkinson's disease (PD) displays a greater prevalence and earlier age at onset in men. This review addresses the concept that sex differences in PD are determined, largely, by biological sex differences in the NSDA system which, in turn, arise from hormonal, genetic and environmental influences. Current therapies for PD rely on dopamine replacement strategies to treat symptoms, and there is an urgent, unmet need for disease modifying agents. As a significant degree of neuroprotection against the early stages of clinical or experimental PD is seen, respectively, in human and rodent females compared with males, a better understanding of brain sex dimorphisms in the intact and injured NSDA system will shed light on mechanisms which have the potential to delay, or even halt, the progression of PD. Available evidence suggests that sex-specific, hormone-based therapeutic agents hold particular promise for developing treatments with optimal efficacy in men and women.
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106
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Mamais A, Chia R, Beilina A, Hauser DN, Hall C, Lewis PA, Cookson MR, Bandopadhyay R. Arsenite stress down-regulates phosphorylation and 14-3-3 binding of leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 (LRRK2), promoting self-association and cellular redistribution. J Biol Chem 2014; 289:21386-400. [PMID: 24942733 PMCID: PMC4118103 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m113.528463] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Mutations in the gene encoding leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 (LRRK2) are a common genetic cause of Parkinson disease, but the mechanisms whereby LRRK2 is regulated are unknown. Phosphorylation of LRRK2 at Ser910/Ser935 mediates interaction with 14-3-3. Pharmacological inhibition of its kinase activity abolishes Ser910/Ser935 phosphorylation and 14-3-3 binding, and this effect is also mimicked by pathogenic mutations. However, physiological situations where dephosphorylation occurs have not been defined. Here, we show that arsenite or H2O2-induced stresses promote loss of Ser910/Ser935 phosphorylation, which is reversed by phosphatase inhibition. Arsenite-induced dephosphorylation is accompanied by loss of 14-3-3 binding and is observed in wild type, G2019S, and kinase-dead D2017A LRRK2. Arsenite stress stimulates LRRK2 self-association and association with protein phosphatase 1α, decreases kinase activity and GTP binding in vitro, and induces translocation of LRRK2 to centrosomes. Our data indicate that signaling events induced by arsenite and oxidative stress may regulate LRRK2 function.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adamantios Mamais
- From the Reta Lila Weston Institute of Neurological Studies, University College London Institute of Neurology, London WC1N 1PJ, United Kingdom, the Department of Molecular Neuroscience, University College London Institute of Neurology, London WC1N 3BJ, United Kingdom, the Cell Biology and Gene Expression Section, Laboratory of Neurogenetics, NIA, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland 20892,
| | - Ruth Chia
- the Cell Biology and Gene Expression Section, Laboratory of Neurogenetics, NIA, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland 20892, the Department of Neuroscience, Georgetown University Medical Center, Washington, D. C. 20057
| | - Alexandra Beilina
- the Cell Biology and Gene Expression Section, Laboratory of Neurogenetics, NIA, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland 20892
| | - David N Hauser
- the Cell Biology and Gene Expression Section, Laboratory of Neurogenetics, NIA, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland 20892, the Brown University/National Institutes of Health Graduate Partnership Program, Department of Neuroscience, Brown University, Providence, Rhode Island 02912, and
| | - Christine Hall
- the Department of Molecular Neuroscience, University College London Institute of Neurology, London WC1N 3BJ, United Kingdom
| | - Patrick A Lewis
- the Department of Molecular Neuroscience, University College London Institute of Neurology, London WC1N 3BJ, United Kingdom, the School of Pharmacy, University of Reading, Whiteknights, Reading RG6 6AP, United Kingdom
| | - Mark R Cookson
- the Cell Biology and Gene Expression Section, Laboratory of Neurogenetics, NIA, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland 20892
| | - Rina Bandopadhyay
- From the Reta Lila Weston Institute of Neurological Studies, University College London Institute of Neurology, London WC1N 1PJ, United Kingdom, the Department of Molecular Neuroscience, University College London Institute of Neurology, London WC1N 3BJ, United Kingdom,
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107
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Rivero-Ríos P, Gómez-Suaga P, Fdez E, Hilfiker S. Upstream deregulation of calcium signaling in Parkinson's disease. Front Mol Neurosci 2014; 7:53. [PMID: 24987329 PMCID: PMC4060956 DOI: 10.3389/fnmol.2014.00053] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/29/2014] [Accepted: 05/27/2014] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Parkinson’s disease (PD) is a major health problem affecting millions of people worldwide. Recent studies provide compelling evidence that altered Ca2+ homeostasis may underlie disease pathomechanism and be an inherent feature of all vulnerable neurons. The downstream effects of altered Ca2+ handling in the distinct subcellular organelles for proper cellular function are beginning to be elucidated. Here, we summarize the evidence that vulnerable neurons may be exposed to homeostatic Ca2+ stress which may determine their selective vulnerability, and suggest how abnormal Ca2+ handling in the distinct intracellular compartments may compromise neuronal health in the context of aging, environmental, and genetic stress. Gaining a better understanding of the varied effects of Ca2+ dyshomeostasis may allow novel combinatorial therapeutic strategies to slow PD progression.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pilar Rivero-Ríos
- Instituto de Parasitología y Biomedicina "López-Neyra," Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas Granada, Spain
| | - Patricia Gómez-Suaga
- Instituto de Parasitología y Biomedicina "López-Neyra," Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas Granada, Spain
| | - Elena Fdez
- Instituto de Parasitología y Biomedicina "López-Neyra," Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas Granada, Spain
| | - Sabine Hilfiker
- Instituto de Parasitología y Biomedicina "López-Neyra," Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas Granada, Spain
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108
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Esteves AR, Swerdlow RH, Cardoso SM. LRRK2, a puzzling protein: insights into Parkinson's disease pathogenesis. Exp Neurol 2014; 261:206-16. [PMID: 24907399 DOI: 10.1016/j.expneurol.2014.05.025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 74] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/28/2014] [Accepted: 05/26/2014] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
Abstract
Leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 (LRRK2) is a large, ubiquitous protein of unknown function. Mutations in the gene encoding LRRK2 have been linked to familial and sporadic Parkinson's disease (PD) cases. The LRRK2 protein is a single polypeptide that displays GTPase and kinase activity. Kinase and GTPase domains are involved in different cellular signaling pathways. Despite several experimental studies associating LRRK2 protein with various intracellular membranes and vesicular structures such as endosomal/lysosomal compartments, the mitochondrial outer membrane, lipid rafts, microtubule-associated vesicles, the golgi complex, and the endoplasmic reticulum its broader physiologic function(s) remain unidentified. Additionally, the cellular distribution of LRRK2 may indicate its role in several different pathways, such as the ubiquitin-proteasome system, the autophagic-lysosomal pathway, intracellular trafficking, and mitochondrial dysfunction. This review discusses potential mechanisms through which LRRK2 may mediate neurodegeneration and cause PD.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Raquel Esteves
- CNC - Center for Neuroscience and Cell Biology, University of Coimbra, Portugal
| | - Russell H Swerdlow
- University of Kansas Alzheimer's Disease Center, University of Kansas Medical Center, Kansas City, KS, USA
| | - Sandra M Cardoso
- CNC - Center for Neuroscience and Cell Biology, University of Coimbra, Portugal; Faculty of Medicine, University of Coimbra, Coimbra, Portugal.
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109
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Plowey ED, Johnson JW, Steer E, Zhu W, Eisenberg DA, Valentino NM, Liu YJ, Chu CT. Mutant LRRK2 enhances glutamatergic synapse activity and evokes excitotoxic dendrite degeneration. Biochim Biophys Acta Mol Basis Dis 2014; 1842:1596-603. [PMID: 24874075 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbadis.2014.05.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/08/2014] [Revised: 05/12/2014] [Accepted: 05/19/2014] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
Mutations in leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 (LRRK2), which are associated with autosomal dominant Parkinson's disease, elicit progressive dendrite degeneration in neurons. We hypothesized that synaptic dysregulation contributes to mutant LRRK2-induced dendritic injury. We performed in vitro whole-cell voltage clamp studies of glutamatergic receptor agonist responses and glutamatergic synaptic activity in cultured rat cortical neurons expressing full-length wild-type and mutant forms of LRRK2. Expression of the pathogenic G2019S or R1441C LRRK2 mutants resulted in larger whole-cell current responses to direct application of AMPA and NMDA receptor agonists. In addition, mutant LRRK2-expressing neurons exhibited an increased frequency of spontaneous miniature excitatory postsynaptic currents (mEPSCs) in conjunction with increased excitatory synapse density as assessed by immunofluorescence for PSD95 and VGLUT1. Mutant LRRK2-expressing neurons showed enhanced vulnerability to acute synaptic glutamate stress. Furthermore, treatment with the NMDA receptor antagonist memantine significantly protected against subsequent losses in dendrite length and branching complexity. These data demonstrate an early association between mutant LRRK2 and increased excitatory synapse activity, implicating an excitotoxic contribution to mutant LRRK2 induced dendrite degeneration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Edward D Plowey
- Department of Pathology, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, USA; Department of Pathology, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, USA
| | - Jon W Johnson
- Department of Neuroscience, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, USA; Department of Psychiatry, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, USA; The Center for Neuroscience, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
| | - Erin Steer
- Department of Pathology, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
| | - Wan Zhu
- Department of Pathology, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, USA
| | - David A Eisenberg
- Department of Neuroscience, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
| | | | - Yong-Jian Liu
- Department of Physiology, Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, China
| | - Charleen T Chu
- Department of Pathology, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, USA; Department of Ophthalmology, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, USA; The McGowan Institute for Regenerative Medicine, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, USA; The Pittsburgh Institute for Neurodegenerative Diseases, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, USA; The Center for Neuroscience, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, USA.
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110
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Ambrosi G, Ghezzi C, Sepe S, Milanese C, Payan-Gomez C, Bombardieri CR, Armentero MT, Zangaglia R, Pacchetti C, Mastroberardino PG, Blandini F. Bioenergetic and proteolytic defects in fibroblasts from patients with sporadic Parkinson's disease. Biochim Biophys Acta Mol Basis Dis 2014; 1842:1385-94. [PMID: 24854107 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbadis.2014.05.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/27/2013] [Revised: 05/05/2014] [Accepted: 05/07/2014] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Parkinson's disease (PD) is a complex disease and the current interest and focus of scientific research is both investigating the variety of causes that underlie PD pathogenesis, and identifying reliable biomarkers to diagnose and monitor the progression of pathology. Investigation on pathogenic mechanisms in peripheral cells, such as fibroblasts derived from patients with sporadic PD and age/gender matched controls, might generate deeper understanding of the deficits affecting dopaminergic neurons and, possibly, new tools applicable to clinical practice. METHODS Primary fibroblast cultures were established from skin biopsies. Increased susceptibility to the PD-related toxin rotenone was determined with apoptosis- and necrosis-specific cell death assays. Protein quality control was evaluated assessing the efficiency of the Ubiquitin Proteasome System (UPS) and protein levels of autophagic markers. Changes in cellular bioenergetics were monitored by measuring oxygen consumption and glycolysis-dependent medium acidification. The oxido-reductive status was determined by detecting mitochondrial superoxide production and oxidation levels in proteins and lipids. RESULTS PD fibroblasts showed higher vulnerability to necrotic cell death induced by complex I inhibitor rotenone, reduced UPS function and decreased maximal and rotenone-sensitive mitochondrial respiration. No changes in autophagy and redox markers were detected. CONCLUSIONS Our study shows that increased susceptibility to rotenone and the presence of proteolytic and bioenergetic deficits that typically sustain the neurodegenerative process of PD can be detected in fibroblasts from idiopathic PD patients. Fibroblasts might therefore represent a powerful and minimally invasive tool to investigate PD pathogenic mechanisms, which might translate into considerable advances in clinical management of the disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Giulia Ambrosi
- Laboratory of Functional Neurochemistry, Center for Research in Neurodegenerative Diseases, National Neurological Institute C. Mondino, Via Mondino 2, 27100 Pavia, Italy; Department of Brain and Behavioral Sciences, University of Pavia, University of Pavia, Via Ferrata 9, 27100 Pavia, Italy
| | - Cristina Ghezzi
- Laboratory of Functional Neurochemistry, Center for Research in Neurodegenerative Diseases, National Neurological Institute C. Mondino, Via Mondino 2, 27100 Pavia, Italy
| | - Sara Sepe
- Department of Genetics, Erasmus Medical Centre, Dr. Molewaterplein 50, 3015GE Rotterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Chiara Milanese
- Department of Genetics, Erasmus Medical Centre, Dr. Molewaterplein 50, 3015GE Rotterdam, The Netherlands; RiMED Foundation, Palermo, Italy
| | - Cesar Payan-Gomez
- Department of Genetics, Erasmus Medical Centre, Dr. Molewaterplein 50, 3015GE Rotterdam, The Netherlands; Facultad de Ciencias Naturales y Matemáticas, Universidad del Rosario, Bogotá, Colombia
| | - Cintia R Bombardieri
- Department of Genetics, Erasmus Medical Centre, Dr. Molewaterplein 50, 3015GE Rotterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Marie-Therese Armentero
- Laboratory of Functional Neurochemistry, Center for Research in Neurodegenerative Diseases, National Neurological Institute C. Mondino, Via Mondino 2, 27100 Pavia, Italy
| | - Roberta Zangaglia
- Laboratory of Functional Neurochemistry, Center for Research in Neurodegenerative Diseases, National Neurological Institute C. Mondino, Via Mondino 2, 27100 Pavia, Italy
| | - Claudio Pacchetti
- Laboratory of Functional Neurochemistry, Center for Research in Neurodegenerative Diseases, National Neurological Institute C. Mondino, Via Mondino 2, 27100 Pavia, Italy
| | | | - Fabio Blandini
- Laboratory of Functional Neurochemistry, Center for Research in Neurodegenerative Diseases, National Neurological Institute C. Mondino, Via Mondino 2, 27100 Pavia, Italy.
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111
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Gilsbach BK, Kortholt A. Structural biology of the LRRK2 GTPase and kinase domains: implications for regulation. Front Mol Neurosci 2014; 7:32. [PMID: 24847205 PMCID: PMC4017136 DOI: 10.3389/fnmol.2014.00032] [Citation(s) in RCA: 56] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/28/2014] [Accepted: 04/07/2014] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Human leucine rich repeat kinase 2 (LRRK2) belongs to the Roco family of proteins, which are characterized by the presence of a Ras-like G-domain (Roc), a C-terminal of Roc domain (COR), and a kinase domain. Mutations in LRRK2 have been found to be thus far the most frequent cause of late-onset Parkinson’s disease (PD). Several of the pathogenic mutations in LRRK2 result in decreased GTPase activity and enhanced kinase activity, suggesting a possible PD-related gain of abnormal function. Important progress in the structural understanding of LRRK2 has come from our work with related Roco proteins from lower organisms. Atomic structures of Roco proteins from prokaryotes revealed that Roco proteins belong to the GAD class of molecular switches (G proteins activated by nucleotide dependent dimerization). As in LRRK2, PD-analogous mutations in Roco proteins from bacteria decrease the GTPase reaction. Studies with Roco proteins from the model organism Dictyostelium discoideum revealed that PD mutants have different effects and most importantly they explained the G2019S-related increased LRRK2 kinase activity. Furthermore, the structure of Dictyostelium Roco4 kinase in complex with the LRRK2 inhibitor H1152 showed that Roco4 and other Roco family proteins can be important for the optimization of the current, and identification of new, LRRK2 kinase inhibitors. In this review we highlight the recent progress in structural and biochemical characterization of Roco proteins and discuss its implication for the understanding of the complex regulatory mechanism of LRRK2.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bernd K Gilsbach
- Department of Cell Biochemistry, University of Groningen Groningen, Netherlands
| | - Arjan Kortholt
- Department of Cell Biochemistry, University of Groningen Groningen, Netherlands
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112
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Haelterman NA, Yoon WH, Sandoval H, Jaiswal M, Shulman JM, Bellen HJ. A mitocentric view of Parkinson's disease. Annu Rev Neurosci 2014; 37:137-59. [PMID: 24821430 PMCID: PMC4659514 DOI: 10.1146/annurev-neuro-071013-014317] [Citation(s) in RCA: 98] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Parkinson's disease (PD) is a common neurodegenerative disease, yet the underlying causative molecular mechanisms are ill defined. Numerous observations based on drug studies and mutations in genes that cause PD point to a complex set of rather subtle mitochondrial defects that may be causative. Indeed, intensive investigation of these genes in model organisms has revealed roles in the electron transport chain, mitochondrial protein homeostasis, mitophagy, and the fusion and fission of mitochondria. Here, we attempt to synthesize results from experimental studies in diverse systems to define the precise function of these PD genes, as well as their interplay with other genes that affect mitochondrial function. We propose that subtle mitochondrial defects in combination with other insults trigger the onset and progression of disease, in both familial and idiopathic PD.
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113
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Grünewald A, Arns B, Meier B, Brockmann K, Tadic V, Klein C. Does uncoupling protein 2 expression qualify as marker of disease status in LRRK2-associated Parkinson's disease? Antioxid Redox Signal 2014; 20:1955-60. [PMID: 24251413 PMCID: PMC3993019 DOI: 10.1089/ars.2013.5737] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022]
Abstract
Mutations in leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 (LRRK2) are the most common known genetic cause of late-onset Parkinson's disease (PD). However, the penetrance of the disease is below 50% at 60 years of age. LRRK2 is associated with the mitochondrial membrane, and mutant forms impair the function of the organelle and autophagosome clearance in human cells, including induced pluripotent stem cell-derived neurons. Elevated expression of uncoupling proteins has been identified as the cause of mitochondrial depolarization in human fibroblasts with G2019S LRRK2. To identify factors that contribute to the penetrance of LRRK2 mutations, we studied respiratory chain function, markers of mitochondrial uncoupling, oxidative stress, and autophagy in fibroblasts from affected and unaffected carriers of the G2019S mutation. Independent of disease status, all mutation carriers showed reduced mitochondrial membrane potential, increased proton leakage, and more fragmented mitochondria. However, a significant increase in the expression of uncoupling protein 2 (UCP2) was only detected in affected individuals with the G2019S mutation in LRRK2. Since oxidative stress and autophagic markers were selectively increased in some of the PD patients, we hypothesize that UCP2 expression is upregulated in response to elevated reactive oxygen species generation in affected mutation carriers and that UCP2 mRNA levels might, therefore, serve as markers of disease status in LRRK2-associated PD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anne Grünewald
- 1 Institute of Neurogenetics, University of Lübeck , Lübeck, Germany
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114
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LRRK2 and neuroinflammation: partners in crime in Parkinson's disease? J Neuroinflammation 2014; 11:52. [PMID: 24655756 PMCID: PMC3994422 DOI: 10.1186/1742-2094-11-52] [Citation(s) in RCA: 121] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/31/2013] [Accepted: 02/25/2014] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
It is now well established that chronic inflammation is a prominent feature of several neurodegenerative disorders including Parkinson’s disease (PD). Growing evidence indicates that neuroinflammation can contribute greatly to dopaminergic neuron degeneration and progression of the disease. Recent literature highlights that leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 (LRRK2), a kinase mutated in both autosomal-dominantly inherited and sporadic PD cases, modulates inflammation in response to different pathological stimuli. In this review, we outline the state of the art of LRRK2 functions in microglia cells and in neuroinflammation. Furthermore, we discuss the potential role of LRRK2 in cytoskeleton remodeling and vesicle trafficking in microglia cells under physiological and pathological conditions. We also hypothesize that LRRK2 mutations might sensitize microglia cells toward a pro-inflammatory state, which in turn results in exacerbated inflammation with consequent neurodegeneration.
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115
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No association between genetic variants of the LRRK2 gene and schizophrenia in Han Chinese. Neurosci Lett 2014; 566:210-5. [PMID: 24631561 DOI: 10.1016/j.neulet.2014.03.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/23/2013] [Revised: 02/10/2014] [Accepted: 03/04/2014] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Mitochondrial dysfunction was widely reported in schizophrenia patients in recent studies. Leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 (LRRK2) is a mitochondrial protein, and mutations in the LRRK2 gene can induce mitochondrial dysfunction. LRRK2 mutations have been reported to be the most frequent genetic cause of Parkinson's disease (PD). We were interested in whether LRRK2 variants also play a role in schizophrenia. In this study, we genotyped 12 genetic variants (including 4 tag SNPs and 8 disease-associated variants) in the LRRK2 gene in a total of 2449 samples composed of two independent Han Chinese schizophrenia case-control cohorts (486 schizophrenia patients and 480 healthy controls from Hunan Province; 624 schizophrenia patients and 859 healthy controls from Shanghai). We compared the genotype, allele and haplotype frequencies of those SNPs between cases and controls. Statistical analyses revealed no association between LRRK2 variants/haplotypes and schizophrenia in these two schizophrenia case-control cohorts and the combined samples. Our results indicated that the LRRK2 variants are unlikely to be actively involved in schizophrenia in Han Chinese.
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Pereira C, Miguel Martins L, Saraiva L. LRRK2, but not pathogenic mutants, protects against H2O2 stress depending on mitochondrial function and endocytosis in a yeast model. Biochim Biophys Acta Gen Subj 2014; 1840:2025-31. [PMID: 24576675 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbagen.2014.02.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/09/2013] [Revised: 02/13/2014] [Accepted: 02/18/2014] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Mutations in LRRK2 are the most common genetic cause of Parkinson's disease (PD). Studies in the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae have provided valuable insights into the mechanisms of cellular dysfunction associated with the expression of faulty PD genes. METHODS We developed a yeast model for full-length LRRK2 studies. We expressed wild-type (wt) LRRK2 and mutations and evaluated their role during oxidative stress conditions. The involvement of mitochondria was assessed by using rho-zero mutants and by evaluating reactive oxygen species (ROS) production and mitochondrial membrane potential by flow cytometry. The involvement of endocytosis was also studied by testing several endocytic mutants and by following the vacuolar delivery of the probe FM4-64. RESULTS Expression of LRRK2 in yeast was associated to increased hydrogen peroxide resistance. This phenotype, which was dependent on mitochondrial function, was not observed for PD-mutants G2019S and R1441C or in the absence of the kinase activity and the WD40 repeat domain. Expression of the pathogenic mutants stimulated ROS production and increased mitochondrial membrane potential. For the PD-mutants, but not for wild-type LRRK2, endocytic defects were also observed. Additionally, several endocytic proteins were required for LRRK2-mediated protection against hydrogen peroxide. CONCLUSIONS Our results indicate that LRRK2 confers cellular protection during oxidative stress depending on mitochondrial function and endocytosis. GENERAL SIGNIFICANCE Both the loss of capacity of LRRK2 pathogenic mutants to protect against oxidative stress and their enhancement of dysfunction may be important for the development of PD during the aging process.
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Affiliation(s)
- Clara Pereira
- REQUIMTE, Laboratório de Microbiologia, Departamento de Ciências Biológicas, Faculdade de Farmácia, Universidade do Porto, Porto, Portugal.
| | - L Miguel Martins
- Cell Death Regulation Laboratory, MRC Toxicology Unit, Leicester, UK
| | - Lucília Saraiva
- REQUIMTE, Laboratório de Microbiologia, Departamento de Ciências Biológicas, Faculdade de Farmácia, Universidade do Porto, Porto, Portugal.
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Abstract
Parkinson's disease (PD) is one of the most common neurodegenerative diseases. To date, there is no effective treatment that halts its progression. Increasing evidence indicates that mitochondria play an important role in the development of PD. Hence mitochondria-targeted approaches or agents may have therapeutic promise for treatment of the disease. Neuropeptide CART (cocaine-amphetamine-regulated transcript), a hypothalamus and midbrain enriched neurotransmitter with an antioxidant property, can be found in mitochondria, which is the main source of reactive oxygen species. Systemic administration of CART has been found to ameliorate dopaminergic neuronal loss and improve motor functions in a mouse model of PD. In this article, we summarize recent progress in studies investigating the relationship between CART, dopamine, and the pathophysiology of PD, with a focus on mitochondria-related topics.
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118
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Luerman GC, Nguyen C, Samaroo H, Loos P, Xi H, Hurtado-Lorenzo A, Needle E, Stephen Noell G, Galatsis P, Dunlop J, Geoghegan KF, Hirst WD. Phosphoproteomic evaluation of pharmacological inhibition of leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 reveals significant off-target effects of LRRK-2-IN-1. J Neurochem 2013; 128:561-76. [PMID: 24117733 DOI: 10.1111/jnc.12483] [Citation(s) in RCA: 57] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/16/2013] [Revised: 09/27/2013] [Accepted: 10/02/2013] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Genetic mutations in leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 (LRRK2) have been linked to autosomal dominant Parkinson's disease. The most prevalent mutation, G2019S, results in enhanced LRRK2 kinase activity that potentially contributes to the etiology of Parkinson's disease. Consequently, disease progression is potentially mediated by poorly characterized phosphorylation-dependent LRRK2 substrate pathways. To address this gap in knowledge, we transduced SH-SY5Y neuroblastoma cells with LRRK2 G2019S via adenovirus, then determined quantitative changes in the phosphoproteome upon LRRK2 kinase inhibition (LRRK2-IN-1 treatment) using stable isotope labeling of amino acids in culture combined with phosphopeptide enrichment and LC-MS/MS analysis. We identified 776 phosphorylation sites that were increased or decreased at least 50% in response to LRRK2-IN-1 treatment, including sites on proteins previously known to associate with LRRK2. Bioinformatic analysis of those phosphoproteins suggested a potential role for LRRK2 kinase activity in regulating pro-inflammatory responses and neurite morphology, among other pathways. In follow-up experiments, LRRK2-IN-1 inhibited lipopolysaccharide-induced tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNFα) and C-X-C motif chemokine 10 (CXCL10) levels in astrocytes and also enhanced multiple neurite characteristics in primary neuronal cultures. However, LRRK2-IN-1 had almost identical effects in primary glial and neuronal cultures from LRRK2 knockout mice. These data suggest LRRK2-IN-1 may inhibit pathways of perceived LRRK2 pathophysiological function independently of LRRK2 highlighting the need to use multiple pharmacological tools and genetic approaches in studies determining LRRK2 function.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gregory C Luerman
- Pfizer Global Research & Development, Neuroscience Research Unit, Cambridge, MA, USA
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119
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Verma M, Steer EK, Chu CT. ERKed by LRRK2: a cell biological perspective on hereditary and sporadic Parkinson's disease. Biochim Biophys Acta Mol Basis Dis 2013; 1842:1273-81. [PMID: 24225420 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbadis.2013.11.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/31/2013] [Revised: 10/14/2013] [Accepted: 11/03/2013] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
The leucine rich repeat kinase 2 (LRRK2/dardarin) is implicated in autosomal dominant familial and sporadic Parkinson's disease (PD); mutations in LRRK2 account for up to 40% of PD cases in some populations. LRRK2 is a large protein with a kinase domain, a GTPase domain, and multiple potential protein interaction domains. As such, delineating the functional pathways for LRRK2 and mechanisms by which PD-linked variants contribute to age-related neurodegeneration could result in pharmaceutically tractable therapies. A growing number of recent studies implicate dysregulation of mitogen activated protein kinases 3 and 1 (also known as ERK1/2) as possible downstream mediators of mutant LRRK2 effects. As these master regulators of growth, differentiation, neuronal plasticity and cell survival have also been implicated in other PD models, a set of common cell biological pathways may contribute to neuronal susceptibility in PD. Here, we review the literature on several major cellular pathways impacted by LRRK2 mutations--autophagy, microtubule/cytoskeletal dynamics, and protein synthesis--in context of potential signaling crosstalk involving the ERK1/2 and Wnt signaling pathways. Emerging implications for calcium homeostasis, mitochondrial biology and synaptic dysregulation are discussed in relation to LRRK2 interactions with other PD gene products. It has been shown that substantia nigra neurons in human PD and Lewy body dementia patients exhibit cytoplasmic accumulations of ERK1/2 in mitochondria, autophagosomes and bundles of intracellular fibrils. Both experimental and human tissue data implicate pathogenic changes in ERK1/2 signaling in sporadic, toxin-based and mutant LRRK2 settings, suggesting engagement of common cell biological pathways by divergent PD etiologies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Manish Verma
- Department of Pathology, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, PA 15213, USA
| | - Erin K Steer
- Department of Pathology, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, PA 15213, USA
| | - Charleen T Chu
- Department of Pathology, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, PA 15213, USA.
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120
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Gómez-Sánchez R, Gegg ME, Bravo-San Pedro JM, Niso-Santano M, Alvarez-Erviti L, Pizarro-Estrella E, Gutiérrez-Martín Y, Alvarez-Barrientos A, Fuentes JM, González-Polo RA, Schapira AHV. Mitochondrial impairment increases FL-PINK1 levels by calcium-dependent gene expression. Neurobiol Dis 2013; 62:426-40. [PMID: 24184327 PMCID: PMC3898697 DOI: 10.1016/j.nbd.2013.10.021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/18/2013] [Revised: 10/06/2013] [Accepted: 10/22/2013] [Indexed: 01/02/2023] Open
Abstract
Mutations of the PTEN-induced kinase 1 (PINK1) gene are a cause of autosomal recessive Parkinson's disease (PD). This gene encodes a mitochondrial serine/threonine kinase, which is partly localized to mitochondria, and has been shown to play a role in protecting neuronal cells from oxidative stress and cell death, perhaps related to its role in mitochondrial dynamics and mitophagy. In this study, we report that increased mitochondrial PINK1 levels observed in human neuroblastoma SH-SY5Y cells after carbonyl cyanide m-chlorophelyhydrazone (CCCP) treatment were due to de novo protein synthesis, and not just increased stabilization of full length PINK1 (FL-PINK1). PINK1 mRNA levels were significantly increased by 4-fold after 24h. FL-PINK1 protein levels at this time point were significantly higher than vehicle-treated, or cells treated with CCCP for 3h, despite mitochondrial content being decreased by 29%. We have also shown that CCCP dissipated the mitochondrial membrane potential (Δψm) and induced entry of extracellular calcium through L/N-type calcium channels. The calcium chelating agent BAPTA-AM impaired the CCCP-induced PINK1 mRNA and protein expression. Furthermore, CCCP treatment activated the transcription factor c-Fos in a calcium-dependent manner. These data indicate that PINK1 expression is significantly increased upon CCCP-induced mitophagy in a calcium-dependent manner. This increase in expression continues after peak Parkin mitochondrial translocation, suggesting a role for PINK1 in mitophagy that is downstream of ubiquitination of mitochondrial substrates. This sensitivity to intracellular calcium levels supports the hypothesis that PINK1 may also play a role in cellular calcium homeostasis and neuroprotection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rubén Gómez-Sánchez
- Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red sobre Enfermedades Neurodegenerativas (CIBERNED), Departamento de Bioquímica y Biología Molecular y Genética, Universidad de Extremadura, F. Enfermería y Terapia Ocupacional, 10003 Cáceres, Spain
| | - Matthew E Gegg
- Department of Clinical Neurosciences, Institute of Neurology, University College London, London NW3 2PF, UK
| | - José M Bravo-San Pedro
- Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red sobre Enfermedades Neurodegenerativas (CIBERNED), Departamento de Bioquímica y Biología Molecular y Genética, Universidad de Extremadura, F. Enfermería y Terapia Ocupacional, 10003 Cáceres, Spain; INSERM, U848, Institut Gustave Roussy, Université Paris Sud, Paris 11, F-94805 Villejuif, France
| | - Mireia Niso-Santano
- Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red sobre Enfermedades Neurodegenerativas (CIBERNED), Departamento de Bioquímica y Biología Molecular y Genética, Universidad de Extremadura, F. Enfermería y Terapia Ocupacional, 10003 Cáceres, Spain; INSERM, U848, Institut Gustave Roussy, Université Paris Sud, Paris 11, F-94805 Villejuif, France
| | - Lydia Alvarez-Erviti
- Department of Clinical Neurosciences, Institute of Neurology, University College London, London NW3 2PF, UK
| | - Elisa Pizarro-Estrella
- Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red sobre Enfermedades Neurodegenerativas (CIBERNED), Departamento de Bioquímica y Biología Molecular y Genética, Universidad de Extremadura, F. Enfermería y Terapia Ocupacional, 10003 Cáceres, Spain
| | - Yolanda Gutiérrez-Martín
- Servicio de Técnicas Aplicadas a las Biociencias, Universidad de Extremadura, 06071 Badajoz, Spain
| | | | - José M Fuentes
- Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red sobre Enfermedades Neurodegenerativas (CIBERNED), Departamento de Bioquímica y Biología Molecular y Genética, Universidad de Extremadura, F. Enfermería y Terapia Ocupacional, 10003 Cáceres, Spain.
| | - Rosa Ana González-Polo
- Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red sobre Enfermedades Neurodegenerativas (CIBERNED), Departamento de Bioquímica y Biología Molecular y Genética, Universidad de Extremadura, F. Enfermería y Terapia Ocupacional, 10003 Cáceres, Spain.
| | - Anthony H V Schapira
- Department of Clinical Neurosciences, Institute of Neurology, University College London, London NW3 2PF, UK
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121
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Mortiboys H, Aasly J, Bandmann O. Ursocholanic acid rescues mitochondrial function in common forms of familial Parkinson’s disease. Brain 2013; 136:3038-50. [DOI: 10.1093/brain/awt224] [Citation(s) in RCA: 89] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
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122
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Su YC, Qi X. Inhibition of excessive mitochondrial fission reduced aberrant autophagy and neuronal damage caused by LRRK2 G2019S mutation. Hum Mol Genet 2013; 22:4545-61. [PMID: 23813973 DOI: 10.1093/hmg/ddt301] [Citation(s) in RCA: 176] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
LRRK2 G2019S mutation is the most common genetic cause of Parkinson's disease (PD). Cellular pathology caused by this mutant is associated with mitochondrial dysfunction and augmented autophagy. However, the underlying mechanism is not known. In this study, we determined whether blocking excessive mitochondrial fission could reduce cellular damage and neurodegeneration induced by the G2019S mutation. In both LRRK2 G2019S-expressing cells and PD patient fibroblasts carrying this specific mutant, treatment with P110, a selective peptide inhibitor of fission dynamin-related protein 1 (Drp1) recently developed in our lab, reduced mitochondrial fragmentation and damage, and corrected excessive autophagy. LRRK2 G2019S directly bound to and phosphorylated Drp1 at Threonine595, whereas P110 treatment abolished this phosphorylation. A site-directed mutant, Drp1(T595A), corrected mitochondrial fragmentation, improved mitochondrial mass and suppressed excessive autophagy in both cells expressing LRRK2 G2019S and PD patient fibroblasts carrying the mutant. Further, in dopaminergic neurons derived from LRRK2 G2019S PD patient-induced pluripotent stem cells, we demonstrated that either P110 treatment or expression of Drp1(T595A) reduced mitochondrial impairment, lysosomal hyperactivity and neurite shortening. Together, we propose that inhibition of Drp1-mediated excessive mitochondrial fission might be a strategy for treatment of PD relevant to LRRK2 G2019S mutation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yu-Chin Su
- Department of Physiology and Biophysics and
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123
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Rideout HJ, Stefanis L. The neurobiology of LRRK2 and its role in the pathogenesis of Parkinson's disease. Neurochem Res 2013; 39:576-92. [PMID: 23729298 DOI: 10.1007/s11064-013-1073-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/05/2013] [Revised: 05/08/2013] [Accepted: 05/09/2013] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 (LRRK2) is a large, widely expressed protein of largely unknown function. Mutations in the gene encoding LRRK2 have been linked to multiple diseases, including a prominent association with familial and sporadic Parkinson's disease (PD), as well as inflammatory bowel disorders such as Crohn's disease. The LRRK2 protein possesses both kinase and GTPase signaling domains, as well as multiple protein interaction domains. Experimental studies in both cellular and in vivo models of mutant LRRK2-induced neurodegeneration have given clues to potential function(s) of LRRK2, yet much remains unknown. For example, while it is known that intact kinase and GTPase activity are required for mutant forms of the protein to trigger cell death, the specific targets of these enzymatic activities that mediate the death of neurons are not known. In this review, we discuss the evidence linking LRRK2 to various cellular/neuronal activities such as extrinsic death and inflammatory signaling, lysosomal protein degradation, the cytoskeletal system and neurite outgrowth, vesicle trafficking, mitochondrial dysfunction, as well as multiple points of interaction with several other genes linked to the pathogenesis of PD. In order for more effective therapeutic strategies to be envisioned and implemented, the mechanisms underlying LRRK2-mediated neurodegeneration need to be better characterized. Furthermore, insights into LRRK2-associated PD pathogenesis can potentially advance our understanding of the more common sporadic forms of PD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hardy J Rideout
- Laboratory of Neurodegenerative Diseases, Division of Basic Neurosciences, Biomedical Research Foundation of the Academy of Athens, Soranou Efesiou 4, 11527, Athens, Greece,
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124
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Dzamko N, Halliday GM. Unlocking the secrets of LRRK2 function with selective kinase inhibitors. FUTURE NEUROLOGY 2013. [DOI: 10.2217/fnl.13.9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
LRRK2 is currently considered to be a potential therapeutic target for the treatment of Parkinson’s disease. A number of pathological mutations, the majority of which lie in the dual catalytic domains of LRRK2, segregate with Parkinson’s disease in an autosomal-dominant fashion. The most common mutation, G2019S, results in an increase in the kinase activity of LRRK2 and much work has, therefore, gone into the development of potent and specific inhibitors of LRRK2 kinase activity. A number of LRRK2 kinase inhibitors have now been employed in the search for the physiological function of LRRK2 and the targets of LRRK2 kinase activity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicolas Dzamko
- The School of Medical Sciences, University of New South Wales, Randwick, Australia
- Neuroscience Research Australia, Randwick, Australia.
| | - Glenda M Halliday
- Neuroscience Research Australia, Randwick, Australia
- The School of Medical Sciences, University of New South Wales, Randwick, Australia
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125
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Bartolome F, Wu HC, Burchell VS, Preza E, Wray S, Mahoney CJ, Fox NC, Calvo A, Canosa A, Moglia C, Mandrioli J, Chiò A, Orrell RW, Houlden H, Hardy J, Abramov AY, Plun-Favreau H. Pathogenic VCP mutations induce mitochondrial uncoupling and reduced ATP levels. Neuron 2013; 78:57-64. [PMID: 23498975 PMCID: PMC3843114 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuron.2013.02.028] [Citation(s) in RCA: 111] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 02/22/2013] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
Valosin-containing protein (VCP) is a highly expressed member of the type II AAA+ ATPase family. VCP mutations are the cause of inclusion body myopathy, Paget's disease of the bone, and frontotemporal dementia (IBMPFD) and they account for 1%-2% of familial amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS). Using fibroblasts from patients carrying three independent pathogenic mutations in the VCP gene, we show that VCP deficiency causes profound mitochondrial uncoupling leading to decreased mitochondrial membrane potential and increased mitochondrial oxygen consumption. This mitochondrial uncoupling results in a significant reduction of cellular ATP production. Decreased ATP levels in VCP-deficient cells lower their energy capacity, making them more vulnerable to high energy-demanding processes such as ischemia. Our findings propose a mechanism by which pathogenic VCP mutations lead to cell death.
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MESH Headings
- Adenosine Triphosphatases/deficiency
- Adenosine Triphosphatases/genetics
- Adenosine Triphosphate/metabolism
- Adult
- Aged
- Analysis of Variance
- Animals
- Animals, Newborn
- Case-Control Studies
- Cell Cycle Proteins/deficiency
- Cell Cycle Proteins/genetics
- Cells, Cultured
- Cerebral Cortex/cytology
- Family Health
- Female
- Fibroblasts/metabolism
- Fibroblasts/pathology
- Frontotemporal Dementia/genetics
- Frontotemporal Dementia/metabolism
- Frontotemporal Dementia/pathology
- Humans
- Lipid Peroxidation/genetics
- Luminescent Proteins/genetics
- Magnesium/metabolism
- Male
- Membrane Potential, Mitochondrial/genetics
- Mice
- Mice, Inbred C57BL
- Middle Aged
- Mitochondria/genetics
- Mitochondria/metabolism
- Mitochondria/pathology
- Muscular Dystrophies, Limb-Girdle/genetics
- Muscular Dystrophies, Limb-Girdle/metabolism
- Muscular Dystrophies, Limb-Girdle/pathology
- Mutation/genetics
- Myositis, Inclusion Body/genetics
- Myositis, Inclusion Body/metabolism
- Myositis, Inclusion Body/pathology
- NAD/metabolism
- Neuroblastoma/pathology
- Neurons/ultrastructure
- Osteitis Deformans/genetics
- Osteitis Deformans/metabolism
- Osteitis Deformans/pathology
- Oxygen Consumption/genetics
- RNA, Small Interfering/genetics
- RNA, Small Interfering/metabolism
- Transfection
- Valosin Containing Protein
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Affiliation(s)
- Fernando Bartolome
- Department of Molecular Neuroscience, UCL Institute of Neurology, Queen Square, London WC1N 3BG, UK
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126
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Wong G, Nass R. miRNAs and their putative roles in the development and progression of Parkinson's disease. Front Genet 2013; 3:315. [PMID: 23316214 PMCID: PMC3540391 DOI: 10.3389/fgene.2012.00315] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/15/2012] [Accepted: 12/20/2012] [Indexed: 01/22/2023] Open
Abstract
Small regulatory RNAs, such as miRNAs, are increasingly being recognized not only as regulators of developmental processes but contributors to pathological states. The number of miRNAs determined experimentally to be involved in Parkinson's disease (PD) development and progression is small and includes regulators of pathologic proteins, neurotrophic factors, and xenobiotic metabolizing enzymes. PD gene-association studies have also indicated miRNAs in the pathology. In this review, we present known miRNAs and their validated targets that contribute to PD development and progression. We also incorporate data mining methods to link additional miRNAs with non-experimentally validated targets and propose additional roles of miRNAs in neurodegenerative processes. Furthermore, we present the potential contribution of next-generation-sequencing approaches to elucidate mechanisms and etiology of PD through discovery of novel miRNAs and other non-coding RNA classes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Garry Wong
- Department of Neurobiology, A.I. Virtanen Institute, University of Eastern Finland Kuopio, Finland
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127
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